CONTENTS

Question 1 ............................................................................................................................................................... 2 Explain the origins of dissolved minerals in the oceans in terms of the geological processes involved. ............ 2 Draw an appropriate graph, (on graph paper) to represent the average abundance of ions in sea water. ........... 3 Compare the work of Galvani, Davy and Faraday increasing our understanding of electron transfer reactions 4 Question 2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 6 Corrosion is the degradation (or eating away) of metal. Rust is the reddish-coloured, flaky or orous dedpoist which forms on exposed iron and steel. Outline the actual process and conditions necessary for rusting to take place on iron or steel. .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Select two different types of steel, state the percentage compositions of elements and list two specific properties and uses for your choice. ................................................................................................................... 7 To what extend is iron passivating metal compared to aluminium. .................................................................... 7 Question 3 ............................................................................................................................................................... 7 Select two metals for a Galavanic cell. Draw a simple diagram. ........................................................................ 8 Calculate the cell potential using the appropriate half cell equations and tabulated voltages............................. 9 State Faradays first law of electrolysis. .............................................................................................................. 9 Question 4 ............................................................................................................................................................. 10 Outline the historical development of metal sheeting in the construction of ocean ships. ............................... 10 Explain two methods of protecting a ships hull from corrsion. ........................................................................ 10 Question 5 ............................................................................................................................................................. 11 Outline the effects of the solubility of gases and salts with changing temperatures and pressures with increasing depths of ocean. ............................................................................................................................... 11 Explain how steel can corrode in cold, low oxygen environments on the sea floor. ........................................ 11 Question 6 ............................................................................................................................................................. 12 Explain How certain anaerobic bacteria are able to corrode iron by reducing sulphate to sulfide. Your answer should name the species of bacteria involved in the process and disscuss the formation of rusticles. ............. 12 Question 7 ............................................................................................................................................................. 14 Write an account of the restoration of a particular corroded and/or contamination and the processes that were used to restore the artefact to as close to its original form as possible. Describe at least two examples. ......... 14 Question 8 ............................................................................................................................................................. 15

Describe an example of a salvage operation of an Australian sunken ship, and list three problems that face technicians trying to restore artefacts recovered from the ocean after long periods of submersion. ................ 15

QUESTION 1

Explain the origins of dissolved minerals in the oceans in terms of the geological processes involved. Minerals occur in oceans through two different geological processes: leaching of minerals rocks and minerals in soil and hydrothermal vents in mid ocean ridges. Leaching Surface weathering and erosion occur on objects like rock and soil occur because of the water that lands on the surface of the object. Some water and surface water can also penetrate into the ground. Certain mineral are leached from rocks more quickly than others, like carbonates and chlorides. If acid, whether natural or not is present the leaching process will become accelerated. The activities such as mining and farming are examples of activities that can cause rocks to leach more quickly. Hydrothermal vents Mid-ocean ridges are located at crustal spreading zones where magma is able to come up from deep inside the crust. Hydrothermal solutions and gas are able to escape through the vents in the sea floor. Investigations into what happens in hydrothermal vents in mid-ocean ridges and how they work occurred after their discovery in 1972. The investigation showed that sea water penetrates the through the cracks or fissures unto the oceanic crust, the water is superheated to temperatures that often reach 360C. This leads to large quantities of minerals being leached from the surrounding crustal rocks. These minerals are vented back up into ocean under pressure. As the cold water and hot solutions come in contact with each other some form a precipitate

DRAW AN APPROPRIATE GRAPH, (ON GRAPH PAPER) TO REPRESENT THE AVERAGE ABUNDANCE OF IONS IN SEA WATER.

COMPARE THE WORK OF GALVANI, DAVY AND FARADAY INCREASING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF ELECTRON TRANSFER REACTIONS

Scientist

Galvani

Davy A English scientist who made many discovers in a branch of scientist called electrochemistry

What was their experiment/what did they do?

In 1780s Galvani began a series of investigations on static electricity using frogs legs.

Faraday Faraday was hired as an assistant by Davy in 1813, they worked together on many chemical investigations but he eventually conducted his own investigations. Used a voltaic pile to He was the first conduct fundamental person to use words chemical research like electrolyte, involving anode, cathode, electrolysis. anion and cation. Electrolyte: Anode: Positive Electrochemistry electrode in the cell His early Cathode: Negative experiments involved electrode in the cell the electrolysis of Anion: Negative aqueous solutions of Particles or ions alkalis. Doing these attached to the anode experiments allowed Cation: positive Davy to discover that particles or ions these solutions were attached to the able to be cathode. decomposed to produce hydrogen Laws of Electrolysis and oxygen. First Law: m = kQ The mass of metal Later on in another produced at the series of experiments cathode in a n large currents where electrolytic cell. applied to moist Second Law: m = samples of potassium Q r /Fv hydroxide (potash) A fixed quantiy of and sodium electric charge hydroxide (soda). transferred during Once these electrolysis, the mass substances where of a metal deposited heated they would is proportional to its decompose by electrochemical electric current. equivalent.

Results/Modern day uses

His experiments showed that there is a connection between electricity and the way nerves interact with muscles.

His work lead to the discovery of new elements strontium, calcium, magnesium and barium, all of these substances where isolated from their molten salts.

Now days Faradays laws are used to calculate the mass of materials produced at each of electrode when a known amount of electric charged is transferred through an electrolytic cell.

QUESTION 2 CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION (OR EATING AWAY) OF METAL. RUST IS THE REDDISH-COLOURED, FLAKY OR OROUS DEDPOIST WHICH FORMS ON EXPOSED IRON AND STEEL. OUTLINE THE ACTUAL PROCESS AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RUSTING TO TAKE PLACE ON IRON OR STEEL. An active metal in the presence of water and air accelerates the corrosion that occurs on active metals. Active metals such as magnesium can be oxidised by water alone but the presence of dissolved oxygen in the water promotes this reaction. Iron is oxidised es Oxygen is dissolved in water is reduced ( ) 2 () ( ) e aq

The iron (II) hydroxide precipitates: e ( ) ( ) e ( )

The iron (II) hydroxide oxidise to hydrate iron(III) oxide: e ( ) ( ) e ()

For the rusting of iron to occur the conditions listed below promote this process. Acidic conditions promote the dissolution of iron. e 2 ) Electrolytes assist in the increasing the conductivity of the solution. They are found in the water. The impurities in the iron in the process of corrosion by initiating the reaction taking place in the cell. Stresses in the lattice structure of the metal mean that the atoms turn into ions quicker. If a lesser reactive comes in contact with the iron it provides another site where oxygen reduction can occur.

SELECT TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEEL, STATE THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITIONS OF ELEMENTS AND LIST TWO SPECIFIC PROPERTIES AND USES FOR YOUR CHOICE.

Type of steel Structural steel

Carbon <0.2%

Manganese 0.04 %

High carbon steel

0.6-1.3%

0.6-1.65%

Properties Corrodes rapidly and harder than mild steel Very hard and very low malleability

Use Rail tracks, grinders, beams Axe heads, small tools and high strength wires.

TO WHAT EXTEND IS IRON PASSIVATING METAL COMPARED TO ALUMINIUM. Aluminium corrodes far less readily than iron, when iron rusts it is a serious problem because the oxide layer is porous and thus doesnt offer any protection to the underlying layers causing the rusting to continue until all the iron is eaten away. Aluminium forms oxide more rapidly than iron does the aluminium oxide forms tight bonds to create a tightly bound, nonpermeable membrane on the surface that prevents anymore oxidisation occurring.

QUESTION 3 SELECT TWO METALS FOR A GALAVANIC CELL. DRAW A SIMPLE DIAGRAM.

CALCULATE THE CELL POTENTIAL USING THE APPROPRIATE HALF CELL EQUATIONS AND TABULATED VOLTAGES.

Taken from http://www.ustudy.in/node/3217 on 24/7/12 STATE FARADAYS FIRST LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS. Faradays first law of electrolysis is m = kQ The mass of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode.

QUESTION 4

OUTLINE THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF METAL SHEETING IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF OCEAN SHIPS.

EXPLAIN TWO METHODS OF PROTECTING A SHIPS HULL FROM CORRSION. Surface alloys: Ions of such elements as chromium and nickel are bombarded at high temperatures towards the surface of a steel surface. Either lasers or electron beams are able to rapidly melt this surface, allowing for the ions to bond to the steel forming a more corrosion resistant and harder surface. Sacrificial electrodes: Coating the outside of a ships hull with more active metal, for example galvanised iron is iron with a layer of zinc, the zinc oxides in preference to iron creating a sacrificial anode.

QUESTION 5 OUTLINE THE EFFECTS OF THE SOLUBILITY OF GASES AND SALTS WITH CHANGING TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES WITH INCREASING DEPTHS OF OCEAN. With increasing depth in the oceans: Temperature decreases towards near freezing For every 9m reached below sea level, 1 atm is gained.

As temperature decreases The solubility of salts decrease. The solubility of gases increase.

As pressure increases The solubility of salts remains mostly unaffected The solubility of gases increases.

EXPLAIN HOW STEEL CAN CORRODE IN COLD, LOW OXYGEN ENVIRONMENTS ON THE SEA FLOOR. Steel can corrode in cold, low oxygen environments because of anaerobic bacterium, these bacterium use sulphate ions rather than oxygen to produce energy. As the wood is decayed by the bacterium oxygen is released into the water surrounding promoting the corrosion of the surrounding steal. If the environment around the ship wreck is acidic along with the bacterium corrosion will occur in non-passivating metals.

QUESTION 6 EXPLAIN HOW CERTAIN ANAEROBIC BACTERIA ARE ABLE TO CORRODE IRON BY REDUCING SULPHATE TO SULFIDE. YOUR ANSWER SHOULD NAME THE SPECIES OF BACTERIA INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS AND DISSCUSS THE FORMATION OF RUSTICLES. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are bacteria that can obtain energy by oxidizing organic compounds. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are anaerobic bacteria that have the ability to corrode iron because of its ability to reduce sulphate to sulfide. Studies have said that rusticles are formed and cover the sunken ship and consist of complex communities of bacteria and fungi. The internal make up of rusticles consists of iron hydroxide which is bright orange in colour. Rusticles are formed when iron-loving bacteria attack the steel in sunken ships. (1) the bacteria reduce the sulfur in the sulfate ion. The cathode reaction is: ( ) 8e ) The anode reaction is: e ) e ( ) ()

As the depth of the water increases the solubility of the water increases which favors further corrosion of metal. e ) 2 ( ) e ( )

Some of the metal ions can undergo hydrolysis to form more hydrogen ions: e This accerlates the corrosion of iorn. Some of these bacteria can also convert hydrogen sulfide. ( The removal of ( ) ( ) to ( this also further reduces sulfate ions to ) ( ( ) )to ionise and forming more () e ( ) 2 ( )

)from solution encourages more

QUESTION 7 WRITE AN ACCOUNT OF THE RESTORATION OF A PARTICULAR CORRODED AND/OR CONTAMINATION AND THE PROCESSES THAT WERE USED TO RESTORE THE ARTEFACT TO AS CLOSE TO ITS ORIGINAL FORM AS POSSIBLE. DESCRIBE AT LEAST TWO EXAMPLES. Different situations require different restoration processes. The Endeavour cannons required to remove the coral build up off the cannon. This was done by chipping away the calcium carbonate off the cannon and then electrolysis was used to remove chlorides and reduce oxide formation. Using this method allows for the conversion of iron hydroxides and oxides back to iron, after this process is completed 2 months later a special wax was used to coat the outside of the cannon. The wooden hull of the Batavia was decayed by microorganisms and waterlogged. All the water logged wood had to be kept wet to prevent cracking and shrinkage when drying. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) in aqueous solution was sprayed on the wood of the hull for 4 years to prevent the wood from drying out and cracking and, shrinking. The shorter the PEG chain the greater its ability to penetrate water logged wood.

QUESTION 8 DESCRIBE AN EXAMPLE OF A SALVAGE OPERATION OF AN AUSTRALIAN SUNKEN SHIP, AND LIST THREE PROBLEMS THAT FACE TECHNICIANS TRYING TO RESTORE ARTEFACTS RECOVERED FROM THE OCEAN AFTER LONG PERIODS OF SUBMERSION.