ANALOG ELECTRONICS:

ASSIGNMENT:

Submitted by: P.RENUKA SARMISHTA, Roll No: 09275, Electrical & Electronics Engg.

AMPLIFIER:
An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a signal. It does this by taking energy from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier may be considered as modulating the output of the power supply. The term amplifier is applied to anything from a circuit (or stage) using a single active device to a complete system such as a packaged audio hi-fi amplifier.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS:
Based on type of device: 1.BJT-P type and N-type 2.FET-N-channel and P-channel Based on Purpose: 1. Voltage (Small signal amplifiers) 2. Current (Small signal amplifiers) 3.Power (Large signal Amplifiers) According to Frequency of Operation: 1. DC Amplifiers (upto 10Hz) 2. Audio Frequency Amplifiers (20Hz-20 KHz) 3.Video/Wide range Amplifiers (upto few MHz) 4. RF Amplifiers (few KHz to 2-4 MHz) Based on types of Coupling: 1. Direct Coupled 2. RC Coupled 3.Transformer Coupled Based on DC Bias: 1. Class A Amplifier (Q point at the centre of load line) 2. Class B Amplifier (Q point on one of the ends of load line) 3. Class AB Amplifier (Q point is at any other point other than (Class A & B) 4. Class C Amplifier (Q point is in either cut off/saturation region) 5. Class D Amplifier

SINGLE STAGE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER:

A single-stage amplifier circuit is shown in Figure. The amplifier consists of a transistor, the circuit for matching the source termination and the transistor, and that for matching the load termination and the transistor. The function of the matching circuits is to provide suitable source and load conditions for the transistor such that the transistor can generate power gain for the input signal under a stable condition.

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION:

The common emitter configuration of BJT is shown in fig. 1.

In C.E. configuration the emitter is made common to the input and output. It is also referred to as grounded emitter configuration. It is most commonly used configuration. In this, base current and output voltages are taken as impendent parameters and input voltage and output current as dependent parameters VBE = f1 ( IB, VCE ) IC = f2( IB, VCE ) Input Characteristic: The curve between IB and VBE for different values of VCE are shown in fig. 2. Since the base emitter junction of a transistor is a diode, therefore the characteristic is similar to diode one. With higher values of VCE collector gathers slightly more electrons and therefore base current reduces. Normally this effect is neglected. (Early effect). When collector is shorted with emitter then the input characteristic is the characteristic of a forward biased diode when VBE is zero and IB is also zero.

Output Characteristic: The output characteristic is the curve between VCE and IC for various values of IB. For fixed value of IB and is shown in fig. 3. For fixed value of IB, IC is not varying much dependent on VCE but slopes are greater than CE characteristic. The output characteristics can again be divided into three parts.

Fig. 3 (1) Active Region: In this region collector junction is reverse biased and emitter junction is forward biased. It is the area to the right of VCE = 0.5 V and above IB= 0. In this region transistor current responds most sensitively to IB. If transistor is to be used as an amplifier, it must operate in this region.

If adc is truly constant then IC would be independent of VCE. But because of early effect, adc increases by 0.1% (0.001) e.g. from 0.995 to 0.996 as VCE increases from a few volts to 10V. Then bdc increases from 0.995 / (1-0.995) = 200 to 0.996 / (1-0.996) = 250 or about 25%. This shows that small change in a reflects large change in b. Therefore the curves are subjected to large variations for the same type of transistors. (2) Cut Off: Cut off in a transistor is given by IB = 0, IC= ICO. A transistor is not at cut off if the base current is simply reduced to zero (open circuited) under this condition, IC = IE= ICO / ( 1-dc) = ICEO The actual collector current with base open is designated as ICEO. Since even in the neighborhood of cut off, a dc may be as large as 0.9 for Ge, then IC=10 ICO(approximately), at zero base current. Accordingly in order to cut off transistor it is not enough to reduce IB to zero, but it is necessary to reverse bias the emitter junction slightly. It is found that

reverse voltage of 0.1 V is sufficient for cut off a transistor. In Si, the a dc is very nearly equal to zero, therefore, IC = ICO. Hence even with IB= 0, IC= IE= ICO so that transistor is very close to cut off. In summary, cut off means IE = 0, IC = ICO, IB = -IC = -ICO , and VBE is a reverse voltage whose magnitude is of the order of 0.1 V for Ge and 0 V for Si. Reverse Collector Saturation Current ICBO: When in a physical transistor emitter current is reduced to zero, then the collector current is known as I CBO (approximately equal to ICO). Reverse collector saturation current ICBO also varies with temperature, avalanche multiplication and variability from sample to sample. Consider the circuit shown in fig. 4. VBB is the reverse voltage applied to reduce the emitter current to zero. IE = 0, IB = -ICBO

If we require, VBE = - 0.1 V Then - VBB + ICBO RB < - 0.1 V

If RB = 100 K, ICBO = 100 m A, Then VBB must be 10.1 Volts. Hence transistor must be capable to withstand this reverse voltage before breakdown voltage exceeds. (3).Saturation Region: In this region both the diodes are forward biased by at least cut in voltage. Since the voltage VBE and VBC across a forward is approximately 0.7 V therefore, VCE = VCB + VBE = - VBC + VBE is also few tenths of volts. Hence saturation region is very close to zero voltage axis, where all the current rapidly reduces to zero. In this region the transistor collector current is approximately given by VCC / R C and independent of base current. Normal transistor action is last and it acts like a small ohmic resistance.

Large Signal Current Gain dc :The ratio Ic / IB is defined as transfer ratio or large signal current gain bdc

Where IC is the collector current and IB is the base current. The bdc is an indication if how well the transistor works. The typical value of bdc varies from 50 to 300. In terms of h parameters, b dc is known as dc current gain and in designated hfE ( b dc = hfE). Knowing the maximum collector current and bdc the minimum base current can be found which will be needed to saturate the transistor.

This expression of bdc is defined neglecting reverse leakage current (ICO). Taking reverse leakage current (ICO) into account, the expression for the bdc can be obtained as follows: bdc in terms of adc is given by

Since, ICO = ICBO

Cut off of a transistor means IE = 0, then IC= ICBO and IB = - ICBO. Therefore, the above expression bdc gives the collector current increment to the base current change form cut off to I B and hence it represents the large signal current gain of all common emitter transistor. We can use the transistor as an amplifier when it is properly biased. There are following ways of biasing:

Biasing Circuit Techniques or Locating the Q - Point:

Fixed Bias or Base Bias: In order for a transistor to amplify, it has to be properly biased. This means forward biasing the base emitter junction and reverse biasing collector base junction. For linear amplification, the transistor should operate in active region ( If IE increases, IC increases, VCE decreases proportionally). The source VBB, through a current limit resistor RB forward biases the emitter diode and VCC through resistor RC (load resistance) reverse biases the collector junction as shown in

Fig. 1 The dc base current through RB is given by IB = (VBB - VBE) / RB

or

VBE = VBB - IB RB

Normally VBE is taken 0.7V or 0.3V. If exact voltage is required, then the input characteristic ( I B vs VBE) of the transistor should be used to solve the above equation. The load line for the input circuit is drawn on input characteristic. The two points of the load line can be obtained as given below For IB = 0, and For VBE = VBB. VBE = 0, IB = VBB/ RB.

The intersection of this line with input characteristic gives the operating point Q as shown in fig. 2. If an ac signal is connected to the base of the transistor, then variation in VBE is about Q - point. This gives variation in IB and hence IC.

In the output circuit, the load equation can be written as VCE = VCC- IC RC This equation involves two unknown VCE and IC and therefore can not be solved. To solve this equation output characteristic ( ICvs VCE) is used. The load equation is the equation of a straight line and given by two points: IC= 0, & VCE = VCC VCE = 0, IC= VCC / RC

The intersection of this line which is also called dc load line and the characteristic gives the operating point Q as shown in fig

Fig. 3

The point at which the load line intersects with IB = 0 characteristic is known as cut off point. At this point base current is zero and collector current is almost negligibly small. At cut off the emitter diode comes out of forward bias and normal transistor action is lost. To a close approximation. VCE ( cut off) VCC (approximately). The intersection of the load line and IB = IB(max) characteristic is known as saturation point . At this point I B= IB(max), IC= IC(sat). At this point collector diodes comes out of reverse bias and again transistor action is lost. To a close approximation, IC(sat) VCC / RC(approximately ). The IB(sat) is the minimum current required to operate the transistor in saturation region. If the IB is less than IB (sat), the transistor will operate in active region. If IB > IB (sat) it always operates in saturation region. If the transistor operates at saturation or cut off points and no where else then it is operating as a switch is shown in

VBB = IB RB+ VBE IB = (VBB VBE ) / RB If IB> IB(sat), then it operates at saturation, If IB = 0, then it operates at cut off. If a transistor is operating as an amplifier then Q point must be selected carefully. Although we can select the operating point any where in the active region by choosing different values of RB & RC but the various transistor ratings such as maximum collector dissipation PC(max) maximum collector voltage VC(max) and IC(max) & VBE(max) limit the operating range. Once the Q point is established an ac input is connected. Due to this the ac source the base current varies. As a result of this collector current and collector voltage also varies and the amplified output is obtained. If the Q-point is not selected properly then the output waveform will not be exactly the input waveform. i.e. It may be clipped from one side or both sides or it may be distorted one. Stability of Operating Point Let us consider three operating points of transistor operating in common emitter amplifier. 1. Near cut off 2. Near saturation 3. In the middle of active region If the operating point is selected near the cutoff region, the output is clipped in negative half cycle as shown in

If the operating point is selected near saturation region, then the output is clipped in positive cycle as shown in

If the operating point is selected in the middle of active region, then there is no clipping and the output follows input faithfully as shown in

If input is large then clipping at both sides will take place. The first circuit for biasing the transistor is CE configuration is fixed bias. In biasing circuit shown in fig. 4(a), two different power supplies are required. To avoid the use of two supplies the base resistance RB is connected to VCC as shown in fig. 4(b).

Now VCC is still forward biasing emitter diode. In this circuit Q point is very unstable. The base resistance R B is selected by noting the required base current IB for operating point Q. IB = (VCC VBE ) / RB Voltage across base emitter junction is approximately 0.7 V. Since VCC is usually very high i.e. IB = VCC/ RB Since IB is constant therefore it is called fixed bias circuit.

Concept of Phase Reversal:

Because of the fluctuations in base current; collector current and collector voltage also swings above and below the o quiescent voltage. The ac output voltage is inverted with respect to the ac input voltage, meaning it is 180 out of phase with input. During the positive half cycle base current increase, causing the collector current to increase. This produces a large voltage drop across the collector resistor; therefore, the voltage output decreases and negative half cycle of output voltage is obtained. Conversely, on the negative half cycle of input voltage less collector current flows and the voltage drop across the collector resistor decreases, and hence collector voltage increases we get the positive half cycle of output voltage as shown in fig. 5.

Fig. 5

DETERMINATION OF H - PARAMETERS:
To determine the four h-parameters of transister amplifier, input and output characteristic are used. Input characteristic depicts the relationship between input voltage and input current with output voltage as parameter. The output characteristic depicts the relationship between output voltage and output current with input current as parameter. Fig. 5, shows the output characterisitcs of CE amplifier.

Fig. 5 The current increments are taken around the quiescent point Q which corresponds to i B = IB and to the collector voltage VCE = VC

The value of hoe at the quiescent operating point is given by the slope of the output characteristic at the operating point (i.e. slope of tangent AB).

hie is the slope of the appropriate input on fig. 6, at the operating point (slope of tangent EF at Q).

Fig. 6 A vertical line on the input characteristic represents constant base current. The parameter hre can be obtained from the ratio (VB2 V B1 ) and (VC2 V C1 ) for at Q. Typical CE h-parametersof transistor 2N1573 are given below:

hie = 1000 ohm. hre = 2.5 * 10 4 hfe = 50 hoe = 25 m A / V

ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING H-PARAMETERS:

To form a transistor amplifier it is only necessary to connect an external load and signal source as indicated in fig. 1 and to bias the transistor properly.

Fig. 1 Consider the two-port network of CE amplifier. RS is the source resistance and ZL is the load impedence h-parameters are assumed to be constant over the operating range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown in fig. 2. (Phasor notations are used assuming sinusoidal voltage input). The quantities of interest are the current gain, input impedence, voltage gain, and output impedence.

Fig. 2 Current gain: For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.

Input Impedence: The impedence looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedence Zi

Voltage gain: The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.

Output Admittance: It is defined as

Av is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage source (Rv = 0). Consider input source to be a current source IS in parallel with a resistance RS as shown in fig. 3.

Fig. 3 In this case, overall current gain AIS is defined as

To analyze multistage amplifier the h-parameters of the transistor used are obtained from manufacture data sheet. The manufacture data sheet usually provides h-parameter in CE configuration. These parameters may be converted into CC and CB values. For example fig. 4 hrc in terms of CE parameter can be obtained as follows.

Fig. 4 For CE transistor configuaration Vbe = hie Ib + hre Vce Ic = h fe Ib + hoe Vce The circuit can be redrawn like CC transistor configuration as shown in fig. 5. Vbc = hie Ib + hrc Vec Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vec