ENERGY CONVERSION

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RECTIFIER FILTER - INVERTER

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AC DC CONVERSION
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INVERTER RECTIFIER

DEFINITIONS

instantaneous power = e(t).i(t) where e(t) and i(t) are the values of voltage and current measured at some particular time t. The average value of power over some time period T is

Pav =

1 T 0 e(t ).i (t )dt T

Energy (W) is the integral of instantaneous power

W = t0 e(t ).i (t )dt Both instantaneous and average power are measurable. The only difference is in the speed of response of the instrument. The slower the response, the greater the

averaging effect. The foregoing two types of measurements of voltage, current and power are fundamental and apply to all waveforms.

1.

DC MEASUREMENTS

For constant voltage and current e(t) = E and i(t) = I Pav = 1 T 0 E.Idt = EI T

which is equal to the instantaneous value. E and I can be measured by instantaneous or average reading instruments.

2.

AC MEASUREMENTS

For fixed frequency, sinusoidally varying voltage and current

e(t ) = E m . sin t

3
i (t ) = I m . sin(t + )

Average power for a complete period

T=

Pav =

0 E m sin t.I m sin(t + )dt 2

2

Em I m cos 2

where Em and Im are the maximum values of the sinusoidally varying voltage and current and cosN the power factor.

Measurement of Em and Im an average reading instrument would read zero; an

instantaneous reading would not help; peak reading instruments are available, but rarely used. Two approaches: (i) Use of a rectifier with an average reading meter to measure the average of the modulus of the variable. Reads the values of the sinusoidal voltage (or

current) averaged over a half cycle.

e(t ) av =

0 E m sin tdt
2

Em

(ii)

Use an rms reading instrument reads the value of the square root of the average of the square of the sinusoidal waveform.

E rms =

2 0 E m sin 2 tdt
Em 2

= so that

Pav = E rms I rms cos

3.

NONSINUSOIDAL PERIODIC WAVEFORMS

Use Fourier series to represent waveform by summing a number of sinusoidal components. If e(t) is a periodic waveform with period T= it can be represented by: e(t ) = E 0 + E1m sin(t + 1 ) + E 2 m sin(2t + 2 ) + ... 2

Using a similar expansion for i(t) and calculating average power it can be shown that: Pav = E 0 I 0 + E1 I 1 cos 1 + E 2 I 2 cos 2 + ... + E n I n cos n where E0 and I0 are dc quantities and E1, I1 etc are rms values of the various frequency components present.

Only voltage and current at the same frequency combine to produce average power. The rms values of the original nonsinusoidal waveform can be measured directly or calculated from the waveforms frequency components. E rms = E0 + E1 + ... + E n
2 2 2

5 I rms = I 0 + I 1 + ... + I n
2 2 2

Total harmonic distortion (THD) is used to quantify the nonsinusoidal nature of a waveform. THD is the ratio of the rms value of all of the nonfundamental frequency terms to the rms value of the fundamental frequency term.
THD I 2 rms I 1, I 1,
2 rms 2 rms

4.

POWER FACTOR, REACTIVE POWER AND APPARENT POWER

Voltage current and real power measurements are meaningful irrespective of waveform shape. Power factor (p.f.), reactive power (Q) and apparent power (S) are useful concepts when dealing with sinusoidal waveforms, but have limited usefulness with general periodic waveforms.
p. f . cos Pav E rms I rms

is of value in sinusoidal ac circuit analysis. The use of average power and rms measurements of voltage and current allows this equation to be used to determine p.f. for nonsinusoidal waveforms. Any attempt to associate the p.f. with cosN though leads to difficulty, since there is no longer a single phase angle between voltage and current waveforms, but a separate phase angle for each frequency component.

Reactive power is defined as: QE rms I rms sin or alternatively

S P2 + Q2

= E rms I rms
In the case of general periodic waveforms, reactive power is a number without obvious physical interpretation and its use is to be discouraged.

There have been many suggestions and proposed definitions for reactive power in nonsinusoidal circuits. From p.f. point of view any electrical system with linear or nonlinear load impedances and either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal supply voltage contains two basic parameters; the real or average or active power P and the apparent power S. S and P are readily measurable using standard instruments but are quite different in nature. Real power P is a physical quantity that satisfies the principle of conservation of energy and the total terminal power. The apparent power S has no intrinsic physical nature. Although it has the dimension volt-amperes it is only a figure of merit defining the maximum energy transfer capability of a system.