EL ENFOQUE DE SISTEMA DE INNOVACIN, Y SU RELEVANCIA PARA LOS PASES EN DESARROLLO. FUENTE: http://www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/the-system-of-innovation-approach-and-its-relevanc.html#.

Consulta: 15 junio de 2008

RESUMEN

El trmino "Sistemas de innovacin' se utiliza a menudo en los crculos acadmicos y polticos. Pero, cmo funcionan estos sistemas y cul es su impacto?
El acercamiento de "sistema de innovacin" (o "sistema de innovacin ') a la produccin de conocimiento cientfico y tecnolgico ha ido ganando terreno en la poltica y los crculos acadmicos en los ltimos dos decenios. Ya ha sido aprobado, por ejemplo, por una amplia gama de organismos

internacionales y nacionales, incluyendo la Organizacin para la Cooperacin y el Desarrollo Econmicos (OCDE), el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), el Banco Mundial, y varias de las Naciones Unidas organismos, as como las organizaciones no gubernamentales y los gobiernos de
pases tanto desarrollados como en desarrollo.

Como resultado, los responsables de la financiacin y apoyo a la investigacin, el desarrollo tecnolgico y la innovacin en los pases en desarrollo estn cada vez ms probablemente bajo presin para adoptar el enfoque de sistema de innovacin como una gua para la toma de decisiones. El enfoque representa un cambio importante en la forma en que la produccin de conocimiento se considera, y por lo tanto apoyada. Se desva la atencin de la investigacin y el suministro de ciencia y tecnologa, hacia todo el proceso de innovacin, en el que la investigacin es slo un elemento. El concepto de innovacin se refiere a la bsqueda, desarrollo, adaptacin, imitacin y adopcin de tecnologas que son nuevos en un contexto especfico. [1] Un sistema de innovacin es una red de organizaciones dentro de un sistema econmico que estn directamente involucrados en la creacin, difusin y utilizacin de conocimientos cientficos y tecnolgicos, as como de las organizaciones responsables de la coordinacin y el apoyo de estos procesos.

los responsables polticos. El concepto de un sistema de innovacin rene en un marco nico, los elementos de buenas prcticas para fomentar la innovacin. . En otras palabras, proporciona una herramienta coherente de anlisis para el manejo de los procesos dispares de la creacin de

conocimientos, distribucin y uso, as como las maneras en que estos afectan a la productividad, la competitividad y el desarrollo econmico y social. Pero aunque hay un consenso general entre los investigadores y profesionales que el enfoque de sistema de innovacin es til para los pases avanzados, se debe tener precaucin en su uso en las condiciones muy diferentes que se encuentran en los pases en desarrollo. Cuando este enfoque se

est promoviendo en un entorno de pases en desarrollo, es importante que el sistema de innovacin que se propone sea uno que se adecue a las condiciones sociales y econmicas, no uno que simplemente intente replicar lo que se ha logrado en otros lugares.

Este informe de poltica tiene por objeto: describir las caractersticas clave del buen funcionamiento de un sistema de innovacin exponer las aportaciones fundamentales del enfoque de sistema de innovacin en la formulacin de polticas cientficas, tecnolgicas y las cuestiones de innovacin discutir la aplicacin del enfoque de sistema de innovacin a los pases en desarrollo plantear cuestiones que deben ser consideradas por los responsables polticos y analistas de polticas que buscan utilizar el enfoque de sistema de innovacin

The 'system of innovation' approach and its relevance to developing countries Summary The term 'Systems of innovation' is often used in academic and policy circles. But how do such systems operate and what is their impact? Introduction The 'system of innovation' (or 'innovation system') approach to the production of scientific and technological knowledge has been gaining ground in policy and academic circles over the last two decades. It has, for example, already been endorsed by an array of international and national bodies, including the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB), the World Bank, and various United Nations agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations and governments in both developed and developing countries. As a result, those responsible for funding and supporting research, technological development and innovation in developing countries are increasingly likely to come under pressure to adopt the innovation system approach as a guide to decisionmaking.

The approach represents a major change in the way that the production of knowledge is viewed, and thus supported. It shifts attention away from research and the supply of science and technology, towards the whole process of innovation, in which research is only one element. The concept of 'innovation' refers to the search for, development, adaptation, imitation and adoption of technologies that are new to a specific context. [1] An innovation system is therefore a network of organizations within an economic system that are directly involved in the creation, diffusion and use of scientific and technological knowledge, as well as the organizations responsible for the coordination and support of these processes. The intellectual roots of the innovation system approach to the production and dissemination of knowledge lie in attempts to understand the complexities of the innovation process that have taken place over the past decades. Two key features of the process have emerged from this analysis. The first is that innovation is essentially the result of an interactive process between many actors, including companies, universities and research institutes. Individual organizations rarely possess all the knowledge necessary for the whole process of innovation. As a result, they need to combine scientific, design, engineering and operational knowledge from different sources. The second feature is that innovation does not follow a linear path that begins with research, moves through the processes of development, design and engineering, and production, and ends with the successful introduction of new products and processes. Rather, it tends to involve continuous feedback loops between the different stages. Another important aspect of the innovation systems approach is that it can been applied to different levels of the economy, depending on whether one is trying to analyze (or promote) innovation at a 'supra-national', regional, national, local or sectoral level. Finally, the innovation system approach has considerable appeal for policymakers. The concept of a system of innovation brings together in a single framework the elements of good practice required to foster innovation. In other words, it provides a coherent analytical tool for handling the disparate processes of knowledge creation, distribution and use, as well as the ways that these affect productivity, competitiveness, and economic and social development. But although there is a general consensus among researchers and practitioners that the innovation system approach is useful for advanced countries, caution should be taken in using it in the very different conditions found in developing countries. Where such an approach is being promoted in a developing country setting, it is important that the innovation system proposed is one that is

appropriate to local social and economic conditions, not one that merely attempts to replicate what has been achieved elsewhere. This policy brief aims to:
describe describe

the key features of a well-functioning system of innovation the main contributions of the innovation system approach to policymaking on scientific, technological and innovation issues discuss the application of the innovation system approach to developing countries raise issues that need to be considered by decision makers and policy analysts seeking to use the innovation systems approach in their work in developing countries Essential elements The concept of a system of innovation is based on the fact that, as shown by the experience of advanced industrialized countries, a range of organizations and practices are required for successful innovation to take place. The core organizations are those in the business sector, such as companies and particularly in developing countries farms. These are the locations in which knowledge is translated into goods and services, and, as a result, where wealth is created [2]. They also tend to be the institutions whose products such as drugs and vaccines are used to provide for social needs. Other institutions that are fundamental to a well-functioning system of innovation include science and technology organizations, such as universities, research institutes and public research and development organizations. Equally important are organizations that provide the infrastructure for innovation systems. These include government agencies and departments, patent offices, and both private and public funding organizations. None of these organizations acts in isolation; each is embedded in a web of interrelationships. Furthermore, each operates according to a set of 'rules of the game'. These can be formal policies, regulations and laws; alternatively they may be informal rules, norms and procedures. Each organization performs at least one of the functions that are required by a well-functioning system of innovation. Some of these may be described as 'hard' functions that are associated with the undertaking of research and development, as well as providing scientific and technological services such as engineering consultancy. Others may be characterized as 'soft' functions, related to policymaking, coordinating or catalytic roles, or acting as an interface between separate 'hard' functions. [3]

Based on this distinction, one can suggest that a system of innovation is made up of two overlapping networks. One includes organizations that create, diffuse, adapt, distribute and use knowledge. The second comprises the organizations that shape policy agendas, design policy and implement them. In practice, of course, these two networks can overlap. This is because some organizations perform a number of functions, and participate in activities within each type of network. For example, companies and universities may both undertake research and development, and both may also participate in the policy networks that help to set agendas and make decisions. Nevertheless it is useful to consider them for both practical and policy purposes as representing two different dimensions of the innovation process. Contributions to policymaking The value of thinking in terms of systems of innovation, particularly for policymakers, lies in the understanding it offers for the overall process involved in the production, diffusion and application of knowledge, as well as the impact of this process on economic and social development. With this approach, all research, development, technological and innovation activities within an economic system whether such a system covers a country, a region or even a sector within a country as well as the organizations involved with these processes, can be seen as parts of a single entity. Furthermore the overall system includes many feedback loops, and embodies multiple relationships between the organizations of which it is made up; every element of the system is therefore important to the innovation process as a whole, and both influences and is influenced by the others. There are several ways in which the innovation systems approach can guide policy. Firstly, it helps to shift the focus of policy from individual organizations to both the organizations and the interactions between them. Some of these interactions can involve various organizations engaged in the production of knowledge related to innovation, such as companies (users, suppliers or competitors, for instance), universities and research institutes. Other types of interactions are concerned with policymaking, and involve policy organizations and relevant stakeholders. The second way in which the innovation system approach is useful is that shifts attention from scientific and technological inputs such as research and development activities to innovation processes and outcomes, in other words to the processes involved in introducing new products and methods to a particular economy.

Thirdly, thinking in terms of systems of innovation helps to shift the emphasis of policy away from deciding on whether to support the supply or the demand for science and technology, and towards issues that affect the interaction between the supply and demand of knowledge. Another way in which the approach is valuable is that it acknowledges the behavior of both firms and science and technology organizations (such as universities, research organizations or technological centers) to be influenced by a wide range of institutions and supporting organizations. Such institutions, for example, can create incentives for applying the results of scientific research and technological experimentation. But informal rules, norms, customs and routines that favour new ways of doing things are also important; supporting organizations may, for example, include those concerned with standards, certifications or patents. Fifthly, the innovation system approach emphasizes that policy analysis, as well as interventions to support innovation, can operate at many levels of the economy for instance, at the supra-national, national, regional, local, sectoral, and technology levels. The original emphasis of this approach primarily to national innovation systems is now changing, and more attention is being paid to other levels. This is relevant because, for example, policies are designed and implemented at the supra-national level, as has been done with the European Union's 'framework' programmes for supporting science and technology. At the same time, differences in types of innovation, as well as the organization of innovative activities in different business sectors, are now recognized as demanding different policies at the sectoral level. Finally, thinking in terms of innovation systems changes the focus of analysis from the internal working of an economic system (whether countries, regions or national sectors), to the way that the system interacts with the outside world. Sources of knowledge for a national innovation system, for example, are often located outside the national boundaries by which the system itself is defined. Similarly international institutions, such as the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the World Trade Organization, influence the research and development decisions of firms in any national systems of countries that are members of the organization. Application to developing countries There is a growing consensus that the range of activities highlighted in the innovation system approach are important for fostering innovation in developing as much as developed countries. For example, it can highlight what is absent within a particular country, as well as imbalances and distortions within any type of innovation system that already exists

As an analytical tool, the approach can also identify obstacles to the formation of a well-functioning system of innovation in countries where such a system may only exist in embryonic form. [4] Indeed identifying the practices followed in developed countries, and contrasting them with the reality found in developing countries, can be the first step towards implementing the innovation system approach. Another role is as a prescriptive tool for policymaking. [5] The practices that it encourages, such as viewing the whole innovation process in a systemic way, can help guide policy initiatives that are intended to address all the components needed by an economic system to facilitate learning and innovation. Of course, all developing countries face different challenges, and are at different stages of their economic and social development. In particular, the obstacles to creating systems of innovation in the least developed countries are very different from those faced in the more advanced developing countries. In practice, therefore, it is also important to know how public policy can promote the 'good practices' advocated in the innovation systems approach in different contexts, while starting from very different starting points. Key issues for developing countries Our understanding of the creation, distribution and use of knowledge, as well as the factors that influence those processes, continues to grow. There is increasing awareness that, in order to be effective, policy initiatives need to respond to the specific needs, priorities and capacities of a developing country that are appropriate to its stage of development. There are no blueprints for the design of policies fostering the development of a coherent system of research, development and innovation. However, two broad issues clearly need to be considered, namely strengthening capabilities and supporting networks. These are illustrated by the case of FIOCRUZ (Oswald Cruz Foundation) and the Brazilian health biotechnology innovation system. Strengthening capabilities The overall performance of a particular system of innovation depends partly on the existence of a critical mass of relevant players, such as companies, government ministries and universities. But it also reflects the ability of these organizations to carry out important functions, such as R&D, the provision of technical services, and the development of policy. In developing countries, technological learning defined as the process of accumulating a capacity to innovate usually results from the experience gained during a series of increasingly complex activities. Initially these tend to focus on the acquisition of foreign technologies, and their imitation. Subsequently there are attempts to modify imported technologies through incremental changes. Finally

as illustrated by the newly industrialized countries in East Asia an indigenous capacity to carry out R&D-based innovation can emerge. Government policy should respond to the needs of both countries and organizations at each stage of this evolutionary process. For example, at an early stage of a country's economic development, policies should support efforts to imitate and adapt foreign technologies, as well as increase the education levels of the population. As the capacity to adapt technologies increases, policy measures should focus increasingly on strengthening R&D capabilities particularly those relevant to local needs -- in the business sector, in higher education institutions (such as universities), and in public research laboratories. Equally importantly, organizations and government ministries responsible for drawing up and implementing policy must develop the capacity to carry out these tasks effectively. Furthermore the capacity to formulate and implement such policies should not remain an exclusive privilege of the state. Other stakeholders such as firms, universities and research organizations need to develop the capabilities to participate in the policy process. Supporting networking Finally, developing countries need to address the fact, that the efficient operation of a system of innovation involves not only the activities of its component parts, but also the interaction among them. Furthermore, such interdependence is important both for producing and distributing knowledge, and for developing policy. It is important for stakeholders to interact in policy issues in order to ensure that their demands are represented in discussions around such issues. The networks created in this way also help to improve coordination among policy initiatives. Indeed, policy-oriented networks that link not only individuals but also organizations can reduce the dangers of unintentional (or intentional) bias against specific interests and help build a consensus around an agreed course of action. As far as the knowledge-oriented networks are concerned, the main form of learning particularly in private companies, even in the most advanced of developing countries remains assimilating and adapting technologies developed elsewhere. These activities are usually carried out in-house, and seldom require the input of knowledge from other sources. Despite this limited demand for external inputs, there are isolated cases where networks for technological learning and innovation in developing countries have developed successfully. But in general, such networks are either weak, or absent. [12] They tend to emerge in response to intra-organizational factors such as an organizations level of both absorptive and generative capabilities and the incentives of external policies. Such policies should therefore focus on the need to strengthen the demand for knowledge in the business sector, and to support

investments in research and development that respond to the types of demand encountered at each stage of development. Conclusions The innovation system approach is now a popular one in developing countries. Care must be taken in applying to developing countries any approach developed in industrial nations. Nevertheless its core insights about the factors influencing innovation make the innovation system approach a valuable analytical and prescriptive tool for policymaking in developing countries. As an analytical tool, the approach can help identify context-specific factors that obstruct the creation of systems of innovation in the least developed countries, and systemic failures within such systems in more advanced developing countries. As a prescriptive tool, it provides a way of designing policies that respond to the specific needs of developing countries at different stages of their development. For example, it may identify a need to develop intermediary organizations or to increase a demand for science and technology in the private business sector. There are no blueprints for these complex tasks. The best that the innovation system approach can do is provide a series of guidelines, such as the importance of capacity building in both the business sector and supporting research organizations, fostering inter-organizational linkages, and encouraging a continuous feedback between institutions engaged in research, development, engineering, production and marketing. The history of virtually all developed countries illustrates how developing these various functions, and encouraging them to operate as a coherent system, opens the door to economic growth and social progress. The newly industrialized countries within East Asia (Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong) demonstrate that the experience can be successfully followed. It is now up to the rest of the developing world to find its own way along the same path. References [1] Based on Dosi G. 'The Nature of the Innovative Process'. In: Soete L.Technical Change and Economic Theory (Pinter Publishers, London, 1988, p222). [2] Arnold E. and Bell M. 'Some New Ideas About Research for Development' (PDF), Partnership at the Leading Edge: A Danish Vision for Knowledge, Research and Development (Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, April 2001, p288-316). [3] Galli, R. and Teubal M. 'Paradigmatic Shifts in National Innovation Systems'. In: Edquist C. Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organisations. (Pinter Publishers, London, 1997, p342-364) [4] Viotti suggests that a 'learning system' approach is more appropriate to analyse the experience of developing countries, since limited research and developmentbased innovation is found in most developing countries. See Viotti, E. 'National

Learning Systems: A New Approach on Technological Change in the Late Industrializing Economies and Evidence from the Cases of Brazil and South Korea'. Technological Forecasting and Social Change (2002, 69: 653-680). [5] Arocena, R. and J. Sutz (2000:55-6). Looking at National Innovation Systems from the South. Industry and Innovation, Vol. 7(1): 55-75:58. [6] Interview with FIOCRUZ; see also Ferrer, M. et al. 'The Scientific Muscle of Brazil's Health Biotechnology'. In: Nature Biotechnology (2004, Vol. 22, Supplement on Health Biotechnology Innovation Systems: 8-12). [7] Quoted in Ferrer et al., 'The Scientific Muscle', 11. [8] Interview with FIOCRUZ [9] Interview with FIOCRUZ [10] Ferrer et al., 'The Scientific Muscle'. [11] Thorsteinsdttir et al. 'Introduction: promoting global health through biotechnology'. Nature Biotechnology, (2004a, Vol. 22, Supplement on Health Biotechnology Innovation Systems: 3-7); Thorsteinsdttir et al 'Conclusions: promoting biotechnology innovation in developing countries'. In: Nature Biotechnology (2004b, Vol. 22, Supplement on Health Biotechnology Innovation Systems: 48-52). [12] Cf. the following studies: Intarakamnerd P., P.-a. Chairatana, et al. 'National Innovation System in Less Successful Developing Countries: The Case of Thailand.' In Research Policy (2002, 1421: 1-13); Liu X. and White S. 'Comparing Innovation Systems: a Framework and Application to China's Transitional Context.' Research Policy (2001, 30: 1091-1114); Alcorta L. and Peres W. 'Innovation Systems and Technological Specialization in Latin America and the Caribbean.' Research Policy (1998, 26: 857-881); Hou C. M. and Gee S. 'National Systems Supporting Technical Advance in Industry: The Case of Taiwan'. In: Nelson R. National Innovation Systems (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993, 384-413); Kim, L. 'National System of Industrial Innovation: Dynamics of Capability Building in Korea'. In: Nelson R. National Innovation Systems. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993, 357-383); Teubal, M. 'The Innovation System of Israel: Description, Performance, and Outstanding Issues'. In: Nelson R. National Innovation Systems (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993, 476-502).
The author would like to thank Martin Bell, Andrew Barnett and Geoff Oldham for their comments on an initial draft of this paper.