Anodized

Anodizing, or anodising in British English, is an electrolytic passivation process used to increase the thickness of the natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts. The process is called "anodizing" because the part to be treated forms the anode electrode of an electrical circuit. Anodizing increases corrosion resistance and wear resistance, and provides better adhesion for paint primers and glues than does bare metal. Anodic films can also be used for a number of cosmetic effects, either with thick porous coatings that can absorb dyes or with thin transparent coatings that add interference effects to reflected light. Anodizing is also used to prevent galling of threaded components and to make dielectric films for electrolytic capacitors. Anodic films are most commonly applied to protect aluminum alloys, although processes also exist for titanium, zinc, magnesium, niobium, and tantalum. Iron or carbon steel metal exfoliates when oxidized under neutral or alkaline microelectrolytic conditions; i.e., the iron oxide (actually "ferric hydroxide" or hydrated iron oxide, also known as rust) forms by anoxic anodic pits and large cathodic surface, these pits concentrate anions such as sulfate and chloride accelerating the underlying metal to corrosion. Carbon flakes or nodules in iron or steel with high carbon content (high carbon steel, cast iron) may cause an electrolytic potential and interfere with coating or plating. Ferrous metals are commonly anodized electrolytically in nitric acid, or by treatment with red fuming nitric acid, to form hard black ferric oxide. This oxide remains conformal even when plated on wire and the wire is bent. Anodization changes the microscopic texture of the surface and changes the crystal structure of the metal near the surface. Thick coatings are normally porous, so a sealing process is often needed to achieve corrosion resistance. Anodized aluminum surfaces, for example, are harder than aluminum but have low to moderate wear resistance that can be improved with increasing thickness or by applying suitable sealing substances. Anodic films are generally much stronger and more adherent than most types of paint and metal plating, but also more brittle. This makes them less likely to crack and peel from aging and wear, but more susceptible to cracking from thermal stress.

History
Anodizing was first used on an industrial scale in 1923 to protect Duralumin seaplane parts from corrosion. This early chromic acid-based process was called the BengoughStuart process and was documented in British defence specification DEF STAN 0324/3. It is still used today despite its legacy requirements for a complicated voltage cycle now known to be unnecessary. Variations of this process soon evolved, and the first sulfuric acid anodizing process was patented by Gower and O'Brien in 1927. Sulfuric acid soon became and remains the most common anodizing electrolyte. Oxalic acid anodizing was first patented in Japan in 1923 and later widely used in Germany, particularly for architectural applications. Anodized aluminum extrusion was a popular architectural material in the 1960s and 1970s, but has since been displaced by cheaper plastics and powdercoating. The phosphoric acid processes are the most recent major development, so far only used as pretreatments for adhesives or organic paints. A wide variety of proprietary and increasingly complex variations of all these anodizing

processes continue to be developed by industry, so the growing trend in military and industrial standards is to classify by coating properties rather than by process chemistry.

Anodized aluminum
Aluminum alloys are anodized to increase corrosion resistance, to increase surface hardness, and to allow dyeing (coloring), improved lubrication, or improved adhesion. The anodic layer is non-conductive. When exposed to air at room temperature, or any other gas containing oxygen, pure aluminum self-passivates by forming a surface layer of amorphous aluminum oxide 2 to 3 nm thick, which provides very effective protection against corrosion. Aluminum alloys typically form a thicker oxide layer, 5-15 nm thick, but tend to be more susceptible to corrosion. Aluminum alloy parts are anodized to greatly increase the thickness of this layer for corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys is significantly decreased by certain alloying elements or impurities: copper, iron, and silicon, so 2000, 4000, and 6000-series alloys tend to be most susceptible. Although anodizing produces a very regular and uniform coating, microscopic fissures in the coating can lead to corrosion. Further, the coating is susceptible to chemical dissolution in the presence of high and low pH chemistry, which results in stripping the coating and corrosion of the substrate. To combat this, various techniques have been developed either to reduce the number of fissures or to insert more chemically stable compounds into the oxide, or both. For instance, sulfuric anodized articles are normally sealed, either through hydro-thermal sealing or precipitating sealing, to reduce porosity and interstitial pathways that allow for corrosive ion exchange between the surface and the substrate. Precipitating seals enhance chemical stability but are less effective in eliminating ion exchange pathways. Most recently, new techniques to partially convert the amorphous oxide coating into more stable micro-crystalline compounds have been developed that have shown significant improvement based on shorter bond lengths. Some aluminum aircraft parts, architectural materials, and consumer products are anodized. Anodized aluminum can be found on mp3 players, flashlights, cookware, cameras, sporting goods, window frames, roofs, in electrolytic capacitors, and on many other products both for corrosion resistance and the ability to retain dye. Although anodizing only has moderate wear resistance, the deeper pores can better retain a lubricating film than a smooth surface would. Anodized coatings have a much lower thermal conductivity and coefficient of linear expansion than aluminum. As a result, the coating will crack from thermal stress if exposed to temperatures above 80 C. The coating can crack, but it will not peel. The melting point of aluminum oxide is 2050 C, much higher than pure alumaluminums C. (This can make welding more difficult.) In typical commercial aluminum anodization processes, the aluminum oxide is grown down into the surface and out from the surface by equal amounts. So anodizing will increase the part dimensions on each surface by half of the oxide thickness. For example a coating that is (2 m) thick, will increase the part dimensions by (1 m) per surface. If the part is anodized on all sides, then all linear dimensions will increase by the oxide thickness. Anodized aluminum surfaces are harder than aluminum but have low to moderate wear resistance, although

this can be improved with thickness and sealing. Process Preceding the anodization process, wrought alloys are cleaned in either a hot soak cleaner or in a solvent bath and may be etched in sodium hydroxide (normally with added sodium gluconate), ammonium bifluoride or brightened in a mix of acids. Cast alloys are normally best just cleaned due to the presence of intermetallic substances unless they are a high purity alloy such as LM0. The anodized aluminum layer is grown by passing a direct current through an electrolytic solution, with the aluminum object serving as the anode (the positive electrode). The current releases hydrogen at the cathode (the negative electrode) and oxygen at the surface of the aluminum anode, creating a build-up of aluminum oxide. Alternating current and pulsed current is also possible but rarely used. The voltage required by various solutions may range from 1 to 300 V DC, although most fall in the range of 15 to 21 V. Higher voltages are typically required for thicker coatings formed in sulfuric and organic acid. The anodizing current varies with the area of aluminum being anodized, and typically ranges from 30 to 300 amperes/meter (2.8 to 28 ampere/ft). Aluminum anodizing is usually performed in an acid solution which slowly dissolves the aluminum oxide. The acid action is balanced with the oxidation rate to form a coating with nanopores, 10-150 nm in diameter. These pores are what allows the electrolyte solution and current to reach the aluminum substrate and continue growing the coating to greater thickness beyond what is produced by autopassivation. However, these same pores will later permit air or water to reach the substrate and initiate corrosion if not sealed. They are often filled with colored dyes and/or corrosion inhibitors before sealing. Because the dye is only superficial, the underlying oxide may continue to provide corrosion protection even if minor wear and scratches may break through the dyed layer. Conditions such as electrolyte concentration, acidity, solution temperature, and current must be controlled to allow the formation of a consistent oxide layer. Harder, thicker films tend to be produced by more dilute solutions at lower temperatures with higher voltages and currents. The film thickness can range from under 0.5 micrometers for bright decorative work up to 150 micrometers for architectural applications.

Other widely used specifications

The most widely used anodizing specification is a U.S. military spec, MIL-A-8625, which defines three types of aluminum anodization. Type I is chromic acid anodization, Type II is sulfuric acid anodization, and Type III is sulfuric acid hardcoat anodization. Other anodizing specifications include more MIL-SPECs (e.g., MIL-A-63576), aerospace industry specs by organizations such as SAE, ASTM, and ISO (e.g., AMS 2469, AMS 2470, AMS 2471, AMS 2472, AMS 2482, ASTM B580, ASTM D3933, ISO 10074, and BS 5599), and corporation-specific specs (such as those of Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and other large contractors). AMS 2468 is obsolete. None of these specifications define a detailed process or chemistry, but rather a set of tests and quality assurance measures which the anodized product must meet. BS 1615 provides guidance

in the selection of alloys for anodizing. For British defence work, a detailed chromic and sulfuric anodizing processes are described by STAN 03-24/3 and STAN 03-25/3 respectively. Chromic acid anodizing (Type I) The oldest anodizing process uses chromic acid. It is widely known as the BengoughStuart process. In North America it is known as Type I because it is so designated by the MIL-A-8625 standard, but it is also covered by AMS 2470 and MIL-A-8625 Type IB. In the UK it is normally specified as Def Stan 03/24 and used in areas that are prone to come into contact with propellants etc. There are also Boeing and Airbus standards. Chromic acid produces thinner, 0.5 m to 18 m (0.00002" to 0.0007") more opaque films that are softer, ductile, and to a degree self-healing. They are harder to dye and may be applied as a pretreatment before painting. The method of film formation is different from using sulfuric acid in that the voltage is ramped up through the process cycle. Sulfuric acid anodizing (Type II & III) Sulfuric acid is the most widely used solution to produce anodized coating. Coatings of moderate thickness 1.8 m to 25 m (0.00007" to 0.001") are known as Type II in North America, as named by MIL-A-8625, while coatings thicker than 25 m (0.001") are known as Type III, hardcoat, hard anodizing, or engineered anodizing. Very thin coatings similar to those produced by chromic anodizing are known as Type IIB. Thick coatings require more process control, and are produced in a refrigerated tank near the freezing point of water with higher voltages than the thinner coatings. Hard anodizing can be made between 13 and 150 m (0.0005" to 0.006") thick. Anodizing thickness increases wear resistance, corrosion resistance, ability to retain lubricants and PTFE coatings, and electrical and thermal insulation. Standards for thin (Soft/Standard) sulfuric anodizing are given by MIL-A-8625 Types II and IIB, AMS 2471 (undyed), and AMS 2472 (dyed), BS EN ISO 12373/1 (decorative), BS EN 3987 (Architectural) . Standards for thick sulfuric anodizing are given by MIL-A-8625 Type III, AMS 2469, BS 5599, BS EN 2536 and the obsolete AMS 2468 and DEF STAN 03-26/1. Organic acid anodizing Anodizing can produce yellowish integral colors without dyes if it is carried out in weak acids with high voltages, high current densities, and strong refrigeration. Shades of color are restricted to a range which includes pale yellow, gold, deep bronze, brown, grey, and black. Some advanced variations can produce a white coating with 80% reflectivity. The shade of color produced is sensitive to variations in the metallurgy of the underlying alloy and cannot be reproduced consistently. Anodization in some organic acids, for example Malic Acid, can enter a 'runaway' situation, in which the current drives the acid to attack the aluminum far more aggressively than normal, resulting in huge pits and scarring. Also, if the current or voltage are driven too high, 'burning' can set in; in this case the supplies act as if nearly shorted and large, uneven and amorphous black regions develop. Integral color anodizing is generally done with organic acids, but the same effect has

been produced in laboratory with very dilute sulfuric acid. Integral color anodizing was originally performed with oxalic acid, but sulfonated aromatic compounds containing oxygen, particularly sulfosalicylic acid, have been more common since the 1960s. Thicknesses up to 50m can be achieved. Organic acid anodizing is called Type IC by MIL-A-8625. Phosphoric acid anodizing Anodizing can be carried out in phosphoric acid, usually as a surface preparation for adhesives. This is described in standard ASTM D3933. Borate and tartrate baths Anodizing can also be performed in borate or tartrate baths in which aluminum oxide is insoluble. In these processes, the coating growth stops when the part is fully covered, and the thickness is linearly related to the voltage applied. These coatings are free of pores, relative to the sulfuric and chromic acid processes. This type of coating is widely used to make electrolytic capacitors, because the thin aluminum films (typically less than 0.5 m) would risk being pierced by acidic processes. Plasma electrolytic oxidation Plasma electrolytic oxidation is a similar process, but where higher voltages are applied. This causes sparks to occur, and results in more crystalline/ceramic type coatings.

Other metals
Anodized titanium selected colors achievable through anodization of titanium. Anodized titanium is used in a recent generation of dental implants. An anodized oxide layer has a thickness in the range of 30 nanometres (1.2106 in) to several micrometers. Standards for titanium anodizing are given by AMS 2487 and AMS 2488. Anodizing titanium generates an array of different colors without dyes, for which it is sometimes used in art, costume jewelry, body piercing jewelry and wedding rings. The color formed is dependent on the thickness of the oxide (which is determined by the anodizing voltage); it is caused by the interference of light reflecting off the oxide surface with light traveling through it and reflecting off the underlying metal surface. Titanium nitride coatings can also be formed, which have a brown or golden color and have the same wear and corrosion benefits as anodization. Anodized magnesium Magnesium is anodized primarily as a primer for paint. A thin (5m) film is sufficient for this. Thicker coatings of 25m and up can provide mild corrosion resistance when sealed with oil, wax, or sodium silicate. Standards for magnesium anodizing are given in AMS 2466, AMS 2478, AMS 2479, and ASTM B893.

Anodized zinc Zinc is rarely anodized, but a process was developed by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization and covered by MIL-A-81801. A solution of ammonium phosphate, chromate and fluoride with voltages of up to 200V can produce olive green coatings up to 80m thick. The coatings are hard and corrosion resistant. Anodized niobium Niobium anodizes in a similar fashion to titanium with a range of attractive colors being formed by interference at different film thicknesses. Again the film thickness is dependent on the anodising voltage. Uses include jewelry and commemorative coins. Anodized tantalum Tantalum anodizes in a similar fashion to titanium and niobium with a range of attractive colors being formed by interference at different film thicknesses. Again the film thickness is dependent on the anodizing voltage and typically ranges from 18-23 Angstroms per volt depending on electrolyte and temperature. Uses include Tantalum capacitors

Dyeing
Colored iPod Mini cases are dyed following anodization and before thermal sealing The most common anodizing processes, for example sulfuric acid on aluminum, produce a porous surface which can accept dyes easily. The number of dye colors is almost endless; however, the colors produced tend to vary according to the base alloy. Though some may prefer lighter colors, in practice they may be difficult to produce on certain alloys such as high-silicon casting grades and 2000-series aluminum-copper alloys. Another concern is the "lightfastness" of organic dyestuffssome colors (reds and blues) are particularly prone to fading. Black dyes and gold produced by inorganic means (ferric ammonium oxalate) are more lightfast. Dyed anodizing is usually sealed to reduce or eliminate dye bleed out. Alternatively, metal (usually tin) can be electrolytically deposited in the pores of the anodic coating to provide colors that are more lightfast. Metal dye colors range from pale champagne to black. Bronze shades are commonly used for architectural use. Alternatively the color may be produced integral to the film. This is done during the anodizing process using organic acids mixed with the sulfuric electrolyte and a pulsed current. Splash effects are created by dying the unsealed porous surface in lighter colors and then splashing darker color dyes onto the surface. Aqueous and solvent based dye mixtures may also be alternately applied since the colored dyes will resist each other and leave spotted effects.

Printing

Photo quality images and graphics in vivid color may be printed into the unsealed porous oxide layer using color dyes via silkscreen, sublimation transfer or digital printer. Line art quality graphics can be achieved by use of a printer. Color graphics may also be directly applied by hand using an airbrush, sponge or paintbrush. Printed anodizing is sealed to prevent or reduce dye bleed out. Uses include baseball bats, signs, furniture, surgical trays, motorcycle components, and architectural moulding.

Sealing
Acidic anodizing solutions produce pores in the anodized coating. These pores can absorb dyes and retain lubricants, but are also an avenue for corrosion. When lubrication properties are not critical, they are usually sealed after dyeing to increase corrosion resistance and dye retention. Long immersion in boiling-hot deionized water or steam is the simplest sealing process, although it is not completely effective and reduces abrasion resistance by 20%. The oxide is converted into its hydrated form, and the resulting swelling reduces the porosity of the surface. Cold sealing, where the pores are closed by impregnation of a sealant in a room-temperature bath, is more popular due to energy savings. Coatings sealed in this method are not suitable for adhesive bonding. Teflon, nickel acetate, cobalt acetate, and hot sodium or potassium dichromate seals are commonly used. MIL-A-8625 requires sealing for thin coatings (Types I and II) and allows it as an option for thick ones (Type III).

Cleaning
Anodized aluminum surfaces are susceptible to Panel Edge Staining, a unique type of surface staining that can affect the structural integrity of the metal.

Environmental impact
Anodizing is one of the more environmentally friendly metal finishing processes. With the exception of organic (aka integral color) anodizing, the by-products do not contain heavy metals, halogens or volatiles. The most common anodizing effluents, aluminum hydroxide and aluminum sulfate, are recycled for the manufacturing of alum, baking powder, cosmetics, newsprint and fertilizer or used by industrial wastewater treatment systems.

Mechanical considerations
Anodizing will raise the surface, since the oxide created occupies more space than the base metal converted. This will generally not be of consequence except in the case of small holes threaded to accept screws[citation needed]. Anodizing may cause the screws to bind, thus the threaded holes may need to be chased with a tap to restore the original dimensions. Alternatively, special oversize taps may be used to precompensate for this growth. In the case of unthreaded holes that accept fixed diameter pins or rods a slightly oversized hole to allow for the dimension change may be appropriate.

Stainless Steel

In metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as an iron-carbon alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content. The name originates from the fact that stainless steel does not stain, corrode or rust as easily as ordinary steel (it "stains less", but is not actually stain proof). This material is also called corrosion resistant steel when it is not detailed exactly to its alloy type and grade, particularly in the aviation industry. As such, there are now different and easily accessible grades and surface finishes of stainless steel, to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Common uses of stainless steel are everyday cutlery and watch straps. Stainless steels have higher resistance to oxidation (rust) and corrosion in many natural and man made environments; however, it is important to select the correct type and grade of stainless steel for the particular application. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments. The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, which means that the metal remains lustrous. It is, however, impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off causing the parts to weld together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect that is known as galling. Nickel also contributes to passivation, as do other less commonly used ingredients such

as molybdenum and vanadium.

Commercial value of stainless steel

Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relative inexpense, and familiar luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most common. The alloy is milled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment, a structural alloy in automotive and aerospace assembly and building material in skyscrapers and other large buildings. Stainless steel is also used for jewelry and watches. The most common stainless steel alloy used for jewelry is 316L. It can be re-finished by any jeweler and unlike silver will not oxidize and turn black. Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. In fact, an average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material, 25% originating from end-of-life products and 35% coming from manufacturing processes.

Corrosion
Even a high-quality alloy can corrode under certain conditions. Because these modes of corrosion are more exotic and their immediate results are less visible than rust, they often escape notice and cause problems among those who are not familiar with them.

Pitting corrosion
Passivation relies upon the tough layer of oxide described above. When deprived of oxygen (or when a salt such as chloride competes as an ion), stainless steel lacks the ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will be protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical points. Corrosion at these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause corrosion pits of several types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only nucleate under fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when conditions return to normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of oxygen. In extreme cases, the sharp tips of extremely long and narrow pits can cause stress concentration to the point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter, or a thin film pierced by an invisibly small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are especially dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure fails. Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in stainless alloys, but it can be prevented by ensuring that the material is exposed to oxygen (for example, by eliminating crevices) and protected from chlorides wherever possible. Pitting corrosion can occur when stainless steel is subjected to high concentration of Chloride ions (for example, sea water) and moderately high temperatures. A textbook example[citation needed] for this was a replica of the Jet d'Eau fountain in Geneva, ordered by an Arab Sheikh for installation in the Red Sea King Fahd's Fountain. The difference between the freshwater of Lake Geneva and the saltwater of the sea called for

much greater specialisation of the engineering processes and materials involved, as a straight duplicate of the Geneva fountain would not have survived long in the saltwater environment.

Rouging
Rouging is a very peculiar[citation needed] phenomenon, which occurs only on polished stainless steel surfaces with very low surface roughness in a pure water environment. This effect is most common[citation needed] in pharmaceutical industries. The very pure water used in nuclear reactors can also cause rouging. It occurs because pure water is lacking any ions and pulls the metal ions of the passive stainless steel surface into solution. Iron ions do not dissolve at neutral pH and will precipitate as an iron hydroxide film, which has a reddish colour, hence the name rouging.

Intergranular corrosion
Some compositions of stainless steel are prone to intergranular corrosion when exposed to certain environments. When heated to around 700 C, chromium carbide forms at the intergranular boundaries, depleting the grain edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance. Steel in such condition is called sensitized. Steels with carbon content 0.06% undergo sensitization in about 2 minutes, while steels with carbon content under 0.02% are not sensitive to it.

Intergranular corrosion
A special case of intergranular corrosion is called "weld decay" or "knifeline attack" (KLA). Due to the elevated temperatures of welding the stainless steel can be sensitized very locally along the weld. The chromium depletion creates a galvanic couple with the well-protected alloy nearby in highly corrosive environments. As the name "knifeline attack" implies, this is limited to a small zone, often only a few micrometres across, which causes it to proceed more rapidly. This zone is very near the weld, making it even less noticeable. It is possible to reclaim sensitized steel by heating it to above 1000 C and holding at this temperature for a given period of time dependent on the mass of the piece, followed by quenching it in water. This process dissolves the carbide particles, then keeps them in solution. It is also possible to stabilize the steel to avoid this effect and make it welding-friendly. Addition of titanium, niobium and/or tantalum serves this purpose; titanium carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide form preferentially to chromium carbide, protecting the grains from chromium depletion. Use of extra-low carbon steels is another method and modern steel production usually ensures a carbon content of <0.03% at which level intergranular corrosion is not a problem. Light-gauge steel also does not tend to display this behavior, as the cooling after welding is too fast to cause effective carbide formation.

Crevice corrosion

In the presence of reducing acids or exposure to reducing atmosphere, the passivation layer protecting steel from corrosion can break down. This wear can also depend on the mechanical construction of the parts, e.g. under gaskets, in sharp corners, or in incomplete welds. Such crevices may promote corrosion, if their size allows penetration of the corroding agent but not its free movement. The mechanism of crevice corrosion is similar to pitting corrosion, though it happens at lower temperatures.

Stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking can be a severe form of stainless steel corrosion. It forms when the material is subjected to tensile stress and some corrosive environments, especially chloride-rich environments (sea water) at higher temperatures. The stresses can be a result of service loads, or can be caused by the type of assembly or residual stresses from fabrication (e.g. cold working); residual stresses can be relieved by annealing. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is the result of anodic dissolution which is locally increased by deformation mechanism. Indeed, materials submitted to high stresses (either residual or applied) suffer from local deformation which causes dislocations in the microstructure. Such dislocations are responsible for slip planes to occur. As soon as slip planes are able to emerge at the outer surface of the steel, the passive film is altered or destroyed, allowing corrosion to develop locally. The combination of galvanic coupling between depassivated zones and the rest of the surface which remain passive account for cracking to develop. The resistance of stainless steels to SCC depends on a lot of factors. As in all aggressive media responsible for SCC, corrosion potentials situated near the active/passive transition domain are the most dangerous. This may be explained by the fact that the passive film is easily destroyed in area where slip planes arise at the surface as a result of deformation process under the effect of applied or residual stresses. So, when electrochemical conditions drive the rest potential in the active/passive transition domain, the SCC risk is high. This limits the usefulness of stainless steels of the 300 series (304, 316) for containing water with higher than few ppm content of chlorides at temperatures above 50 C. In more aggressive conditions, higher alloyed austenitic stainless steels (6% Mo grades) or Mo-containing duplex stainless steels may be selected. High Ni austenitics are much more resistant to Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC); indeed, their deformation mechanism is different since they exhibit numerous but small dislocations. Ferritic stainless steels, particularly high Chromium grades are very resistant to SCC if they do not contain Nickel. Chlorine catalyzes the formation of hydrogen which hardens and embrittles the metal locally, causing concentration of the stress and a microscopic crack. The chlorine moves into the crack, continuing the process.

Sulphide stress cracking

Sulphide stress cracking is an important failure mode in the oil industry, where the steel comes into contact with liquids or gases with considerable hydrogen sulfide content, e.g., sour gas. It is influenced by the tensile stress and is worsened in the presence of chloride ions. Very high levels of hydrogen sulfide apparently inhibit the corrosion. Rising temperature increases the influence of chloride ions, but decreases the effect of sulfide, due to its increased mobility through the lattice; the most critical temperature range for sulphide stress cracking is between 60100 C (140212 F).

Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when a galvanic cell is formed between two dissimilar metals. The resulting electrochemical potential then leads to formation of an electric current that leads to electrolytic dissolving of the less noble material. This effect can be prevented by electrical insulation of the materials, e.g. by using rubber or plastic sleeves or washers, keeping the parts dry so there is no electrolyte to form the cell, or keeping the size of the less-noble material significantly larger than the more noble ones (e.g. stainless-steel bolts in an aluminum block won't cause corrosion, but aluminum rivets on stainless steel sheet would rapidly corrode). If these options are not available to protect from galvanic corrosion, a sacrificial anode can be used to protect the less noble metal. For example, if a system is composed of 316 SS, a very noble alloy with a low galvanic potential, and a mild steel, a very active metal with high galvanic potential, the mild steel will corrode in the presence of an electrolyte such as salt water. If a sacrificial anode is used such as a Mil-Spec A18001K zinc alloy, Mil-Spec A-24779(SH) aluminum alloy, or magnesium, these anodes will corrode instead, protecting the other metals in the system. The anode must be electrically connected to the protected metal(s) in order to be able to preserve them. This is common practice in the marine industry to protect ship equipment. Boats and vessels that are in salt water use either zinc alloy or aluminum alloy. If the boats are only in fresh water, a magnesium alloy is used. Magnesium has one of the highest galvanic potential of any metal. If it is used in a saltwater application on a steel or aluminum hull boat, hydrogen bubbles will form under the paint, causing blistering and peeling.

Contact corrosion
Contact corrosion is a combination of galvanic corrosion and crevice corrosion, occurring where small particles of suitable foreign material are embedded to the stainless steel. Carbon steel is a very common contaminant here, coming from nearby grinding of carbon steel or use of tools contaminated with carbon steel particles. The particle forms a galvanic cell, and quickly corrodes away, but may leave a pit in the stainless steel from which pitting corrosion may rapidly progress. Some workshops therefore have separate areas and separate sets of tools for handling carbon steel and stainless steel, and care has to be exercised to prevent direct contact between stainless steel parts and carbon steel storage racks. Particles of carbon steel can be removed from a contaminated part by passivation with

dilute nitric acid, or by pickling with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid.

Types of stainless steel

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels nonmagnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For higher hardness and strength, carbon is added. When subjected to adequate heat treatment these steels are used as razor blades, cutlery, tools etc. Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel as does nickel, but at a lower cost. Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:

Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless is often used in flatware. Similarly 18/0 and 18/8 is also available. Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion due to high Molybdenum contents (>6%) and nitrogen additions and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking over the 300 series. The higher alloy content of "Superaustenitic" steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications.[citation needed] Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, but less durable than austenitic grades. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion resistant as the other two classes, but are extremely strong and tough as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12 14%), molybdenum (0.21%), zero to less than 2% nickel, and about 0.11% carbon (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic. It is also known as "series-00" steel. Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4PH, uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel. There is a rising trend in defense budgets to opt for an ultra-high-strength stainless steel if possible in new projects as it is estimated that 2% of the U.S. GDP is spent dealing with

corrosion. The Lockheed-Martin JSF is the first aircraft to use a precipitation hardenable stainless steel Carpenter Custom 465 in its airframe.

Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim being to produce a 50:50 mix although in commercial alloys the mix may be 40:60 respectively. Duplex steel have improved strength over austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localised corrosion particularly pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterised by high chromium (1928%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.

Comparison of standardized steels

EN-standard Steel no. DIN 1.4112 1.4125 1.4016 1.4512 1.4310 1.4318 1.4307 1.4306 1.4311 1.4301 1.4948 1.4303 1.4541 1.4878 1.4404 1.4401 1.4406 1.4432 1.4435 1.4436 1.4571 1.4429 1.4438 1.4539 1.4547 X6Cr17 X6CrTi12 X10CrNi18-8 X2CrNiN18-7 X2CrNi18-9 X2CrNi19-11 X2CrNiN18-10 X5CrNi18-10 X6CrNi18-11 X5CrNi18 12 X6CrNiTi18-10 X12CrNiTi18-9 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 EN-standard Steel name ASTM/AISI Steel type 440A 440B 440C 440F 430 409 301 301LN 304L 304L 304LN 304 304H 305 321 321H 316L 316 316LN 316L 316L 316 316Ti 316LN 317L 904L N/A UNS

S44002 S44004 S44003 S44020 S43000 S40900 S30100 N/A S30403 S30403 S30453 S30400 S30409 S30500 S32100 S32109 S31603 S31600 S31653 S31603 S31603 S31600 S31635 S31653 S31703 N08904 S31254

Stainless steel Grades

200 Seriesaustenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys 300 Seriesaustenitic chromium-nickel alloys

Type 301highly ductile, for formed products. Also hardens rapidly during mechanical working. Good weldability. Better wear resistance and fatigue strength than 304. Type 302same corrosion resistance as 304, with slightly higher strength due to additional carbon. Type 303easier machining version of 304 via addition of sulfur and phosphorus. Also referred to as "A1" in accordance with International Organization for Standardization ISO 3506. Type 304the most common grade; the classic 18/8 stainless steel. Also referred to as "A2" in accordance with International Organization for Standardization ISO 3506. Type 309 better temperature resistance than 304 Type 316the second most common grade (after 304); for food and surgical stainless steel uses; Alloy addition of molybdenum prevents specific forms of corrosion. 316 steel is used in the manufacture and handling of food and pharmaceutical products where it is often required in order to minimize metallic contamination. It is also known as "marine grade" stainless steel due to its increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to type 304. SS316 is often used for building nuclear reprocessing plants. Most watches that are made of stainless steel are made of Type 316L; Rolex is an exception in that they use Type 904L. Also referred to as "A4" in accordance with International Organization for Standardization ISO 3506. Type 321similar to 304 but lower risk of weld decay due to addition of titanium. See also 347 with addition of niobium for desensitization during welding.

400 Seriesferritic and martensitic chromium alloys

Type 408heat-resistant; poor corrosion resistance; 11% chromium, 8% nickel. Type 409cheapest type; used for automobile exhausts; ferritic (iron/chromium only). Type 410martensitic (high-strength iron/chromium). Wear resistant, but less corrosion resistant. Type 416 easy to machine due to additional sulfur Type 420"Cutlery Grade" martensitic; similar to the Brearley's original "rustless steel". Excellent polishability. Type 430decorative, e.g., for automotive trim; ferritic. Good formability, but with reduced temperature and corrosion resistance. Type 440a higher grade of cutlery steel, with more carbon in it, which allows for much better edge retention when the steel is heat treated properly. It can be hardened to around Rockwell 58 hardness, making it

one of the hardest stainless steels. Due to its toughness and relatively low cost, most display-only and replica swords or knives are made of 440 stainless. Also known as "razor blade steel". Available in four grades 440A, 440B, 440C, and the uncommon 440F (free machinable). 440A, having the least amount of carbon in it, is the most stain-resistant; 440C, having the most, is the strongest and is usually considered a more desirable choice in knifemaking than 440A except for diving or other salt-water applications.

500 Seriesheat resisting chromium alloys 600 Seriesmartensitic precipitation hardening alloys

Type 630most common PH stainless, better known as 17-4; 17% chromium, 4% nickel

Stainless steel finishes 316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish. 316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish. Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface (scale) is removed by pickling, and the passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.

No. 0 - Hot Rolled Annealed, thicker plates No. 1 - Hot rolled, annealed and passivated No, 2D - cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated No, 2B - same as above with additional pass through polished rollers No, 2BA - Bright Anealed (BA) same as above with highly polished rollers No. 3 - coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically No. 4 - brushed finish No. 6 - matte finish No. 7 - reflective finish No. 8 - mirror finish No. _ - bead blast finish

History
A few corrosion-resistant iron artifacts survive from antiquity. A famous (and very large) example is the Iron Pillar of Delhi, erected by order of Kumara Gupta I around the year AD 400. However, unlike stainless steel, these artifacts owe their durability not to chromium, but to their high phosphorus content, which together with favorable local weather conditions promotes the formation of a solid protective passivation layer of iron oxides and phosphates, rather than the non-protective, cracked rust layer that develops on most ironwork.

The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by the French metallurgist Pierre Berthier, who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. However, the metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be of practical interest. This situation changed in the late 1890s, when Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed an aluminothermic (thermite) process for producing carbon-free chromium. In the years 19041911, several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would today be considered stainless steel. In Germany, Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing-yacht "Germania" featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in 1908. In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between the chromium content and corrosion resistance. On October 17, 1912, Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented austenitic stainless steel. Similar industrial developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing ferritic stainless. However Harry Brearley of the Firth-Brown research laboratory in Sheffield, England is most commonly credited as the "inventor" of stainless steel, but many historians feel this is disputable.[citation needed] In 1913, while seeking an erosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, he discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was popularized a few years later, in a January 1915 newspaper article in the New York Times.

Die Cast

Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into the cavities of steel molds. The molds are called dies. Dies range in complexity to produce any nonferrous metal parts (that need not be as strong, hard or heat-resistant as steel) from sink faucets to engine blocks (including hardware, component parts of machinery, toy cars, etc). In fact, the process lends itself to making any metal part that:

Must be precise (dimensions plus or minus as little as 50 m--over short distances), Must have a very smooth surface that can be bright plated without prior polishing and buffing, Has very thin sections (like sheet metal--as little as 1.2 mm), Must be produced much more economically than parts primarily machined (multicavity die casting moulds operating at high speed are much more productive than machine tools or even stamping presses), Must be very flexible in design; a single die casting may have all the features of a complex assembly.

If several machining operations would be required or assembly of several parts would be required (to make a finished part), die casting is probably far more economical. This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry. Common metals used in die casting include zinc and aluminum. These are usually not pure metals; rather are alloys which have better physical characteristics. In recent years, injection-molded plastic parts have replaced some die castings because they are usually cheaper (and lighter--important especially for automotive parts since the fuel-economy standards). Plastic parts are practical (particularly now that plating of plastics has become possible) if hardness is not required and if parts can be redesigned to have the necessary strength.

Process

There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mold is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then injected into the die under high pressure. The high pressure assures a casting as precise and as smooth as the mold. Typically it is around 100 mpa (1000 bar). Once the cavity is filled then the pressure is maintained until the casting has become solid (though this period is usually made short as possible by water cooling the mold). Finally, the die is opened and the casting is ejected. Equally important as high-pressure injection is high-speed injection--required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities (spoiling the finish and even weakening the casting) are avoided even if the design requires difficult-to-fill very thin sections. Before the cycle can be started the die must be installed in the die casting machine (set up) and brought to operating temperature. This set-up requires 1-2 hours after which a cycle can take anywhere between a few seconds to a few minutes depending on the size of the casting. Maximum mass limits for magnesium, zinc, and aluminium parts are roughly 4.5 kg, 18 kg, and 45 kg, respectively. A typical die set will last 500,000 shots during its lifetime with lifetime being heavily influenced by the melting temperature of the metal or alloy being used. Aluminum and its alloys typically shorten die life due to the high temperature of the liquid metal resulting in deterioration of the steel mold cavities. Molds for die casting zinc last almost indefinitely due to the lower temperature of the zinc. Molds for die casting brass are the shortest-lived of all. This is despite, in all cases, making the mold cavities out of the finest "hot work" alloy steel available. A shot occurs every time the die is filled with metal. Shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot. Also the shot consists not only of the individual castings but also the "scrap" (which, unlike in the case of scrap from machining, is not sold cheaply; it is remelted) that consists of the metal that has hardened in the channels leading into and out of the cavities. This includes, for example, the sprue, runners and overflows. Also there is usually some unplanned-for thin scrap called flash, the result of wear in the molds allowing metal to leak into the space outside the casting, between the dies.

Equipment
The die must fulfill four primary purposes. First, it must hold molten metal in the shape of the final casting. The die must also provide a path for the molten metal to reach the casting cavity. Third, the die is designed to remove heat from the casting. Finally, a die must be able to eject the solidified casting. Because die sets open and shut along a parting line of the casting, design features such as undercuts cannot be cast without the addition of movable slides in the die set. Otherwise these features must be added (more expensively) by secondary machining operations. Die casting machines are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical sizes range from 100 to 4,000 tons. Along with size there are two main categories that die casting machines fall into. They are hot chamber machines for zinc and lower

melting-point metals. Or cold chamber machines for aluminum and higher meltingpoint metals. A die casting machine automatically opens and closes the mold and injects the liquid metal, all under high pressure and as rapidly as possible, in the case of zinc up to several hundred times an hour. (However the very smallest zinc machines may cycle thousands of time an hour.) Sometimes means are provided to automatically remove the shot and re-cycle the machine. The largest machines are as big as a car. Often there is a secondary operation to separate the castings from the scrap; this is often done using a trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. An older method is separating by hand or by sawing, which case grinding may be necessary to smooth the gate mark where molten metal entered or left the cavity. Finally, a less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken. Separation of gates from finished parts must follow. Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable. Most common is tapping a hole (to receive a screw). Finally, the surface may be improved by polishing, plating, buffing or painting.

Enamel

In a discussion of art technology, enamel (or vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel in U.S. English) is the colorful result of fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 degrees Celsius. The powder melts and flows and hardens to a smooth, durable vitreous coating on metal, glass or ceramic. It often is applied as a paste, and may be transparent or opaque when fired; vitreous enamel can be applied to most metals. Also, "an enamel" is a usually small decorative object, coated with enamel coating, such as a champlev or a cloisonn. Vitreous enamel has many excellent properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically resistant, durable, can assume brilliant, long-lasting colors, and cannot burn. Its disadvantages are its tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate is stressed or

bent. Its durability has found it many functional applications: early 20th century advertising signs, interior oven walls, cooking pots, exterior walls of kitchen appliances, cast iron bathtubs, farm storage silos, and processing equipment such as chemical reactors and pharmaceutical chemical process tanks. Enamelling is an old and widely-adopted technology. The ancient Egyptians applied enamels to pottery and stone objects. Other practitioners include the ancient Greeks, Celts, Russians, and the Chinese. The bright, jewel-like colors have also made enamel a favored choice for designers of jewelry and bibelots, such as ancient beads, the fantastic eggs of Peter Carl Faberg, enameled copper boxes of Battersea enamellers, and artists such as George Stubbs and other painters of portrait

According to some sources, the word enamel comes from the High German word smelzan (to smelt) via the Old French esmail. Some techniques of enameling: Basse-taille, from the French word meaning "low-cut". The surface of the metal is decorated with a low relief design which can be seen through translucent and transparent enamels. Champlev, French for "raised field", where the surface is carved out to form pits in which enamel is fired, leaving the original metal exposed. Cloisonn, French for "cell", where thin wires are applied to form raised barriers, which contain different areas of enamel applied above the original metal form. Painted enamel, a design in enamel is painted onto a smooth surface. Grisaille and Limoges enamel are subategories of painted enamel. Grisaille, French term meaning "greying", where dark, often blue or black background is applied, then limoges (Limoges porcelain) or opalescent (translucent) enamel is applied on top, building up designs in a monochrome gradient, paler as the thickness of the layer of light color increases. Limoges enamel, made at Limoges, France, the most famous European centre of vitreous enamel production. Limoges porcelain, named after the town in France where it was invented, is the technique of "painting" with a special enamel called "blanc de limoges" over a dark enamelled surface to form a detailed picture, often human figure. It is a form of Grisaille. Plique--jour, French for "braid letting in daylight" where the enamel is applied in cells, similar to champlev, but with no backing, so light can shine through the transparent or translucent enamel. It has a stained-glass like appearance. Ronde bosse, French for "round bump". A 3D type of enameling where a sculptural form is completely or partly enameled. Stenciling, where a stencil is placed over the work and the powdered enamel is sifted over the top. The stencil is removed before firing, the enamel staying in a pattern, slightly raised. Sgrafitto, where an unfired layer of enamel is applied over a previously fired layer of enamel of a contrasting color, and then partly removed with a tool to create the design.

Counter enameling, not strictly a technique, but a necessary step in many techniques, is to apply enamel to the back of a piece as well - sandwiching the metal - to create less tension on the glass so it does not crack.

Color in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often metal oxides cobalt, praseodymium, iron, or neodymium. The last creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray. Enamel can be either transparent, opaque or opalescent (translucent), which is a variety that gains a milky opacity the longer it is fired. Different enamel colors cannot be mixed to make a new color, in the manner of paint. This produces tiny specks of both colors; although the eye can be tricked by grinding colors together to an extremely fine, flour-like, powder. "Enamel" paint Some paints are called "enamel paints". This is a commonly used, yet fanciful term, implying that an ordinary latex or oil-based paint has the same properties as true, fired enamel. Bicycle frames and similar steel objects are traditionally stove enamelled in countries such as the UK. The paint is baked on but the temperatures are much lower than for true vitreous enamel - approximately 200 degrees Celsius. The process should not be confused with powder coating as the enamel paint is sprayed on "wet".

Ni-Cd Battery
The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd and pronounced "nye-cad") is a popular type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The principal advantages of NiCd over other rechargeable types is lower weight for a given quantity of stored energy, good charging efficiency, small variation in terminal voltage during discharge, low internal resistance, and non-critical charging conditions. They can be used in place of regular batteries in most applications.
Battery specifications

Energy/weight 4060 Wh/kg Energy/size 50150 Wh/L Power/weight 150W/kg Charge/discharge efficiency 70%90% Energy/consumer-price 1.37 Wh/US$ Self-discharge rate 10%/month Cycle durability 2000 cycles

Nominal Cell Voltage

1.2 V

The abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation and should not be used to refer generically to nickel-cadmium batteries, although this brand-name is commonly used to describe all nickel-cadmium batteries. On the other hand, the abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd), though it is not to be confused with a chemical formula. There are two types of NiCd batteries: sealed and vented. This article mainly deals with sealed cells.

Applications of NiCd batteries

Sealed NiCd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys, often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as primary cells. When NiCds are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller amperehour capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Specialty NiCd batteries have a niche market in the area of cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, model airplanes, as well as power tools. With a relatively low internal resistance, a NiCd battery can supply high surge currents. This makes them a favourable choice for remote controlled electric model aeroplanes, boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units. Larger flooded cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power. `

Voltage
Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. This is lower than the 1.5 V of many popular primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a replacement in all applications. Unlike common primary cells, a NiCd cell's terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Because many electronic devices are designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0 V per cell, the relatively steady 1.2 V of a NiCd is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the near constant voltage a drawback, as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low; this is usually a minor concern. NiCd batteries used to replace nominally 9-V "transistor radio" batteries usually only have six cells, for a terminal voltage of 7.2 volts. While most pocket radios will operate satsifactorily at this voltage, some manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells, for more critical applications. 12 V NiCd batteries are made up of 10 cells connected in series

History

This type of battery was based on Thomas Edison's first alkaline battery, with the difference of using Cadmium (Cd) instead of Iron (Fe) in cathode. Waldemar Jungner of Sweden created the first nickel-cadmium battery in 1899. At that time the only direct competitor was the lead-acid battery which was less physically and chemically robust. With minor improvements to the first prototypes, energy density rapidly increased to about half of that of primary batteries, and significantly better than lead-acid batteries. In 1906, Jungner established a factory in Sweden to initially produce industrial nickeliron and later nickel-cadmium batteries. The first production in the United States began in 1946. Up to this point, the batteries were "pocket type," constructed of nickel-plated steel pockets containing nickel and cadmium active materials. Around the middle of the twentieth century, sintered plate nickel-cadmium batteries became increasingly popular. Fusing nickel powder at a temperature well below its melting point, using high pressures creates sintered plates. The plates thus formed are highly porous, about 80 percent by volume. Positive and negative plates are produced by soaking the nickel plates in nickel and cadmium active materials, respectively. Sintered plates are usually much thinner than the pocket type, resulting in greater surface area per volume, and higher currents. In general, the more surface area of reactive materials in a battery, the lower its internal resistance. In the past few decades, this has resulted in nickelcadmium batteries with internal resistance as low as alkaline batteries. Today, all consumer nickel-cadmium batteries use the "jelly-roll" design. This design incorporates several layers of anode and cathode material rolled into a cylindrical shape. Advances in battery manufacturing technologies throughout the second half of the twentieth century have made batteries increasingly cheaper to produce. Battery-powered devices in general have increased in popularity. As of 2000, about 1.5 billion nickelcadmium batteries were produced annually. While Ni-Cd never became widely used as a replacement for lead-acid batteries in the areas where those batteries dominate, up until the mid 1990s, Ni-Cds had an overwhelming majority of the market share for rechargeable batteries in consumer electronics. Recently, Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) and lithium ion batteries (Li-ion) have become more commercially available and cheaper, though still more expensive than NiCds. Where energy density is important, Ni-Cds batteries are at a distinct disadvantage over Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries, especially when the cost of the battery is small compared to the cost of the device, such as in cell phones.

Battery Characteristics
Comparison to Other Batteries
Advantages When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the nickel cadmium battery has a number of distinct advantages.

The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for long periods. In fact, NiCd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion

batteries, which are highly volatile and will be permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage. In addition, NiCd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other rechargeable batteries, and have faster charge and discharge rates than lead-acid batteries, with minimal loss of capacity even at high discharge rates.

The most common alternative to NiCd batteries are lead-acid batteries. Compared to these, NiCd batteries have a much higher energy density. This means that, for a given battery capacity, a NiCd battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead-acid battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, some transportation applications), NiCd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead-acid batteries. In consumer applications, NiCd batteries compete directly with alkaline batteries. A NiCd cell has a lower capacity than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs slightly more. However, since the alkaline battery's chemical reaction is typically not reversible, a reusable NiCd battery has a significantly longer total lifetime. There have been attempts to create rechargeable alkaline batteries, such as Rayovac's rechargeable alkaline, Renewal, or specialized alkaline battery chargers, but none that has seen wide usage. In addition, a NiCd battery maintains a constant voltage as it discharges. Since an alkaline battery's voltage drops as the charge drops, most consumer applications are well equipped to deal with the slightly lower NiCd voltage with no noticeable loss of performance. Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are the newest, and most similar, competitor to NiCd batteries. Compared to NiCd, NiMH batteries have a higher capacity and are less toxic, but are still slightly more expensive. In addition, a NiCd battery has a lower self-discharge rate (for example, 20% per month for a NiCd, versus 30% per month for a NiMH under identical conditions). This results in a preference for NiCd over NiMH in applications where the current draw on the battery is lower than the battery's own self-discharge rate (for example, television remote controls) In both types of cell, the self-discharge rate is highest for a full charge state and drops off somewhat for lower charge states. In addition, like alkaline batteries, NiMH batteries experience a voltage drop as it nears full discharge, which a NiCd does not. Finally, a similarly-sized NiCd battery has a slightly lower internal resistance, and thus can achieve a higher maximum discharge rate (which can be important for applications such as power tools).

Disadvantages The primary trade-off with NiCd batteries is their higher cost. They require extra labor to manufacture, and thus, are typically more costly than lead-acid batteries. Typically nickel and cadmium are more costly materials than those used for lead-acid cells. Another disadvantage of NiCds is that certain usage patterns may cause a "false bottom" effect. Specifically, if the battery is consistently discharged to the same level, then fully recharged, the battery will eventually stop discharging on its own upon reaching this threshold. (See memory effect below for more details on this effect).

One of the Nickel-Cadmium's biggest disadvantages was that the battery exhibited a very marked negative temperature coefficient. This meant that as the cell temperature rose, the internal resistance fell. Thus could pose considerable charging problems particularly with the relatively simple charging systems employed for lead-acid type batteries. Whilst lead-acid batteries could be charged by simply connecting a dynamo to it, with a simple electromagnetic cut out system for when the dynamo is stationary, or an over current occurs, the nickel-cadmium under a similar charging scheme would exhibit thermal runnaway, where the charging current would continue to rise until the over current cut out operated or the battery destroyed itself. This was the principal factor that prevented its use for engine starting batteries. Today with alternator based charging systems with solid state regulators, the construction of a suitable charging system would be relatively simple, but the car manufacturers are reluctant to abandon tried and tested technology. In any event, nickel-cadmium technology is falling out of favour.

Availability
NiCd cells are available in the same general purpose physical sizes as alkaline batteries, from AAA through D, as well as several multi-cell sizes, including the equivalent of a 9 volt battery. Each cell has a nominal potential of 1.2 volts, compared to the nominal 1.5 volt potential for alkaline batteries. More specifically, a fully charged single NiCd cell, under no load, carries a potential difference of between 1.25 and 1.35 volts, which stays relatively constant as the battery is discharged. Since an alkaline battery near fully discharged may see its voltage drop to as low as 0.9 volts, NiCd cells and alkaline cells are typically interchangeable for most applications. Miniature button cells are sometimes used in photographic equipment, hand held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer memory standby, toys, and novelties. In addition to single cells, batteries exist that contain up to 300 cells (nominally 360 volts, actual voltage under no load between 380 and 420 volts). This many cells are mostly used in automotive and heavy duty industrial applications. For portable applications, the number of cells is normally below 18 cells (24 V). Industrial-sized flooded batteries are available with capacities ranging from 12.5Ah up to several hundred Ah.

Characteristics
The maximum discharge rate for a NiCd battery varies by size. For a common AA-size cell, the maximum discharge rate is approximately 18 amps; for a D size battery the discharge rate can be as high as 35 amps. Model aircraft or boat builders often take much larger currents of up to a hundred amps or so from specially constructed small batteries, which are used to drive main motors. 56 minutes of model operation is easily achievable from quite small batteries, so a reasonably high power-to-weight figure is achieved, comparable to internal combustion motors, though of lesser duration.

Charging

NiCd batteries can charge at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, the typical "overnight" charge, called a C/10 charge, is accomplished by applying 10% of the batteries total capacity for a period of 14 hours; that is, a 100Ah battery takes 140Ah of energy to charge at this rate. At the "fast charge" rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity, the battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100Ah battery takes 120Ah of energy to charge (that is, approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes) The downside to faster charging is the higher risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery. The safe temperature range for a NiCd battery in use is between 20C and 45C. During charging, the battery temperature typically stays low, around 0C (the charging reaction absorbs heat), but as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to 4550C. Some battery chargers detect this temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging. When not under load or charge, a NiCd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a "trickle charge" at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging, or even short-circuiting), and stored in a cool, dry environment.

Inspecting
The battery should have no external damage and depending on the number of cells it should have 1.2V per cell when fully charged and about 0.81V when discharged.

Charge condition
High quality NiCds have a thermal cut-off so if the battery gets too hot the charger stops. If a NiCd is still warm from discharging and been put on charge, it will not get the full charge possible. In that case, let the battery cool to room temperature then charge. Watch for the correct polarity. Leave charger in a cool place or room temperature when charging to get best results.

Charging method
A NiCd battery requires a charger with a slightly different voltage charge level than a lead-acid battery, especially if the NiCd has 11 or 12 cells. In addition, the charger requires a more intelligent charge termination method if a fast charger is used. Often NiCd battery packs have a thermal cut-off inside that feeds back to the charger telling it to stop the charging once the battery has heated up and/or a voltage peaking sensing circuit. At room temperature during normal charge conditions the cell voltage increases from an initial 1.2 V to an end-point of about 1.45 V. The rate of rise increases

markedly as the cell approaches full charge. The end-point voltage decreases slightly with increasing temperature.

Electrochemistry
A fully charged NiCd cell contains:

a nickel hydroxide positive electrode plate. a cadmium negative electrode plate. a separator. an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).

NiCd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate equipped with a selfsealing safety valve. The positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. The chemical reaction which occurs in a NiCd battery is: 2 NiO(OH) + Cd + 2 H2O 2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 This reaction goes from left to right during discharge, and from right to left during charge. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is not consumed in this reaction and therefore its Specific Gravity, unlike in Lead- Acid batteries, is not a guide to its state of charge. When Jungner built the first nickel-cadmium batteries, he used nickel oxide in the cathode and iron and cadmium materials in the anode. It was not until later that pure cadmium metal and nickel hydroxide were used. Until about 1960, the reaction in nickel-cadmium batteries was not completely understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction products. The debate was finally resolved by spectrometry, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel hydroxide. Another historically important variation on the basic nickel-cadmium cell is the addition of lithium hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed to prolong the service life by making the cell more resistant to electrical abuse. The nickelcadmium battery in its modern form is extremely resistant to electrical abuse anyway, so this practice has been discontinued.

Problems with NiCd

Overcharging
Overcharging must be considered in the design of most rechargeable batteries. In the case of NiCds, there are two possible results of overcharging: For this reason, the anode is always designed for a higher capacity than the cathode, to

avoid releasing hydrogen gas. There is still the problem of eliminating oxygen gas, to avoid rupture of the cell casing. NiCd cells are vented, with seals that fail at high internal gas pressures. The sealing mechanism must allow gas to escape from inside the cell, and seal again properly when the gas is expelled. This complex mechanism, unnecessary in alkaline batteries, contributes to their higher cost. NiCd cells dealt with in this article are of the sealed type (see also vented type). Cells of this type consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of oxygen and hydrogen gassed until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically occurs during rapid charge and discharge and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect the capacity of the cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of overcharge demands great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage even the best quality cells.

Cell reversal
Another potential problem is reverse charging. This can occur due to an error by the user, or more commonly, when a battery of several cells is fully discharged. Because there is a slight variation in the capacity of cells in a battery, one of the cells will usually be fully discharged before the others, at which point reverse charging begins seriously damaging that cell, reducing battery life. The by-product of reverse charging is hydrogen gas, which can in some circumstances be dangerous. Some commentators advise that one should never discharge multi-cell nickel-cadmium batteries to zero voltage; for example, torches should be turned off when they yellow, before they go out completely. Individual cells may be fully discharged to zero volts and some of the battery manufacturers recommend this if the cells are to be stored for lengthy intervals. At least one manufacturer even recommends short-circuiting each cell for storage. However, it is normally recommended that NiCd Batteries be charged to around 40% capacity for long-term storage. A common form of this deprication occurs when cells connected in series develop unequal voltages and discharge near zero voltage. The first cell that reaches zero is pushed beyond to negative voltage and gasses generated open the seal and dry the cell. In modern cells an excess of anti-polar material (basically active material ballast at positive electrode) is inserted to allow for moderate negative charge without damage to the cell. This excess material slows down the start of oxygen generation at the negative plate. This means a cell can survive a negative voltage of about -0.2 to -0.4 volts. However if discharge is continued even further, this excess ballast is used up and both electrodes change polarity, causing destructive gassing (gas generation). Battery packs with multiple cells in series should be operated well above 1 volt per cell to avoid placing the lowest capacity cell in danger of going negative. Battery packs that can be disassembled into cells should be periodically zeroed and charged individually to equalize the voltages. However, this does not help if old and new cells are mixed, since their different capacities will result in different discharge times and voltages.

Memory and lazy battery effects

It is sometimes claimed that NiCd batteries suffer from a so-called "memory effect" if they are recharged before they have been fully discharged. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by NiCds are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, the device will be unable to get as much energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery has a reduced capacity. There is controversy about whether the memory effect actually exists, or whether it is as serious a problem as is sometimes believed. Some critics claim it is used to promote competing NiMH batteries, which apparently suffer this effect to a lesser extent. Many nickel-cadmium battery manufacturers either deny the effect exists or are silent on the matter. The memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites, where they were typically charging for twelve hours out of twenty-four for several years. After this time, it was found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly, but were still perfectly fit for use. It is thought unlikely that this precise repetitive charging (e.g. 1000 charges / discharges with less than 2% variability) would ever be reproduced by consumers using electrical goods. An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so-called voltage depression or lazy battery effect. (Some people use this term as a synonym for "memory effect") This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. Sometimes, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic NiCd battery chargers. However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a NiCd battery can last for 1000 cycles or more before its capacity drops below half its original capacity.

Dendritic shorting
NiCd batteries, when not used regularly, tend to develop dendrites which are thin, conductive crystals which may penetrate the separator membrane between electrodes. This leads to internal short circuits and premature failure, long before the 8001000 charge/discharge cycle life claimed by most vendors. Sometimes, applying a brief, highcurrent charging pulse to individual cells can clear these dendrites, but they will typically reform within a few days or even hours. Cells in this state have reached the end of their useful life and should be replaced. Many battery guides, circulating on the Internet and online auctions, promise to restore dead cells using the above principle, but achieve very short-term results at best.

Environmental consequences of Cadmium

NiCd batteries contain cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal and therefore requires special care during battery disposal. In the United States, part of the price of a NiCd battery is a fee for its proper disposal at the end of its service lifetime. In the European Union, the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) bans the use of cadmium in electrical and electronic equipment products after July 2006, though NiCd batteries are not restricted. Cadmium, being a heavy metal, can cause substantial pollution when landfilled or incinerated. Because of this, many countries now operate recycling programs to capture and reprocess old NiCd batteries.

Safety

Rayovac Safety Data Sheet Never short-circuit the battery because this may cause the battery to explode. (A short-circuit is a direct electrical connection between the + and battery terminals, such as with a wire. You should not short-circuit any type of battery.) Never incinerate NiCd batteries; besides the possibility of explosion, this will release toxic cadmium into the environment. Recycle the battery instead. Avoid dropping, hitting, or denting the battery because this may cause internal damage including short-circuiting of the cell. Avoid rapid overcharging of the battery; this may cause leakage of the electrolyte, outgassing, or possibly an explosion.

[ Back ]

Ni-MH Battery
A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium. As in NiCd batteries, the positive electrode is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). A NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity of an equivalent size NiCd and the memory effect is not as significant. However, compared to the lithium-ion battery, the volumetric energy density is lower and self-discharge is higher.
Battery specifications

Energy/weight

3080 Wh/kg

Energy/size 140300 Wh/L Power/weight 2501000 W/kg Charge/discharge efficiency 66% Energy/consumer-price 1.37 Wh/US$ Self-discharge rate 30%/month (temperature dependant) Cycle durability 5001000 Nominal Cell Voltage 1.2 V Common penlight-size (AA) batteries have nominal capacities C ranging from 1100 mAh to 2700 mAh at 1.2 V, usually measured at a discharge rate of 0.2C per hour. Useful discharge capacity is a decreasing function of the discharge rate, but up to around 1C rate (full discharge in one hour), there is no significant difference. The specific energy density for NiMH material is approximately 70 Wh/kg (250 kJ/kg), with a volumetric energy density of about 300 Wh/L (360 MJ/m).

History
The first consumer grade NiMH batteries began to appear at the end of 1980s. Positive electrode developpement was done by Dr Masahiko Oshitani from Yuasa Compagny, who was the pioneer in the world to develop the technology of high energy paste electrode. Association of this high energy electrode with high energy hydrid alloys for the negative electrode, discovered by Philips Laboratories and French CNRS labs in the 1970s, lead to new environmentally friendly high energy NiMH battery.

Applications
Applications of NiMH type batteries includes hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius or Honda Insight/Civic and consumer electronics. The NiMH technology will also be used on the Alstom Citadis low floor tram ordered for Nice, France; as well as the humanoid prototype robot ASIMO designed by Honda. Standard NiMH batteries perform better with moderate drain devices such as digital cameras, flashlights, and other consumer electronics. Because NiCd batteries have lower internal resistance, they still have the edge in very high current drain applications such as cordless power tools and RC cars.

Electrochemistry
The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH battery is as follows: H2O + M + e OH + M-H. The electrode is charged in the right direction of this equation and discharged in the left direction. Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) forms the positive electrode and the corresponding reaction is: Ni(OH)2 + OH NiOOH + H2O + e. The "metal" in the negative electrode of a NiMH battery is actually an intermetallic compound. Many different compounds have been developed for this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common is AB5, where A is a rare

earth mixture of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese, and/or aluminum. Very few batteries use higher-capacity negative material electrodes based on AB2 compounds, where A is titanium and/or vanadium and B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium, cobalt, iron, and/or manganese, due to the reduced life performances . Any of these compounds serves the same role, reversibly forming a mixture of metal hydride compounds. When overcharged at low rates, oxygen produced at the positive electrode passes through the separator and recombines at the surface of the negative. Hydrogen evolution is suppressed and the charging energy is converted to heat. This process allows NiMH batteries to remain sealed in normal operation and to be maintenance-free. NiMH batteries have an alkaline electrolyte, usually potassium hydroxide.

Charging
The charging voltage is 1.4-1.6 V/cell. Duracell recommends "a maintenance charge of indefinite duration at C/300 rate". A fully charged cell measures 1.35-1.4 V (unloaded), and supplies a nominal average 1.2 V during discharge, down to about 1.0 V (further discharge may cause permanent damage). Voltage Depression ("Memory Effect") from repeated partial discharge can occur, but is reversible through charge cycling. When fast-charging, it is advisable to charge the NiMH batteries with a smart battery charger to avoid overcharging, which can damage batteries and cause dangerous conditions. Modern NiMH batteries contain catalysts to immediately deal with gases developed as a result of over-charging without being harmed (2 H2 + O2 ---catalyst 2 H2O). However, this only works with overcharging currents of up to C/10 h (nominal capacity divided by 10 hours). As a result of this reaction, the batteries will heat up considerably, marking the end of the charging process. Some quick chargers have a fan to keep the batteries cool. A method for very rapid charging called In-Cell Charge Control involves an internal pressure switch in the cell, which disconnects the charging current in the event of overpressure. Some equipment manufacturers consider that NiMH can be safely charged in simple fixed (low) current chargers with or without timers, and that permanent overcharging is permissible with currents up to C/10 h. In fact, this is what happens in cheap cordless phone base stations and the cheapest battery chargers. Although this may be safe, it may not be good for the health of the battery. According to the Panasonic NiMH charging manual (link below), permanent trickle charging (small current overcharging) can cause battery deterioration and the trickle charge rate should be limited to between 0.033C per hour and 0.05C per hour for a maximum of 20 hours to avoid damaging the batteries. Long-term maintenance charge of NiMH batteries needs to be by low duty cycle pulses of high current rather than continuous low current in order to preserve battery health.

Brand new batteries, or batteries which have been unused for some time, need "reforming" to reach their full capacity. For this reason new batteries may need several charge/discharge cycles before they operate to their advertised capacity.

Discharging
Care must also be taken during discharge to ensure that one or more cells in a seriesconnected battery pack, like the common arrangement of four AA cells in series in a digital camera, do not become completely discharged and go into polarity reversal. Cells are never absolutely identical, and inevitably one will be completely discharged before the others. When this happens, the "good" cells will start to "drive" the discharged cell in reverse, which can cause permanent damage to that cell. Some cameras, GPS receivers and PDAs detect the safe end-of-discharge voltage of the series cells and shut themselves down, but devices like flashlights and some toys do not. Once noticeable dimming or slowing of the device is noticed, it should be turned off immediately to avoid polarity reversal. A single cell driving a load won't suffer from polarity reversal, because there are no other cells to reverse-charge it when it becomes discharged.

Self-discharge
NiMH has had a somewhat higher self-discharge rate (equivalent to internal leakage) than NiCd in the past. However, this is no longer the case. The self-discharge is 5-10% on the first day, and stabilizes around 0.5-1% per day at room temperature. This is not a problem in the short term, but makes them unsuitable for many light-duty uses, such as clocks, remote controls or safety devices, where the battery would normally be expected to last many months or years. The rate is strongly affected by the temperature at which the batteries are stored with cooler storage temperatures leading to slower discharge rate and longer battery life. The highest capacity cells on the market (> 2700mAh) are reported to have the highest self-discharge rates. Low Self Discharge Batteries A new type of nickel-metal hydride battery was introduced in 2006 that claims to reduce self-discharge, and therefore lengthen shelf life. By using a new separator, manufacturers claim between 70 to 85% of capacity is retained after one year, when stored at 20 degrees Celsius (68F). These cells are marketed as "ready-to-use" rechargeables, and are targeted towards impulse buyers and consumers who use their digital cameras only a few times a year. Besides the longer shelf life, they are otherwise similar to normal NiMH batteries of equivalent capacity, and can be charged in typical NiMH chargers. Some brands that are currently available on the market (Sep 2007) are Accupower Acculoop, Ansmann MaxE range, Duracell Pre-charged, Gold Peak ReCyko, Kodak Pre Charged, Nexcell EnergyOn, Panasonic R2, Rayovac Hybrid, GE/Sanyo Eneloop, Sony CycleEnergy, Titanium Power Enduro, Uniross Hybrio, Vapextech Instant and VARTA Ready2use. These appear to be available in AA and AAA sizes only, and have less capacity (2000~2100mAh in AA) than the current generation of high-capacity cells (2800mAh, AA). As there are only two or three manufacturers of these new type of cells (Sanyo, Panasonic, Yuasa-Delta) most of these brands are rebranded OEMs.

Environment
Cadmium is poisonous, so NiMH batteries are less detrimental to the environment than NiCd batteries. Battery recycling programs exist to take care of end-of-life batteries.

Comparison with other battery types

NiMH batteries and chargers are readily available in retail stores in common sizes: AAA, AA, C and D. They are not expensive, and the voltage and performance is similar to standard alkaline batteries in those sizes; they can be substituted for most purposes. The ability to recharge hundreds of times can save a lot of money and resources. They are often used in digital cameras and work well in this application. Applications that require frequent replacement of the battery, such as toys or video game controllers, also benefit from use of rechargeable batteries. With the development of low selfdischarge NiMHs (see section above), many occasional-use and very low power applications are now candidates for NiMH rechargeables. NiMH batteries are particularly advantageous for high current drain applications, due in large part to their low internal resistance. Alkaline batteries, which might have approximately 3000 mAh capacity at low current demand (200 mA), will have less than 1000 mAh capacity with a 1000 mA load. Digital cameras with LCDs and flashlights can draw over 1000 mA, quickly depleting alkaline batteries after few shots. NiMH can handle these current levels and maintain their full capacity. Sometimes, voltage-sensitive devices won't perform well because the voltage of NiMH batteries is lower than fresh disposable batteries at equivalent sizes, particularly at light loads. Even though the nominal NiMH voltage is lower, it sustains for the length of the discharge cycle, since the low internal resistance allows NiMH cells to deliver a nearconstant voltage until they are almost completely discharged. Alkaline discharge voltage droops more towards the end of the discharge cycle. Lithium ion batteries are more compact than nickel-metal hydride batteries. [ Back ]

Wok

Wok The wok/ is a versatile round-bottomed cooking vessel originating in China. It is used especially in East and Southeast Asia. The word "wok" comes from the Cantonese Chinese word for the item: "wok" (). Standard Mandarin refers to woks by using the word "gu" (, a different Hanzi), or the phrases "guzi" (), or "cho ci gu" ( ). Although the word "gu" in Mandarin refers to any type of cooking vessel, using the word on its own typically means a Chinese wok. In Indonesia the wok is known as a penggorengan, as kuali (small wok) in Malaysia, and kawa (big wok) or kawali in the Philippines and also named as "Wadjang". Most Chinese families own at least one wok. It is most often used for stir frying, but can also be used many other ways, such as in steaming, deep frying, braising, stewing, or making soup.

Characteristics
A wok sits next to a karahi on a Western-style stove. Note that the flat-bottomed karahi (right) is sitting on an ordinary burner cover, while the round-bottomed wok is balanced in a wok-ring. A wok sits next to a karahi on a Western-style stove. Note that the flat-bottomed karahi (right) is sitting on an ordinary burner cover, while the round-bottomed wok is balanced in a wok-ring. The wok's most distinguishing feature is its shape. Classic woks have a rounded bottom. Hand-hammered woks are sometimes flipped inside out after being shaped, giving the wok a gentle flare to the edge that makes it easier to push food up onto the sides of the wok. Woks sold in western countries are sometimes found with flat bottoms - this makes them more similar to a deep frying pan. The flat bottom allows the wok to be used on an electric stove, where a rounded wok would not be able to fully contact the stove's heating element. Most woks range from 30 cm to 2 metres or more in diameter. Woks of 36 cm (14 inches) (suitable for a family of 3 or 4) are the most common, but home woks can be found as small as 20 cm (8") and as large as 91 cm (36"). Smaller woks are typically used for quick cooking techniques at high heat such as stir frying (Chinese: cho, or bao, ). Large woks over a meter wide are mainly used by restaurants or community kitchens for cooking rice or soup, or for boiling water.

Handles
A stick-handled flat-bottomed peking pan. While the surface looks like Teflon, it is actually well-seasoned carbon steel. A stick-handled flat-bottomed peking pan. While the surface looks like Teflon, it is actually well-seasoned carbon steel. The handles for woks come in two styles: loops and stick. Loop handles are the most common handle type for woks of all types and materials, and is usually made of bare metal. Cooks needing to hold the wok to toss the food in cooking do so by holding a loop handle with a thick towel (though some woks have spool-shaped wooden or plastic covers over the metal of the handle). Cooking with the tossing action in loop handled woks requires a large amount of hand, arm and wrist strength. Loop handles typically come on pairs on the wok and are riveted, welded or extended from the wok basin. Stick handles are long, made of steel, and are usually welded or riveted to the wok basin, or are an actual direct extension of the metal of the basin. The handle is sometimes covered or ended with a wooden or plastic hand grip, but it is not uncommon to find a bare metal grip. This handle facilitates the tossing action for cooks used to using western saute pans with similar style handles. These kinds of woks are often referred to as "Peking pans" or "pau woks". Stick handles are normally not found on cast iron woks since the wok is either too heavy for the handle (thick cast iron wok), or the metal is too thin to handle the tensile stress exerted by the handle. Larger woks with stick type handles usually also have a loop on the other side to aid with handling the wok

Materials
The most common materials used in making woks today are carbon steel and cast iron. Although the latter was the most common type used in the past, cooks tend to be divided on whether carbon steel or cast iron woks are superior. Currently, carbon steel is the most widely used material. Steel woks are usually inexpensive (often made of reclaimed materials) relatively light in weight, have quick heat conduction, and reasonable durability. However, carbon steel woks are more difficult to season and the carbonized season is easily removed in newer woks, both making food more prone to sticking to the wok. Carbon steel woks vary widely in price, style, and quality, which is roughly based on ply and forming technique. The lowest quality woks tend to be single ply and stamped straight from a piece of steel. These woks have a higher tendency to deform and misshape. Cooking with them is also more difficult and precarious since they often have "hot spots" due to uneven heat distribution. Higher quality woks are almost always "hand hammered" and made of two sheets of carbon steel which are formed into shape by "ring-forming" or hand forging. The real purpose of hand hammering is to create small ridges or dimples along the sides of the wok. These ridges are used in the frying technique of the chef. Two types of cast iron woks can be found in the market. Chinese cast iron woks are

thin (~3 mm) and weigh about the same as a carbon steel wok of similar size, while western cast iron woks tend to be thick (~9 mm), tend to be heavy, and require very long heating times. Cast iron woks are superior to carbon steel woks in heat retention and uniform heat distribution. They also form a more stable carbonized layer of seasoning which makes it less prone to food sticking on the pan. However, both types of cast iron wok also have some disadvantages compared to carbon steel woks. Chinese-style cast iron woks, although quicker in heating and relatively light, are relatively fragile and are prone to shattering if dropped or mishandled. Western-type cast iron woks are slow-heating and slow-cooling, which makes temperature control more difficult. Furthermore, heavy western cast iron makes the tossing action required in stir-frying and bao difficult for smaller chefs. Non-stick, steel woks coated with Teflon are common in the western market. These woks are easily scratched and cannot be used to cook in the high heat required for stir frying to excess of 230C (c.450F) since the Teflon coating will break down chemically at these temperatures. At 350C (660F) the burning coating produces vapours which, if inhaled, can cause flu-like symptoms (see Teflon flu). Xylan coated woks are slightly more robust, but still cannot be used for very high heat cooking. Less commonly found are clad woks, which sandwich a thick layer of aluminum or copper between two sheets of stainless steel. These woks perform extremely well but are often quite expensive, quite heavy and usually cook no better than carbon steel or cast iron woks. Their biggest advantage lies in the durability and ease of maintenance of a stainless steel exterior and cooking surface. Many of these vessels are dishwasher safe. Woks can also be made from aluminium. Although an excellent conductor of heat, aluminium does not retain heat (heat capacity) as well as cast iron or carbon steel. Although anodized aluminium alloys can stand up to constant use, plain aluminium woks are too soft and damage easily.

Cooking
A meal served in a decorative wok, Hong Kong Typically a small amount (1-3 tablespoons) of food peanut oil, soy oil, sunflower oil, or canola oil is placed in the wok and heated under full burner heat. (Alternatively, first heat the wok, when it smokes then add the oil) Fresh chopped garlic and ginger are often added to the oil to flavor it, then quickly scooped out before burning or turning brown. The first item to be cooked, for example, sliced meat, is stirred in the very hot oil until hot, then pushed up the side of the wok so as to drain off the oil while continuing to cook. The meat may be returned to the oil and pushed to the sides several times until the cooking is done. The hammered ridges or dimples along the side of the wok "grab" and prevent the meat from slipping back into the oil at the bottom of the wok. Once cooked, the meat is often scooped out with a Chinese strainer to a side plate and the next ingredient such as vegetables are then cooked in the same manner, strained out or held against the side while any leftover cooking oil is thrown out before all of the ingredients are typically thrown back together, with sauces, seasonings, liquids,

corn starch mixed with a little water for thickening, stirred and covered for a final heating for a minute or two or until smoke begins escape from the cover. This way the chef controls the length of cooking for each item and the food does not cook sitting in the oil.

Wok stoves
A carbon steel wok on an electric stove, seated on a wok ring. Woks by design are meant to be used over a pit-style stove known as the hukang, where the heat arising from the fuel is fully directed at the bottom of the wok, with no heat escaping around the edges. These pit stoves originally used wood or coal, but are now more typically a gas stove that has burners that are recessed below the stove's surface, to encompass the wok's shape. Curved grates on the stove provide stability to the curved wok. This allows foods to be stir-fried at a very high heat, sometimes hot enough to deform the woks themselves. Pit stoves are typically used by professional chefs in most Chinese restaurants, since they have the heating power to give food an alluring wok hei. Traditionally-shaped woks can be used on some western-style (flat-topped) gas stoves by removing a burner cover and replacing it with a "wok ring," which provides stablity and concentrates heat. Although not as ideal as "pit stoves", these allow woks to be used in a manner more suitable for their design and are good enough for most tasks required in home cooking. Professional-style continuous grate stoves (where it's difficult or impossible to remove a single burner cover) have recently become more popular in high-end home stoves. Several manufacturers of such stoves now include a specially-designed wok ring as part of their standard or optional equipment. Because of the high cost of these kitchen modifications, coupled with increased heat and smoke generated in the kitchen, more and more home chefs are using their wok outdoors on high-heat propane burners with curved wok support grates. Many inexpensive propane burners are easily capable of 60-75,000 Btu or more, easily surpassing most in-home gas stoves. Woks, be they round or flat bottomed, do not generally work well for stir-frying or other quick cooking methods when used on an electric cooker. These stoves do not produce the large amounts of quick even heat required for stir-frying. However, it is possible to find round-shaped electric stove elements that will fit the curve of a wok, which allows the wok to be heated at its bottom along with part of its sides. A flatbottomed wok may also work better on an electric stove. Coupled with the lower heat retention of woks, meals stir-fried on electric stoves have a tendency to stew and boil when too much food is in the wok rather than "fry" as in traditional woks, thus not producing wok hei. However, a wok can benefit from the slow steady heating of electric stoves when used for slower cooking methods such as stewing, braising, and steaming, and immersion cooking techniques such as frying and boiling. Most Chinese cooks use cast-iron pans for stir-frying on electric stoves, since

they hold enough heat for the required sustained high temperatures.

Advantages
The main advantage of wok beyond its constructed material is its curved concave shape. The shape produces a small, hot area at the bottom which allows some of the food to be seared by intense heat while using relatively little fuel. The large sloped sides also make it easier for chefs to employ the tossing cooking technique on solid and thick liquid food with less spillage and a greater margin of safety. Curved sides also allows a person to cook without having to "chase the food around the pan" since bitesized or finely chopped stir-fry ingredients usually tumble back to the center of the wok when agitated. The curve also provides a larger usable cooking surface versus western-styled pots and pans, which typically have vertical edges. This allows large pieces of food seared at the bottom of the wok to be pushed up the gently sloped sides to continue cooking at a slower rate. While this occurs another ingredient for the same dish needing high heat is being cooked at the bottom. The pointed bottom also allows even small amounts of oil to pool. As such large food items can be shallow fried, while finely chopped garlic, hot peppers, green onions, and ginger can be essentially deep-fried in both cases with very small amount of cooking oil.