Pump ED 101

Waterhammer Its All About Conserving Energy

Joe Evans, Ph.D http://www.pumped101.com

Introduction Inhis1963book,TheWorldofElementaryParticles,KennethFordintroducedthetopicby saying:Itiseasytotalkabouttheincrediblyshortlifetimeofanelementaryparticleor aboutthefantasticallysmallsizeofatomicnucleus.But,itisnotsoeasytovisualize thesethings.Asimilarstatementcouldbemadeaboutwaterhammer. Mostofusarefamiliarwiththephenomenonknownaswaterhammerbutfewrealize howdestructiveitsforcecanbe.Neithercanwevisualizesomeoftheeventsthatlead toitsinceptionandthosethatoccurafterwards.Oddlyenough,itcanbemoreofa concerninlowheadapplicationsbutitspotentiallydamagingeffectsshowno prejudice.Inthistutorialwewillinvestigateboththecauseandeffectofwaterhammer. Wewillalsolookatseveralmethodsofmitigatingitsdamageandinception. WhatIsWaterhammer? WaterhammerisareallifeexampleofoneofthefundamentallawsofPhysicsthe conservationofenergy.Itisaforcethatcanariseinanypumpingsystemthat undergoesabruptchangesinitsrateofflow.Theseflowchangescanresultfrompump startsandstops,theopeningandclosingofvalves,andwatercolumnseparationand closure.Thepipingdesigndoeshaveaneffectuponwaterhammerbut,thesethree conditionsaretheprimaryreasonitoccurs.Wewilltakealookateachofthesecauses. Waterhammeroccurswhenanabruptchangeinflowcreatesashockwavethattravels backandforthbetweenthebarrierthatcreateditandsomesecondarybarrier.The creatingbarriercouldbeavalve,locateddownstreamofthepump,andthesecondary barriercouldbeapipeTee,anelbow,oreventhepumpitself.Perhapsthebestway tovisualizethisactionistouseahypotheticalexamplebecauseitis,sometimes, difficulttocomprehenditsinceptioninapipingsystemwhereflowiscontinuous.

 Thefigurebelowshowsapumpthatispumpingwaterintoanemptypipeconnectedto Pump Valve Valve WaterColumn LeadingEdge itsdischarge.Thetwovalveslocatedatthepumpdischargeandthefarendofthepipe arefullyopenandbothhavetheabilitytocloseinstantaneously.Thevalvesandthe pipeareentirelyinelasticandnovolumechangecanoccurregardlessofthepressure. Also,thecolumnofwaterflowingthroughthepipehasaleadingedgethatisnearlyflat andmatchesthatofthecrosssectionalIDofthepipe.Bythis,Imeanthattheareaof thepipejustafractionofaninchbehindtheleadingedgeofthewatercolumnis entirelyfulltherearenoairgaps.Justastheleadingedgeofthewatercolumn reachesthedownstreamvalve,itclosesatnearlythespeedoflightandentrapsnoair aheadofthewatercolumn.Eventhoughtheleadingedgehasstrucktheclosedvalve, flowintothepipecontinuesforthenextfewmilliseconds.Justasflowceases,the upstreamvalvecloses(thistimeatthetruespeedoflight)andthewatercolumnis completelyisolatedbetweenthetwovalves.Whateventsoccurasthecolumnstrikes theclosed,downstreamvalveandwhydoeswatercontinuetoenterthepipe? Well,ifthismovingcolumnwasacolumnofmetalinsteadofwater(didImentionthat thisisahypotheticalexample?),acoupleofthingscouldoccur.Dependinguponits coefficientofrestitution(itsabilitytoavoidpermanentdamage)thekineticenergydue toflow(motion)couldbetransformedintomechanicalenergyastheleadingedgeof themetalcolumniscrushed.Ifthisoccurred,thecolumnwouldremainmotionlessat thevalve.Or,ifitsrestitutionisveryhigh,thatsamekineticenergycouldbeusedto reverseitsdirectionintheformofabounce.Regardlessoftheoutcome,theentire metalcolumnwouldeithercometorestorbounceintheoppositedirection.Neitherof thesecasescouldoccurwhenwaterisinvolved. Youhaveprobablyheardthatwaterisanearlynoncompressibleliquid.But,theflip sideofthatstatementwouldindicatethatitisslightlycompressible.Atambient temperatureonepoundofpressurewilldecreaseitsvolumebyafactorofabout 0.0000034.Thatseemsprettysmallbutthelargerthevolume,theeasieritistoseethe effect.Forexample,ifwaterdidnotcompress,sealevelwouldbemorethanone hundredfeethigherthanitscurrentlevel!Athigherpressures,say40,000PSI,its

 compressibilityisincreasedtoabout0.1.But,mostwaterisnotjustwateritalso containsairwhichismostlynitrogen,oxygen,andcarbondioxide.Ifthiswerenotthe casetherewouldbenofish!Dissolvedaircomposesabout2%ofagivenvolumeof unprocessedwaterandadds,substantially,toitscompressibility. Itisthewaters(andthatofthedissolvedair)compressibilitythatcausesittoact differentlythantheslugofmetal.Wereitnotcompressibleitsleadingedgewouldbe permanentlycrushedortheentirecolumnwouldbouncebackwards.Whentheleading edgeofawatercolumnstrikestheclosedvalveitcomestoahalt,butthewaterbehind itisstillinmotionand,sinceithasnowheretogo,itbeginstocompress.This compressionalongtheentirelengthofthecolumnallowsasmallamountofwaterto continuetoflowintothepipeeventhoughtheleadingedgehashalted.Whenflow ceases,itskineticenergyofmotionandthatduetocompressionistransformedinto pressureandenergyisconserved. Compressionbeginsattheleadingedgeofthewatercolumnandsincetheadditional energyitproducescannotcontinueonpasttheclosedvalve,apressureorshockwave isgeneratedandtravelsbackupstream.Theinceptionofthisshockwaveisvery similartotheechothatisproducedwhenasoundwave,travelingthroughair,strikes somebarrier.Whenthewavehitstheupstreamvalveitisreflectedbackdownstream butwithadiminishedintensity.This,backandforth,motioncontinuesuntilfriction andreflectionlossescausethewavestodisappear.Thespeedatwhichawavetravels andtheenergyitlosesduringtraveldependsuponthedensityandcompressibilityof themediuminwhichitistraveling.Itturnsoutthatthedensityandcompressibilityof watermakeitaverygoodmediumforshockwavegenerationandtransmission. Thepressurewavescreatedbyhydraulicshockhavecharacteristicssimilartothoseof soundwavesandtravelatasimilarvelocity.Thetimerequiredforawaterhammer pressurewavetonegotiatealengthofpipeissimplythepipelengthdividedbythe speedofsoundinwater(approximately4860ft/sec).Inwaterhammeranalysis,atime constantthatisoftenusedisonethatdescribestheprogressionofthewavefromits inceptiontosecondarybarrierandbackagain(Tc=2L/ whereListhepipelength andisthespeedofsound).Fora1000footlengthofpipeitwouldrequirelessthan halfasecondforthewavetomakeacompleteroundtrip. Althoughtheequationatthetopofthefollowingpagedoesnottakeintoaccountthe effectofpipesizeandelasticityonwaterhammer,itwillprovidesomeinsightastothe additionalpressurethatiscreatedbyawaterhammerpressurewave.

 P(additional)=V/2.31g
WherePistheadditionalpressurecreatedbytheshockwave,iswavevelocity(in thiscasethespeedofsound),Visthevelocityoftheflowingwaterinthepipeinfeet persecond(fps),andgisgravitationalconstant@32ft/sec2.Atapipelinevelocityof5 fpstheadditionalpressurecreatedbytheshockwaveisabout329PSI.Increasethat velocityto10fps,andthatpressureincreasestoabout658PSI.Obviously,systemsthat arenotdesignedtoaccommodatesuchanincreasedpressureareoftendamagedor evendestroyed. WaterhammerCauses Intheprevioussection,weusedahypotheticalexampletoillustratetheonsetand effectsofwaterhammer.Letstakealookatapracticalexample. ValveClosure&Opening ThefigurebelowshowsamainpipelinewithabranchcircuitthatisfedbyaTee. Furtherdownthebranchisavalve.Theblackarrowsshowtheflowdirectioninthe primaryandbranchlinesandthebluearrowisthelengthofthebranchline.Asinthe earlierexample,thevalveactsastheprimarybarrierbutthistimethesecondarybarrier Flow Direction Branch Length istheTeeitself.Ifthevalveisclosedquickly,waterhammercouldoccurinthe branchlineanditsinceptionwouldfollowthesamesequenceofeventsseeninour hypotheticalexample.Onesmalldifferenceisthatsomeoftheintensityoftheshock waveswillbelostintheTeeasitisopentothemainpipelineoneitherside.Still,a significantportionwillbereflectedbacktowardsthevalve. Amajordifference,inthisexample,isthatwehavesomecontroloverthevalveclosure time(inourpreviousexamplethevalvesclosedatthespeedoflight).And,closure timehasasignificanteffectontheinceptionandintensityofwaterhammer.Inaddition

 twoothervariables,flowvelocityandpipelinelength,arealsomajorfactors.The equationbelowshowstherelationshipofthesethreevariablesandtheireffect.

P(additional)=0.07(VL/t)
WherePistheadditionalpressuregenerated,Vistheflowvelocityinfps,Listhepipe lengthbeforevalveinfeet,andtisthevalveclosingtimeinseconds.Theadditional pressurecreatedbytheshockwaveisdirectlyproportionaltoflowvelocityand pipelinelengthandinverselyproportionaltoclosuretime.Inotherwordshigher valuesofVand/orLwillincreasepressurewhilehighervaluesoftwillresultina decreasedpressure.Thetablebelowshowstheresultsweobtainfromthisequation whenusingdifferingvelocities,pipelengths,andclosuretimes.ForVwewilluse5& 10fps,forLwewilluse100&1000ft,andfortwewilluse1&2seconds.Ineach examplewewillkeeptwoofthevariablesconstant. P=0.07(5x100)/1=35 P=0.07(5x100)/2=17.5 P=0.07(10x100)/1=70 P=0.07(10x100)/2=35 P=0.07(5x1000)/1=350 P=0.07(5x1000)/2=175 P=0.07(10x1000)/1=700 P=0.07(10x1000)/2=350 Bothcolumnsofthetableillustratetheproportionalinfluenceofvelocityandlength pressureincreasesastheyincrease.Thelowervaluesseenintherighthandcolumn illustratetheinverserelationshipoftimethesepressuresarehalfthoseseenintheleft handcolumnbecausetheclosuretimehasdoubled.AsImentionedearlier,pipe diameterandtheelasticityofitsmaterialalsoinfluencethepressuregenerated.Larger diametersandmoreelasticmaterialsabsorbsomeoftheintensityoftheshockwaves andthereforereducethepressuregenerated.Youwillfindthatmostpipe manufacturerspublishcurvesortablesthatshowthepotentialpressureincrease,that canbegeneratedbywaterhammer,forvariouspipediametersandmaterialsof composition. Wehaveverylittlecontroloverthelengthofapipelineregardlessoftheapplication. Therefore,ourabilitytodecreasethevalueofLinourequationisextremelylimited. Wecan,however,controltheothertwovariablesand,indoingso,eliminateorgreatly reducetheeffectofwaterhammer. Suppose,foramoment,thatthebranchlinevalveisclosed.Ifitisopenedquickly,we cangetaneffectsimilartothatofquickclosing.Whenthevalveisopenedquickly,the

 branchlineseesanimmediatedropinpressureandthestaticwatercolumn(andits dissolvedair)expandsslightlyfromitscompressedstate.Incomingwaterfromthe mainlineaddsvelocitytocolumnandalsoincreasesitpressure.Ifthepressure increasesquickly,theforwardwatercolumnwillactastheprimarybarrierand waterhammercanoccur.Usuallyitseffectismuchsmallerthanthatofvalveclosure andisoftenreferredtoasasurge.Still,undercertainconditions,thissurgecanbe damaging. PumpStartsandStops Inmostpressureboosterapplications,aspringloadedcheckvalveisinstalledator nearthepumpdischargeandremainsclosedwhenthepumpisidle.Whenthepumpis started,flowdoesnotbeginuntilthepressureitgeneratesexceedsthepressureonthe downstreamsideoftheclosedvalve.Ifthedownstreampressureisnotallowedto decreasebelowacertainminimum,flowincreasesslowlyandwaterhammerinception isavoidedorreducedsignificantly.Whenthepumpstops,anunexpectedeventoccurs aquickclosingvalveactuallyprohibits,ratherthaninitiates,waterhammer!Inthis particularinstance,thespringprovidesquickclosureofthevalveandthuspreventsthe watercolumnfromchangingdirectionduetothehigherdownstreampressure.Even thoughthereisanabruptchangeinflow,pressureremainsrelativelyconstant throughoutthedownstreamcolumn.Ifastandardcheckvalvewasinstalledthewater columnwouldhaveenoughspacetochangedirection,acceleratebackwards,andslam thecheckclosedthusinitiatingwaterhammer. Inmanylargepumpingplantsitisnormalproceduretostartapumpagainstaclosed dischargevalve.Oncethepumpisuptofullspeedthevalveisopenedslowly,flowis initiated,andthenincreasestoitsmaximumasthevalvecontinuestoopen.This procedureisreversedwhenapumpisstopped.Startingandstoppingagainstavalve thatisopenedorclosedslowlywillprohibittheinitiationofwaterhammerorreduceits effecttoa,virtually,immeasurablequantity.Dependingupontheinstallationthe dischargevalvemaybeoperatedmanuallyorbysomeautomaticmechanism. Oneoftheshortcomingsofmanuallyoperatedvalvesoccurswhenduringapower outage.Whenapumpmotorlosespower,thereductioninpumpspeedandflowfrom itsdischargeoccurrapidly.Theresultingchangeofkineticenergytothatofpressure willproducewaterhammerwavesinthedischargeline.Additionally,asthewater columnreversesdirection,theimpellerwillbegintoacceleratebackwards.Whenit reachesitmaximumreversespeed,backwardsflowisreducedandanadditional pressuresurgeiscreated.

 Intheintroduction,Imentionedthattheeffectsofwaterhammercanbemore significantinlowpressuresystems.Thepressureoftheshockwaveisproportionalto thelengthofthepipeandvelocityofthewaterflowinginitandisindependentofits operatingpressure.Thereforetheshockwavecreatedinaonemilepipeflowingat10 fpswillbethesamewhethertheoperatingpressureis20PSIor200PSI.Thereisa differencethough.Theratioofshockpressuretooperating(design)pressureisquitea bithigherinthelowpressuresystemthusthepotentialfordamagecanbegreaterin thelowerpressuresystem. WaterColumnSeparation&Closure Sofarourdiscussionofwaterhammerhasdealtwithsomethingwecallsinglephase systems.Inthesesystems,waterremainsinasinglestate(liquidinthiscase)regardless ofthechangesinthehydraulicconditions.Theshockwavesgeneratedbysinglephase systemsareduetoanabruptchangeinflowandtheresultingtransformationofkinetic energy. Thewaterhammergeneratedbywatercolumnseparationandclosureisatwophase process.Inatwophasesystem,waterchangesstateandcanexistbothasaliquidanda vaporwithinthesameconfinedvolume.Thisphasechangecantakeplacewhenever thepressureinapipelineisreducedtothatofthevaporpressureofthewater.When thispressuredropoccurs,thewatercolumncanbecomeseparated,inoneormore locations,byapocketofvapor.Whenthepressurerisesabovethevaporpressurethe columnrejoinsorclosesandcancreateahighpressurewave(notunlikethatofan implodingcavitationbubblebutonamuchlargerscale).Watercolumnseparation,by itself,cancauseproblemsinverylargediameterorthinwallpipes(theycancollapse), butthewaterhammerthatarisesduringclosureisthemorecommonproblem. Watercolumnseparationcanoccurwhenapumpisstoppedandthewatercolumn reversesdirectionorincondensatelineswherehightemperaturescanmitigatetheneed foralargepressuredrop.Althoughbothformscanbeextremelydamaging,condensate linestendtobefarmoredangerous.Theshockwavesgeneratedbycolumnclosurecan travelinoppositedirectionsandiftheyhitsecondarybarrierstheycanberedirected backtowardsoneanother.AlthoughIhavefoundnothingintheliteraturetosupport this,Iwouldsuspectthatthesereflectedwavesmayincreaseinintensitywhenthey collide.Thisiscertainlythecasewithwaterandvoltagewavesanditmayaccountfor theoftengreaterdamageresultingfromclosureinitiatedwaterhammer.

 EliminatingorReducingWaterhammer Youwillfindnumerousarticlesonthewebandintheliteraturethatcovertheavailable methodsforreducingoreveneliminatingwaterhammerinvariouspumping applications.Iwillmentionjustacouple.(Bytheway,ifyouuseawebsearchengine besuretosearchforbothwaterhammerandwaterhammer.) Twoofthesimplestmethodsofcontrollingwaterhammerincludethetwovariables seeninourbranchlinepumpingexample.AsImentioned,weusuallyhavelittle controloverpipelinelengthbut,wehavetotalcontroloverflowvelocityandvalve closingtime. Althoughaconservative(readcorrectlysized)pipelinedesignwillincreaseitsfirstcost, thelowerflowvelocitywillreducetheeffectofwaterhammer.Butthis,firstcost,issue couldbeamootpointbecausewaterhammercontroldevices,andtheirassociatedcosts, maynotberequiredifthepipelineissizedcorrectlyinthebeginning.Properpipeline sizingmakesgoodsensefrombothawaterhammerandafrictionlossperspective. Manualvalvesposefewproblemsaslongasthehumanswhocontrolthemarein controloftheiractions.Youhaveprobablynoticedthatthemanualclosureoropening ofagatevalveseldom,ifever,givesrisetowaterhammer.Thereasonisthatitis almostimpossibletocloseoropenagatevalvetooquickly.Ballvalves,ontheother hand,seemtowanttoopenandclosequicklyandextremecaremustbeusedintheir operation.Butterflyvalvesfallsomewhereinbetween.Automaticvalvescanposea differentproblem.Sincetheyarenothumancontrolled(sometimesagoodthing),they mustbeselectedcorrectly.Oftensmall,fastclosing,solenoidvalveswillnotcause waterhammerbecauseoftheirlowflowrate.Largerones,however,cancause significantproblems.Almostallvalvedesignscanbeautomatedandmostautomation systemsallowselectionofopeningandclosingtimes.Manyoftheautomaticvalves usedinirrigationsystemsnowofferthisfeatureandpiperuptureduetowaterhammer isbecomingathingofthepast. Thevariablefrequencydrivehasbeenamajorplayerincontrollingwaterhammer duringpumpstartsandstops.Theabilitytorampthefrequency,andthusthemotor speed,overaperiodoftimesignificantlyreducesthedifferentialforcethatisnormally encountered.Asecondarybenefitofthissocalledsoftstartisasimilarreductionin bothelectricalandmechanicalstressonthemotorandpump. JoeEvans,December2005