Genre Analysis of Business Letters of Negotiation

English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002) 167199 www.elsevier.
com/locate/esp
Genre analysis of business letters of negotiation

V.B.M. Pinto dos Santos *
PUC-Sa Paulo, Brazil o Received 1 September 1998; received in revised form 1 February 2000; accepted 1 September 2000
Abstract This article reports on the ndings of a survey on Genre Analysis [Swales, J. (1990, 1992, 1993). Genre analysis English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: CUP (Reprinting 1991); Swales, J. (1992). Re-thinking genre: another look at discourse community eects. Ottawa: Carleton University. (Mimeo); Swales, J. (1993). Genre and engagement. Revue Belge de Philogie et d'Histoire, 71, 687698.] of 117 commercial letters in English exchanged by fax between a Brazilian company and two European companies. These letters were analysed in terms of shared communicative purposes and rhetorical features which together contribute to the building-up of the resulting generic structure named as Business Letters of Negotiation (LN). All Moves and Steps will be presented here and discussed with examples of the most frequent linguistic signals which characterize them. A brief discussion on these categories, and teaching implications follow these ndings. Published on behalf of The American University by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Genre analysis; Business letters; Negotiation
1. Introduction The research described in this article has its roots in my own experience as an EFL teacher which has shown that mainstream commercial English text-books, adopted by many language schools in Brazil, fail to give thorough descriptions of social and cultural aspects. Consequently, pupils always ask me to complement their lessons with what they call ``routine issues'' such as: cultural aspects, attitudes of behavior, adequacy of lexico-gramatical choices and so on. These issues seem to be of relevance when these non-native adult-students need to relate to and exchange ideas with native speakers or foreigners, and especially when they need to show competence in the English language (Santos, 1994a).
* Tel.: +55-11-50812636; fax: +55-11-50812636. E-mail address: rvpintosantos@br2001.com.br (V.B.M. Pinto dos Santos). 0889-4906/01/$20.00 Published on behalf of The American University by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0889-4906(00)00028-4
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V.B.M. Pinto dos Santos / English for Specic Purposes 21 (2002) 167199
Worldwide, studies in ESL and ESP support and illustrate similar worries, and give evidence that more and more teachers and researchers are taking advantage of investigations on both cross-cultural dierences and genre analysis to develop materials on business English for specialists. In 1986, for example, Neu developed a study which focused on oral American-English cross-cultural negotiations in order to bring about ``cultural and linguistic patterns which are not always shared'' (p. 42) and to be able to ``talk about materials and methods which will more accurately meet the needs of non-native negotiators in American English'' (p. 46). As a result of this investigation, Neu claims that ``Negotiations can be optimally successful only when all participants are well-informed and understanding of each others' cultures and attitudes towards negotiations.'' (p. 5556). Jenkins and Hinds (1987) analysed business letters from three dierent cultures: American-English, French and Japanese and, similarly to Neu, concluded that `ìt is essential that they [students] be made aware of the dierences which exist in business writing across cultures'' (p. 343). Literature on oral and written investigations with authentic materials on crosscultural business interactions, either oral or written, show that teaching and learning situations have not changed so much since the end of the 1980s. To name a few: Maier (1992) compared business letters written by native and non-native professionals from the point of view of politeness strategies and showed weaknesses on the part of NNS using oral data. Garcez (1993) developed an ethnographic microanalysis of a cross-cultural business interaction and discussed dierences in pointmaking between Americans and Brazilians; also focusing on the pragmatic meanings of language organization in terms of power display, power sharing and tactical deference. Lampi (1993) analysed oral exchanges between Buyer and Seller to show the importance of teaching ``meaningful language in a meaningful context'' (p. 167). Ma (1993) aiming at `à foundation for syllabus design or evaluation of course'' (p. 281) developed a corpus study of genre with genuine direct sales letters; also based on genre analysis. Bhatia (1993b) presented and discussed the results of a description of language in use based on authentic written promotional materials, and called attention to the importance of ``genre construction and its subsequent use in professional settings'' (p. 134). This increasing interest in Business English in use for foreign and second laguage learners has been more recently discussed by St. John (1996). In her review she asks for more eective interdisciplinary research (p. 8) on the nature of this discourse, including language, cultural patterns, the inuence of technological apparatus, and the institutional context itself because ``There is a denite need to understand more of the generic features of dierent events such as meetings, to identify common features of eective communications, to understand the role of cultural inuences and the ways in which language and business strategies interact'' (p. 15). Or further, as Gunnarson (1997) claims, referring to the writing mode, ``Writing in an organization is not only a matter of knowing how to write a certain document for a specic audience but also a matter of how to t into the organizational structure and how to adapt to the organizational subculture and its norms, attitudes and values'' (p. 41). Almost as a reaction to this claim for an interdisciplinary approach, Barbara, Celani, Collins and Scott (1996), Charles (1996), Eustace (1996), Gunnarson (1997),
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Louhiala-Salminen (1996, 2002), and Nickerson (1998) have sought to establish the inuence of recent communication mediums and the language in practice on corporate culture. Barbara et al. (1996) carried out a survey of Brazilian organizations and their specic needs and individual dierences in terms of types of communication and communications needs. Louhiala-Salminen (1996), by means of questionnaires and interviews dealt with the inuence of technological advances on written language command and eectiveness, and reported on the recent views of business professionals in Finland and aspects of written communication in English, such as organization, structure and language; her ndings are supported by Eustace's (1996) short communication about written communication in English in the UK; Charles (formerly Lampi; 1996) using audio-recorded British negotiations, compared extralinguistic features in oral exchanges, such as status-behaviour and the market situation, with linguistic production having old and new relationships as a variable for status in order to set the relationship between business context reality and its linguistic production. Gunnarson's study provided data about the social dimensions of writing at work. Using questionnaires and interviews she provides information that ranges from organization structure and its eects on writing to the process of document construction and communication development at a local government oce. Nickerson (1998) also using questionnaires analysed the impact of corporate culture on non-native written communication among British subsidiary companies in the Netherlands, and Louhiala-Salminen (2002) seeking meaningful data for pedagogical practices as well as testing research methodology, reported on a pilot case study in Finland which observed the discourse activites of a business manager for one whole working day. All the ndings support St. John's (1996) recommendation of a broader `àpproach that draws on techniques from elds such as applied linguistics, corpus linguistics and social sciences.'' (p. 8). In the Brazilian situation, investigations within the DIRECT Project1, have yielded interesting results which have been helping researchers and teachers at PUC to improve materials and courses both in oral and written productions for ESL and ESP. The present study will, more specically, focus on business written production since one of the main problems among business professionals is writing letters in English. My professional observations as a teacher together with my worries about socio-cultural issues and adequate language choices led me to carry out an investigation2 on language usage based on the analysis of authentic texts. My main objective was to nd out about how communicative purposes are achieved through language realizations using current and authentic written data. The corpus researched was commercial letters produced by Brazilian Speakers of English as a Foreign Language and their foreign counterparts; the analytical approach chosen was that of
1 See Barbara et al. (1996), Celani and Scott (1997), and Collins et al. (1997) to name a few for more details on the type of research developed within the DIRECT Project. 2 This research was developed within the DIRECT Project (Development of International Research in English for Commerce and Technology) as part of my Ms Dissertation (Santos, 1996) at the Applied Program Linguistics Program at PUC/SP.
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genre (Swales, 1990, 1992, 1993; Bhatia, 1992, 1993a,b). The resulting genre framework was identied according to the following procedures: 1. the communicative purpose, that generates the written production; and 2. the discourse community, that shares motivation, content and style. In this article I will be: 3. presenting the ndings of this genre analysis in terms of structure; 4. discussing briey the lexico-gramatical choices which characterize each identied rhetorical function. 2. The concept of genre analysis I am following Swales' (1990) denition of genre in which members of a specic discourse community share ``structure, style, content, and intended audience `` (p. 58) in order to express their communicative purposes (p. 10). Swales' denition can work as a reliable pedagogical rhetorical-functional framework for the beginnerstudent as well as for the student with diculties in order to understand and become aware of text characteristics shared by members within a discourse community, who are already making use of it. 3. Corpus and method of analysis One hundred and seventeen letters transmitted by fax between a Brazilian veterinary-pharmaceutical company and two European companies were chosen and analysed in terms of their rhetorical features. For analytical purposes these companies were re-named, to preserve condentiality, and numbered according to: 1. country of origin, when the letter is sent from Europe because the destination is always Brazil; 2. country of origin and destination when the letter is sent from Brazil because there are two possibilities: Holland and Great Britain; and 3. date of issue. Therefore, the acronym BRASHOLL identies Brazil and Holland, BRASBRIT identies Brazil and Britain, and HOLLVET and BRITVET identify Holland and Britain, respectively the word VET stands for Veterinary. The resulting absolute distribution of the corpus is the following: BRASBRIT: BRITVET: BRASHOLL: HOLLVET: Total: 07 17 39 54 117
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The rst analytical procedure was to study each letter separately trying to identify the rhetorical functions present in the communicative event. The second step was to compare these individual results within the whole corpus aiming at drawing common characteristics which could be recognized as typical of this genre. The language patterns identied were classied according to the intended rhetorical function. Formal aspects and structural features were also observed in terms of content, intention and function (see Paltridge, 1994; Bhatia, 1993a; Thompson, 1994). The main communicative purpose together with content, intention and function, guided the division of this genre into moves and steps. The sequences of rhetorical functions and linguistic signals were also surveyed, but for practical reasons linguistic signals will be dealt with in depth in a forthcoming article. Frequency lists and concordances (Scott, 1994) helped with the organization of the examples. The nal result was the framework which will be discussed later. 4. Discourse community The discourse community which uses this genre is made up of agri-business professionals who have graduated in Animal Health Studies and occupy top positions in the company, in the three surveyed companies. English is the lingua-franca, and only the British professionals have it as their mother tongue. This fact might lead to some language mistakes and inadequacies in language usage in the corpus, but as most professionals are highly educated, these drawbacks were found to be very few, and did not seem to interfere in the communicative understanding between the members of this community. 5. Communicative purpose The communicative purpose which motivated the exchange of these letters is the interest on the part of the European companies to have their products represented by the Brazilian company in Brazil. To make this representation possible, 1. questions and doubts have to be exchanged and answered, 2. favours and services have to be rendered, and, most relevantly, 3. arrangements have to be settled so that everybody is committed to the agreement. Futhermore, the Brazilian company had to provide sound evidence that the foreign company was making the right choice. These professionals are, therefore, negotiating and asking or submitting their questions, exposing doubts, adding points of view, and showing their knowledge of the market, showing exibility in dealing with contentious issues, etc., in order to sign up a contract of representation
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to sell products in the Brazilian market. Most common issues exchanged in the letters come under the followings headings: 1. Description of companies (includes description of products and each company's performance). 2. Marketing and Sales planning (includes customers, prices, agreements, problems and opportunities). 3. Future planning (includes trips, meetings, congresses, seminars, courses). 4. Brazilian market and trade rules (export/import). 5. Contract of Representation or Letter of Intention (includes detailing product nationalization and market distribution). 6. The exchange of information itself (includes follow-up of activities, actions, questions and answers, and telephone calls). It is also worth mentioning that, due to the above motivating features as a whole, product quality and its characteristics and benets are not as individually emphasized as one might expect. They are present in the letter exchange, but not as a high preference choice. The motivating issues, such as Marketing and Sales Planning, Brazilian market and others, as previously mentioned, seem to be more relevant at this stage of negotiation. However, these letters are not simply promoting each company, as it may appear. There is an on-going exchange of information and request for action that ensures that the bond between companies is maintained as the framework, discussed later, indicates. Also, in contrast to the corpora of Bhatia's (1993a,b) promotional genre and Ghadessy's (1993) written business communication, this discourse community had face-to-face contact, and members could access each other by other channels such as the telephone. Moreover, these characteristics of close availability and proximity permit the use of the written dialogue mode, intermingled with oral exchanges between the companies which use this genre.3 This ``written dialogue'' feature also contributes both to the amical atmosphere between participants and to the progression of the negotiation exchanges. Based on all the above features, I decided to name this genre Business Letters of Negotiation (LNs). The context which surrounds and motivates this linguistic manifestation justies the identication of this genre as Business Letters, and the dynamic of the exchange, which includes the type of linguistic choices and the communicative purpose, between the companies explains the name Negotiation. Three types of letters were identied in the corpus:
3 It is important to mention that these ndings provide further evidence to the importance of the oral mode in the processes of written production as stated by Gunnarson (1997) and Louhiala-Salminon (2002).
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1. Letters to provide information (includes letter of presentation), examples [001] and [002];4 [001] M2. (i-a) Letter of Presentation: Dutchvet is an international veterinary company, located in Holland and forming part of the HOLLVET group, which is also present in Brazil. Dutchvet operates on a worldwide basis. Major product lines are: biologicals for all species, hormones for improvement of breeding results and treatment of reproduction problems, antibiotics, mastitis/metritis products.
(b)
M3. (ii) (viii)(i) The undersigned is planning to visit Brazil during the period 28th (vi-c-ii) October 6th November 1990 and would like to meet you to discuss possible cooperation. (vi-c-i) M4. (i) (iv) [002] M2. (i-a) (ii-a) M4.(i) (ii) (iv) In case of interest please conrm and give us your full address. Thanks and kind regards. DUTCHVET INTERNATIONAL B.V. HOLLVET01 Letter to Provide Information: This is to inform you that our Marketing Director, Dr Pedro Quintanta, has nished the repport we promissed to send you and he is sending it to you by DHL today. Best regards J. CAVALCANTE c.c.: P. Quintana BRASHOLL02 2. Letters to request information and actions/favours as in examples [003] and [004]: [003] (v) Letter to Request Action/Procedure: Dear Franz, M1. (v) Mr Crumps,
M1. (iv) REF.: DUTCHVET VISIT
Please note that the rst column shows the division into moves and steps which will be dealt with in the next section.
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M2 (i-a). M3 (iii-b) (vi-c-I) (viii) M4.(i) (ii) (iii)
This is a little note to let you know that we are to leave Brazil next Thursday, 17 October, leading to Hannover for Biotechnica. So I would like very much to ask to attend our requirements before our departure if it is possible. Thank you very much. Kindly yours. PEDRO QUINTANA DIRECTOR MAKETING SALES BRASHOLL 12 Letter to Request Answer/Information:
[004]
M1. (iv) Re: Our fax 218/93 27/01/93 (iv) M3. (i-a) (iii-b) Concerning our fax above. please send us an answer about it and include the itens below: Code HP11 SR 54 CM669 FT203 CM139 L 21 Qty 09 10 02 02 10 20 Total US$ Unit/US$ 194,90 11,90 15,90 32,10 34,91 18,12 2.675,40
(vi-c-i) M4 (i) (ii) (v)
If you have any doubts, contact us Best Regards Carolina Olivia Enclosed: copy I/L 18-93/8569-0 that includes 2AC 008/93 BRASBRIT 01
3. Letters to both provide and request information and actions/favours, (also called hybrid letters). This type of letter is the most common in the corpus. Examples [005], [006] and [007] give an impression of these letters: [005] M1. (ii) Attn Maria Paula/Pedro/Marcos
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(iii) M1. (v) M2. (a) (b) 2)
FAX (1) Thank you for the pictures of the Cholera Symposium and for the very interesting information. John White and myself will arrive on 15th September on BA 245 at 0540 hrs (terrible time!) and leave on 18th September at 1600 hrs. We will be staying at the Sheraton. We would like to review business to date and your plans for the future. We would also like to join you on some customer visits. (Clinical, Food, Biotechnology) I leave it up to you.u I look forward to seeing you again. BRITVET05
M3. (ii) (iii-b) (vi-c-ii) (viii) M4. (i)
[006] M1. (iv) M2. (i) (e) (v) M3. (iii) M2. (i-b) (vi-b) (vi-c-ii) M3. (iii-b) M2. (i-b) (vii) (viii) M3. (iii-b) M3. (i-c) Ref.: visit Brasil, your fax 56/91 dated 14.1.1991. Due to other travelling commitments not possible to change our programme. Therefore suggest to organize a meeting with you on Thurday 7.2.1991 in Sao Paulo. With pleasure will travel with you to Bela Vista in order to visit your plant.
Please note that we have to be in Rio de Janeiro on Friday 08.02.1991. around midday in order to catch our plane leaving at 14.45. (BA 244).
Would appreciate your cooperation with regard to booking ights: -Sao Paulo/Bela Vista (07.02.1991) -Bela Vista-Rio de Janeiro (08.02.1991) Please conrm by return telex. dia 7/910-1135hs HOLLVET03
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[007] M1. (v) M1. (iv) M2. (i-a) (i-e) M2 (i-b) (vi-b) M2. (i-b) M3. (iii-a) (viii) M2. (i-b) (vi-b) M3. (iii-b) (i-b) (viii) (vi-c-i) M4. (i) (viii) Dear Monique. I acknowledge the receipt of your faxes 04.10.91 and 10.10.91. Regarding the rst fax, we are unfortunately unable to raise data on the pending requirements for the Ministry of Agriculture, since we are not still your representative in Brazil. Those facts mentioned to dr. Pesto was made in a ociously way, not a ocially way, if know what I mean. So we depend on the document you will provide to Brasvet as your distributor for the Ministry, and/or to Dr. Pesto as your responsible to obtain those information in a legal way.
It occurs to me that HOLLVET in Brazil could help us to get it. Should you nominate somebody I can talk to at HOLLVET, if you consider this interesting?
I am looking forward to hearing from you and Franz in order to settle my trip schedule. Very truly yours. BRASHOLL11
5.1. Generic structure of business letters of negotiation The analysis of the corpus made it possible to describe this genre by the pattern shown in Fig. 1. Four obligatory moves were identied: M.1: M.2: M.3: M.4: Establishing the negotiation chain Providing information/answers Requesting information/action/favours Ending
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These four main moves dene and structure the features of Business Letters of Negotiation. Moves 1 and 4 work as a frame for the two other moves which alone are responsible for the content of the message. The negotiation takes place in the
Fig. 1. Business letters of negotiation.
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central moves 2 and 3 as they work as a stage where participants act and interact between each other. This is shown in Fig. 1. M.1: Establishing the negotiation chain occupying the header position on a letter this is the move which introduces and sets the scene and the communication chain, i.e. it provides the reference information that links a previous letter to the next one. This rhetorical function also gives information about participants, origin, and date, i.e. this move sets the scene of the communicative event. It also fullls the greeting act of saying `hello' to the addressee. It can be divided into steps as shown below. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Dening participants Attention to - line Attention to the message - line Reference - line Addressing and greeting the addressee
Step (iv) reference - line needs further attention as it provides this genre with a dialogue-like feature (Ghadessy, 1993). This line appears in all letters, except for the rst letter, and helps the participants to keep track of the negotiation chain. Moreover, it shows the reader that this communicative event has a sequence in terms of message exchange. Following Ghadessy's (1993) ndings, each letter is a turn, and each turn is linked to the previous one and to the next one through the reference - line. Consequently, the exchange of these letters follows a chain of requesting and giving either information or actions and services as if it were a dialogue in oral interaction. The only exception is that the time that elapses is much longer because it is a reading interaction which uses a fax machine as its method of delivery (Eggins, 1994, pp. 5357). The examples, [008] and [009], from two dierent companies shown below indicate the most common order followed in the corpus. As can be seen, the top elements come mainly as printed sections with a blank to be lled out.
[008] M.1 (i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (ii) TELEFAX MESSAGE NAME OF CO COUNTRY FAX NR. DATE ATTENTION Boxmeer, The Netherlands : BRASVET NORDESTE : Brasil :09-55-11-229-9782 :24.05.1991 :Mr. Pedro Quintana HOLLVET DUTCHVET INTERNATIONAL B.V. MESSAGE NR.:59 TOTAL PAGES: 1 FAXNUMBER: 31-8855-77333 PHONENUMBER: 31-8855-87600
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(iii) (iv) (v)
URGENT Ref: Visit Brasil Trust your visit to our headquarters was interesting for you. HOLLVET07
or [009]
M.1 (i) (i) BRASVET S.A. TELEFAX NUMBER (011)2299782 MENSAGEM FAX SIMILE-TELEFAX MESSAGE-TELESCOPIE FAX N: 56/91 DE/FROM/DE: DR. PETRO QUINTANA MENSAGEM SIMPLES SINGLE MESSAGE SIMPLE MESSAGE (iv) RE: VISIT BRAZIL BRASHOLL04 DATA/DATE: 91/01/14 PARA/TO/POUR: MR. FRANZ VAN BOOCK/JOSEPH BOHN DOCUMENTOS QUANTIDADEPAGINAS ADICIONAIS ADDITIONAL QUANTITY PAGES DOCUMENTS DOCUMENTE QUANTITEPAGE ADDITIONNEL
(i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i)
F.4: Ending this last move characterizes the end of the letter. Here, the participants sign o and give individual professional data, such as full name and rank status in the company, to the addressee. It can be divided into the following steps: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Signing o Signature - line Job status in the company Company credentials Note and PS - line Copy to - line File data
The sequence presented above is the most frequent in the corpus, but not all steps always appear. Steps (i), (ii) are the most frequent, the others may occur according to the communicative motivation, as can be seen in the examples below:
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[010] M.4
(i) (i) (i) (ii) (iii)
I look forward to your co-operation and welcome any ideas or comments. Yours sincerely Erik Henau Export Regional Manager BRITVET01
and [011] M.4 (i) (i) (i) (ii) (v) Thank you in advance for your cooperation and wishing you a nice weekend! Regards, Isabelle Davies P.S. Please note that you will only have to take care of reservations for the ights (not tickets), as Mr. van Boock and Mr. Bohn both have an open ticket. HOLLVET10
Example [011] shows a PS - line which is relevant in the corpus because it can either function as last-minute information or it can be used to convey relevant information that deserves special attention, and is, for this reason, highlighted. Both M.2: Providing information/answers and M.3: Requesting information/action/ favours contain the real content of the message which is exchanged between the participants, i.e. they account for the communicative purpose which generates the genre. Both moves are equally important in this genre as a whole, as examples from [001] to [007] show. However, in this corpus, when they occur in the same letter (see hybrid letters, examples [005], [006] and [007]), providing information comes rst. This sequence of rst providing information and second requesting information/ action/favours follows the traditional attitude of: rst, solve problems and/or talk about things that are shared by everybody; second, introduce what is new or desired. I shall discuss each of these separately: M.2: Providing information/answers this, as the name suggests, provides answers and information which may either be new or shared by both counterparts. It can be divided into optional steps and sub-steps as shown below. Examples [001] and [002] provide an overview of the organization of this move according to steps and sub-steps. (i) Information: (a) Introducing and providing information (b) Continuing/adding (c) Up-dating (d) Agreeing
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(e) Showing opposition (unexpected results) (ii) Advising about message: (a) by mail (b) along with the fax (c) within the fax Direct discourse and rst person signals (including I, we), and/or names of employees all predominate in this rhetorical function. This choice of personal pronoun or name emphasises that it is the person providing the information rather than the company or the department, as can be seen in the examples below (refer to Appendix A for futher examples). [012]. . .I cannot denitely make it. (BRASHOLL39) [013]I will send you copies as soon as they are ready. (BRITVET14) [014]I will tell you that we are well advanced on our plans for. . . (BRITVET11) [015]We are still working on the information as requested by Mr. Norberto Fonseca Donner in his fax dated September 22nd. (HOLLVET36) [016]We also have available for some products presentations. . . (HOLLVET29) [017]Dr. Oswaldo Ferreira and Dr. Norberto Donner are coming along for the visit and will be honoured to meet your people overthere. (BRASHOLL10) [018]Dra. Angelica F. Ferreira will be with us as well. (BRASHOLL09) [019]. . .Paula and Evita Dominguez agree on the subject of Evita's talks (BRITVET13) There are also examples in which the message itself is the actor represented mainly by the dening pronoun this, or by words related to content or ideas, but all these element choices occur in a small number. The examples below illustrate these features.5 [020]This is a little note to let you know that we are to. . . (BRASHOLL12) [021]The courses will give the participants a basic introduction. . . (BRITVET07) [022]A separate analysis will follow. (HOLLVET13) M.3: Requesting information/action/favours as move 2, this move can also be divided into optional steps and sub-steps. Note that the categories of these steps are related to the nature of the request: either information verbal action, or action/ favour attitudinal/performing action (Halliday, 1994, pp. 6869). (i) Information (a) Explaining/clarifying (b) Giving opinion/comments/guidance/suggestions (c) Conrming information
5 Note that some examples can be justied in the light of the letter as a whole. These selected concordances illustrate the variety of dierent possibilities that realize each rhetorical function in the genre. Due to obvious limitations, we have restricted our selection as much as possible.
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(d) Acknowledging receipt of a message (ii) Exchange of ideas/discussions (iii) Actions/favours of (b) Material/document mailing (c) Service/action/attitude/help Requesting can be carried out through interrogatives, imperatives or declaratives. Depending on the nature of the request, interrogatives and declaratives may come directly or mitigated by could or would, or by the expression would like. These choices are usually followed by please which strengthens the aspect of politeness and adds to the exchange an atmosphere of extreme formalism and respect and facesaving as in Charles (1996). Another possibility for minimizing the impact of a request is the use of adverbs such as gently and kindly. I give below a few examples of these uses (refer to Appendix 2 for a more delailed exemplication). [023]How many companies will be represented? (BRITVET11) [024]Do you think it would be possible to be there on April 18th, 19th for visiting Dutchvet? (BRASHOLL03) [025]3)Do you have a detailed timetable of deadline for events leading to the congress? (BRITVET11) [026]Would you please inform the price and payment conditions for the antigen above mentioned? (HOLLVET32) [027]Could you please send us the information as requested in a.m. fax. (HOLLVET41) [028]We would like to know if this date is convenient to Exeid's sta. Please let me know as soon as possible. (BRASBRIT04) [029]Since you are not in the consultorio market and fear that some laboratories may blacklist you if you get found out I would like a conrmation. (BRITVET17) [030]We gently ask you to follow strictly our shipping instructions. (BRASBRIT02) [031]We kindly ask you to contact this company for more information on our products. (HOLLVET20) Imperatives, on the other hand, are always preceeded by please, which reduces the impact of command of the chosen mode as the examples below show. [032]Please let us know your ight schedule in order to arrange transport. (HOLLVET06) [033]Please conrm reservation of ights and hotel as requested. . .(HOLLVET08) [034]OBS.: PLEASE CONFIRM THE RECEIPT OF THIS FAX. (BRITVET05) [035]Please check whether price levels are still correct. (HOLLVET26) Another possibility is the use of need. In this case, the strength of the request is high, and implies that the addressee has no other way than to provide what is needed.
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If-clauses are also a possibility (example [040]). They can substitute for direct interrogatives and the impact they have on the reader is the possibility they open to decide upon answering the question or not, or even commenting on some matter.6 [036]I will need the nett FOB price you need to compete. (BRITVET09) [037]For 1994 I will need a commitment to at least 100,00 tests and I will trya and obtain price below 20 USD. (BRITVET17) [038]We will need a document of Hollvet do Brazil giving authorization to Brasvet to ask an original certicate of product registration. Dr Maria Eugenia is working on that with Mr Maestrino. (BRASHOLL19) [039]We need urgently our inscription ticket to show in american embassy. Please send us by fax a.s.a.p. (BRASHOLL38) [040]If you have any comment on this schedule, please, just let us know. (BRASHOLL09) As the examples presented above show, requests, in this corpus, can be made through interrogatives (yes/no, wh-, or modulated would), or through imperative always accompanied by the modal adjunct of entreaty, `please'. The addressee is always the person aimed at, and it can be done either overtly, through interrogatives, or covertly, through imperatives. This corpus was also found to present steps which are common to both moves 2 and 3, i.e. they can come together with either one of the two main moves. They are: (iv) Apologizing (v) Oering something in return/incentives (vi) Evaluating a. giving personal opinion b. making comments7 c. indicating: i-availability ii-wishes/plans/intentions/engagement (vii) Drawing attention to something (viii) Applying pressure tactics (in dierent degrees) These steps are the rhetorical functions in which negotiation strategies are brought into play. They are where the participants give opinions, make comments, and show exibility within the process of dealing. By doing so, writers lay themselves open and
It is worth mentioning that two types of requesting information have been identied in the corpus: one in which information can be provided in a fax, and another in which the request for information requires the action of sending some material. The rst type has been classied under step (i) request for information whereas the other one belongs to step (iii) request for actions/favours. 7 Note that the main dierence between sub-function making comments and the previous one, giving personal opinion, is that in the former function the focus is the writer, as an individual, and is expressed by markers such as the pronoun I, whereas in making comments one can nd the pronouns we and you which give the idea that the message and/or opinion is shared by the group.
6
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show the reader the human being behind the pen. These features can be identied by the use of certain lexical options which carry the meaning of personal impact or emotional feelings such as regret, believe, feel, trust and hope all processes of mental nature. The examples below briey illustrate this option (Appendix 3 lists further examples on common steps). Example [041] refers to sub-step (iv) Apologising; numbers [042] and [043] to (vi-a.) Evaluating-giving personal opinion; number [044] illustrates (vi-b.) Evaluating-making comments, and [045] (vi-c.ii) Evaluatingindicating.wishes/plans/intentions/engagement [041]We regret the impossibility of our visit. . . (BRASHOLL07) [042]I believe it is not sensible to prepare a professional, focused meeting for a large number of delegates in a few days. My own experience is that a considerable amount of work and time are required. (BRITVET11) [043]I feel awful for that since. . . (BRASHOLL39) [044]we trust that with the a.m. prices you can prepare a new calculation. (HOLLVET16) [045]I hope to have time to reach you before you're going there. (BRASHOLL15) Showing exibility or availability seems to be an important strategy for this genre (sub-step vi-c.i). It occurs in most of the letters and provides the addressee with the possibility of questioning any previous statement or request. It is usually realised through the hypothetical expressions of if-clauses or in case of. These choices contribute to an atmosphere of constant movement and dynamic exchange, working out as a tactic that keeps the exchange going on (Lampi, 1993).8 [046]In case you need to postpone or to antecipate your trip, please, just let us know in advance for preparing another schedule. (BRASHOLL04) [047]If you happen to have other sugestion or request, please just let us know about it. (BRASHOLL05) [048]If you have any questions please let me know. (BRITVET13) [049]If you have any doubt, please don't hesitate to contact me or Mr. Quintana. (BRASHOLL38) [050]If I can be of any help for other information, please let me know. (BRASHOLL36) [051]If necessary and probably in a later stage we of course are willing to work with a system of semi-nished products (bulk etc.). (HOLLVET12) [052]If these data are convenient for you, please make a hotel reservation in Hotel transamerican (or other hotel close to your oce) for one night (19.12.1991). (HOLLVET17)
It is worth noting that Neu (1986) and Lampi (1993) investigated oral production in negotiation settings and identied rhetorical patterns (such as Bargain, in Neu, and Tactical Deference, in Lampi) which share similarities with this study of written corpus, for instance, (vi) Evaluating, and especially (c-i) Indicating availability.
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Linguistic choices in terms of structure and lexical choice follow the same pattern as in moves 2 and 3: the most common forms chosen for the content in these common steps are direct discourse which includes declarative and interrogative sentences, hypothetical (if-clauses and in case) forms, and imperative mode to introduce propositions. Since they present more personal expressions, these steps sometimes overlap with another step from move 2 or 3. This occurs mainly because a speaker can express more than one meaning or function at the same time (Halliday, 1994, pp. 2930). By studying the three examples below, one can notice that in example [053], the writer is asking about a possibility as well as giving a suggestion. Yet in example [054], besides calling attention to the message the writer is also indirectly requesting a meeting. Finally, the use of the emphatic do together with the modal need create an atmosphere of pressure in example [055]. [053]If not possible suggest to have meeting on 18.04.1991. (HOLLVET06) [054]Please note that we are very interested to meet you in the mentioned date. (BRASHOLL01). [055]I do need the draft of your letter of intent before our departure, so we can appreciate it in depth before any eventual suggestion for that. (BRASHOLL10) If it were not for these common steps shared by both moves 2 and 3 the corpus researched would be the genre of information exchange only (see Santos, 1994b). However, the implications of the sub-steps outlined above, allow us to classify this corpus as an example of the negotiation genre. 6. Discussion of results The analysis developed here suggested patterns of rhetorical elements which can be classied as the genre of Business Letters of Negotiation. As the Communicative Purpose is the ``primary determinant'' (Swales, 1990, pp. 910) for content and style, there is a high probability that this genre is shared by other Discourse Communities from dierent elds. Moves 1 and 4 fulll the social ritual of greeting and work as a kind of frame for the central functions. They both display information about origin, destiny and participants, as well as dene the subject which motivated the exchange of mail. The Reference- line, identied in the corpus, besides providing `given' or shared information, also acts as a link between the previous letter and the current one, providing a chain-like interaction in which each letter can be interpreted as a turn (Ghadessy, 1993). Moves 2 and 3, on the other hand, provide `new' information and the `real' content of the interaction. Working out as a settting, they display the shared need or the purpose which generated the communication: the exchange of information and the request for favours and services. It is also in these central rhetorical functions that
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the participants express their ideas, give opinions, express power over the others, and nd space to negotiate dynamically, as well as successfully, the primary communicative purpose: the signing of a contract of representation. Sequencing of moves is highly regular and follows the numerical order displayed in the framework. When moves 2 and 3 occur together in the same message, providing information comes before the act of requesting. This pattern conforms with the idea of shared knowledge anticipating new information. It also conforms with the social attitude of talking about something speakers share beforehand, as if to prepare the ground to introduce what is new. Another interesting issue brought about in the results is the fact that some choices can perform more than one rhetorical function such as the example [056]Please note that in order to be succesful with nished product. . . (HOLLVET49) in which the writer both draws attention to the message and applies pressure so that some action gets done. Another instance is example [057], [057]I suggest we instigate tributors. . .(BRITVET09) some competitiveness among these dis-
in which the writer puts a pressure on an action by means of a suggestion; or even examples [058] and [059]: [058]I would like to ask for your help. We need the reservation at Marriot Hotel,. . .(BRASHOLL10) [059]We kindly ask you to contact this company for more information on our products. (HOLLVET20) where a choice for either a degree of formality or a modal adjunct of entreaty (Halliday, 1994:49) is used as a means of respect and solidarity. These features show how people make use of language to mean dierent things, i.e. the multifunctionality of linguistic items (Halliday, pp. 2930). The detailed observation of certain lexical choices which characterize the moves, steps and sub-steps in the corpus also revealed interesting topics for discussion. The choice of participants, for instance, in which, depending on the intention of the sender, denes a larger or shorter distance. The use of informal and engaged rst person singular, I, as opposed to rst person plural, we, third parties, he/she/proper names, or reference to the message itself, it/this, are possibilities of this kind. The option for rst person singular provides a more personalised prefessional attitude, i.e. the writer is focusing on him/herself and shifting the responsibility of the message from the company, which can be expressed by its name or the corporative we, to him/her as an individual. Another issue is the use of formal expressions such as modals, adjuncts of entreaty and hypothetical expressions. These lexical choices help to create an atmosphere of
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cordiality and respect in contrast with overt power despite the dierences in terms of language status, business interests and market knowledge which emerge between the three companies. The unexpected choice of indirect questions with hypothetical expressions, interrogatives to request services, and minimized imperatives to request either services or information as opposed to what Halliday (1994, p. 89) claims as typical also contributes to this atmosphere of mutual solidarity. As pointed out by Charles (1996), linguistic choices can be shaped by the market situation, and status-role rank, in the sense that polite elements and informal pronouns are used for face-saving, power disguising and proximity tactics. In other words, linguistic elements are being used to create an atmosphere of friendship and respect so as to guarantee the maintenance of an amicable atomosphere, the commitment between particpants, the progress of the business interaction, and to reach the primary motivation for the communicative interaction: to settle a representation agreement between companies. 7. Final considerations and teaching implications This article aims to make a small contribution to the research into Business English aimed at teaching approaches and materials production (St. John, 1996). The framework presented shows how the surveyed discourse community consisting of business professionals from the pharmaceutical-veterinary market convey their communicative meanings and purpose eectively through the obligatory rhetorical functions described. The fact of being restricted to one type of community may give us the idea that these results are too specic. However, due to the general communicative purpose which generates the exchange of messages, i.e. to have products represented by another company, one can suppose that there is a good chance that other elds of work also share the same linguistic features described here. This genre-based analysis oers to linguistic researchers as well as to EFL/ESPteachers insights which can be applied and taught to students. Foreign language teaching can greatly benet from it, mainly because it is an authentic sample of language in use. However, one important point has to be made in order to avoid an over-use or misuse of it: genre approach is a useful tool if one is looking for a holistic teaching methodology but it has to be understood as a claricatory description rather than prescription (Swales, 1990, p. 45; Bhatia, 1993a, p. 182), i.e. ``pattern seeking'' rather than ``pattern imposing'' (Bhatia, p. 40) for language use is dynamic and not xed. Of course, one cannot ensure success in foreign language communication simply by teaching contextualized linguistic, and cultural and social dierences, yet by making students aware of the implications and the purpose of such dierences one can, at least, contribute to a student's pragmatic progress in his/her professional activity and, hopefully in the long-term, avoid miscommunication. From the contrastive point of view, a further description of this genre, focusing on each individual cultural pattern, could provide information about what is
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idiosyncratic or ethnic-related, and what is `ùniversal'' or conventional to the genre. Further, a cross-cultural description can provide insights about which features are related to participant hiererchical position and which are culturally motivated. In other words, students can become aware of the vast range of lexico-grammatical choices in English and their relation to the communicative purposes in dierent contexts of use. Finally, this study presents only one aspect of the whole business world. It analyses one specic genre of written production from a specic discourse community and, as Nickerson (1998, p. 292) points out, it is not sucient. It does not, for example, analyse the inuence of the corporate culture and national cultures in the choices of linguistic items, or the inuence of the new communication media to achieve the same rhetorical functions, or the participation of the oral mode in the writing process within institutional contexts, or even how other professional communities accomplish the moves described in this investigation, to list a few. As writing is a social activity, a thick description taking account of the sociolinguistic frameworks of business communiction can provide useful evidence for EFL and ESP researchers and teachers (Harrison, 1987; St. John, 1996; Charles, 1996; Gunnarson, 1997; Nickerson, 1998; Louhaila-Salminen, 2002). As Harrison, St. John, Charles, Gunnarson, Nickerson and Louhiala-Salminen claim, these approaches can, for example, provide explanations of which linguistic choices characterise new and old relationships, how corporate culture inuences and restricts both oral and written production, how communication networks are made up, and how English, as lingua franca, is used within company borders. They can help language professionals not only to describe the context of use, but also to explain linguistic choices. Summing up, genre analysis seems to provide students with precious data from languge in use to what concerns teaching implications. However, from a deeper discourse perspective, the denition of the Communicative Purpose, together with the description of the Communicative Discourse and language choices does not seem to generate enough evidence about the relationship between context and language choices (see Louhiala-Salminen, 1996, p. 48, for example). Holistic approaches such as those suggested by St. John (1996), Gunnarson (1997), Firth, (1991), and Louhiala-Salminen (2002) seem to provide teachers, and consequently students, with more comprehensive data about context eects on language communcative processes within genres. Acknowledgements I want to thank Professor Leila Barbara of the Applied Linguistic Department at PUC/SP and Maggie Jo St. John for their helpful comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. I also want to thank the two reviewers and Tony DudleyEvans whose comments and suggestions were extremely valuable in improving this article.
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Appendix A. M.2: providing information/answers A1. Information: A1.1. Introducing and providing informat/stion [001]I will inform the following: The whole Brazilian market for you. . .(BRASHOLL36) [002]We can inform you as follows: (HOLLVET51) [003]We are planning to realize the subdistributors meeting in August,. . .(BRASBRIT04) [004]For your info. we will be lodged at the Pan Americano Hotel in Sao Paulo. (HOLLVET04) [005]This is to let you know we are pleased to be at the airport for Mr. Franz van Boock's arrival on the 19th December, 10:45 hrs.(BRASHOLL14) [006]Some of our clients are very interested in your INTERGON. (HOLLVET21) A1.2. Continuing/adding [007]I consider also a very good idea to get together to your people. . . (BRASHOLL30) [008]In addition, I can oer you that for registration only. . . (HOLLVET34) [009]Furthermore would like to introduce during coming visit the new export manager for latin America: Mr. Marcelus Toverelli. (HOLLVET43) [010]There are another points to comment with you. (BRASHOLL38) A1.3. Up-dating [011]At the moment we are preparing as action plan which we want to discuss. . . (HOLLVET12) [012]My Diagnostic people are preparing studies for that purpose. (BRASHOLL15) [013]Topics are being discussed with Brasvet. (BRITVET13) A1.4. Agreeing [014]We agree that it would be a good idea to get together,. . .(HOLLVET50) [015]. . ., I am conrming the following timetable. . .(. . .) Reservation for two singles have been made at. . . (BRASHOLL08) [016]From your comments I understand this is no problem. (BRITVET08) A1.5. Showing opposition (unexpected results) [017]. . .there's no possibility in consolidating. . . (BRASHOLL22) [018]. . .and therefore we can not yet conrm the date you propose for visiting us. (HOLLVET14)
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[019]Unfortunately, he will come back to Brazil earlier than he had imagined. (BRASBRIT06) A2. Advising about message: A2.1. By mail [020]On the basis of this we will start sending you samples. . .(BRITVET06) [021]According to your request, I am sending you our studies on the composition. . . (BRASHOLL28) A2.2. Along with the fax [022]Attached we're sending again the two contracts. . . (BRASHOLL29) [023]Copy attached. You will receive original after we have. . . (HOLLVET22) [024]Please nd enclosed my travel schedule. (HOLLVET22) [025]Enclosed: copy I/L 18-93/8569-0- that includes 2AC (BRASBRIT01A1) A2.3. Within the fax [026]. . .by Brasvet and Dutchvet we herewith give you some new indicative prices for. . . (HOLLVET29) [027]It follows hereunder our freight forwarder which will handle shipping of. . . (BRASBRIT02) [028]A) Follow below our planning concerning US$ 32,000 aproved. . .(BRASBRIT05) [029] Please nd below the information as you requested. (BRASHOLL31) Appendix B. M.3: requesting information/action/favours B1. Information B.1. Explaining/clarifying [030]I would like to get some additional information on Eurotier in Hannover. (BRASHOLL30) [031]We would like you to specify breeder farms over the country and try to get information about them. (HOLLVET53) [032]We would like to ask you the total shipment of your proforma above and of our fax 268/93 - 09/02/93. (BRASBRTI02) [033] We also need to know if...and how the sum transference will be done from
A1
Note that this example was found displaced to the function four in the corpus, i.e. to the end of the letter.
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BRITVET to BRASVET. (BRASBRIT04) [034]* What are the customer service requirements, what do competitors oer and how can we improve our service? (BRITVET09) [035]HOW DO WE CREATE A SUB-DISTRIBUTOR NETWORK TO EXCHANGE INFORMATION AND EXPERIENCE? (BRASBRIT05) [036]Please keep us informed. (HOLLVET30) [037]Please give us name and address of your hotel.(HOLLVET15) [038]Please supply us with more detailed information on following products competition:. . . (HOLLVET49) [039]Please let us know soon as the new sales manager starts.(BRITVET03) B1.2. Giving opinion/comments/guidance/suggestions [040]Do you like the idea? (BRITVET09) [041]I look forward to your co-operation and welcome any ideas or comments. (BRITVET01) [042]Please advise whether these dates are convenient. (BRITVET02) [043]Please indicate how to ship. (HOLLVET49) [044]I am working on as action plan and at this stage I need any suggestion you have together with a cost estimated (and a benet analysis). (BRITVET09) B1.3. Conrming information [045]Did you receive my fax with suggestions for co-operation in 1993? (BRITVET10) [046]Could you please conrm in which days would be more suitable for you? (BRASHOLL07) [047]I would like to conrm my name to attend the poultry congress which will be held in Santo Domingo. [048]We would like to conrm some important items as discussed in Brasil. . .(HOLLVET13) [049]Would like to ask you whether you could be in hotel Transamericano, Tuesday 11th June at 9.00 hrs. to meet Mr. van Boock and Mr. Bohn. (HOLLVET08) [050]I need you conrmation that you will price on the basis of 20 USD. . . (BRITVET17) [051]Conrm once again willingness Dutchvet to work with. . . (HOLLVET28) [052]*Please conrm overall payment terms will not be aected. (BRITVET08) [053]In case of interest please conrm and give us your full address. (HOLLVET01) B1.4. Acknowledging receipt of a message [054] Documents will be sent through DHL today. Please conrm receipt. (HOLLVET35) [055]Last Friday a letter was sent throught DHL addressed to your oce in Sao Paulo. Please acknowledge receipt. (HOLLVET06)
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B2. Exchange of ideas/discussions [056]. . .and would like to meet you to discuss possible cooperation. (HOLLVET01) [057] We would like to review business to date and your plans for the future. (BRITVET05) [058]We would like you to get together by your next visit to Brazil to discuss over the following subjects:. . . (BRASHOLL17) [059]At the moment we are preparing an action plan which we want to discuss with you during the World Vet Congress in Rio. (HOLLVET12) [060]. . .please let's cost out some proposals soo that I can obtain a budget. (BRITVET10) B3. Actions/favours of B3.1. Material/document mailing [061]Could you please send us the English version of Dutchvet's Brasvet's Distribution Contract (concept). (HOLLVET48) [062]I understand you were to send us some suggestions for sanitary programs in poultry farms, including the number of vaccinations for our appreciation and feed-back. (BRASHOLL32) [063]Please send the selling price of a vial of disos v. the selling price of a cartridge. (BRITVET06) [064]Please send a copy to Dr. Egger about specic subject. . . (BRASHOLL38) [065]As we are preparing plans and budgets for next year I would like you to send your marketing initiatives for 1994 in order to incorporate them in our budgets. (BRITVET16) [066]Please forward information to interested parties. (HOLLVET49) [067]I would like to request you the following priority:. . .(BRASHOLL38) [068]We would like to request the inclusion of Brasvet to receive all technical informations (as Updates, newsletters, etc) produced by your Documentation service. it will be very important for our work here. (BRASHOLL37) [069]I look forward to the FOB prices required for TPB direct import. (BRITVET06) [070]I have not seen one and would like you to give me the detailed agenda that you propose for the two day meeting. (BRITVET11) [071]Finally we would like to receive your information on ight details. (HOLLVET51) [072]I need an update on (initially) the top 50 products in Brazil with prices sharged by at least the top 2 main competitors for each product. (BRITVET09) [073]I do need the draft of your letter of intent before our departure, so we can appreciate it in depth before any eventual suggestion for that. (BRASHOLL10) [074] Mrs. Maria Eugenia (Bela Vista) needs urgently of a ocial document of the netherland Veterinary Dienst showing that Dr. V.F.M. Rijnierse is registered in this department. She must present it in the Agricultural ministry.(BRASHOLL38)
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B3.2. Service/action/attitude/help [075]Please prepare update of pending registrations. (HOLLVET53) [076]Please verify whether prices remained unchanged and try to nd out missing prices for. . . (HOLLVET26) [077]Please try to collect updated price info competition. (HOLLVET05) [078]Please contact him by telephone in order to speed up things (Tel. nr. 0118130066). (HOLLVET22) [079]On Friday night will y from Sao Paulo to Rio, so please book Sheraton Rio for Friday and Saturday night. (HOLLVET27) [080]Please organize your own transport to the Hotel metro y marina upon arrival at the airport. (HOLLVET54) [081]Please identify all companies who buy bulk L products so that we can devise a targetted strategy. (BRITVET01) [082]Please ask Maria Paula to communicate with her on the subject of her presentation. (BRITVET12) [083]Could you please urgently contact a.m. rm, as we were informed that they are in urgent need of large quantities of . . . (HOLLVET30) [084]Could you try to contact him and forward the message as enclosed (2 faxes). (HOLLVET34) [085]Could you take care of the tickets Sao Paulo- Bela Vista (Belo Horizonte?) and Bela Vista Rio? Also a hotel reservation for Wednesday would be appreciated. (HOLLVET07) [086]I would appreciate it if you could do a market study. (BRITVET04) [087]So I would like you to make me hotel reservation in Amsterdam during the 20th to 26th September. (BRASHOLL24) [088]. . ., we advise you to contact our distributor in Brazil: (HOLLVET46) [089]I suggest we instigate some competitiveness among these distributors. . . (BRITVET09) [090]I suggest 2 people attend per distributor: the owne (BRITVET09)
Appendix C. Steps common to both moves 2 and 3: negotiating C1. Apologizing [091]I do apologize for the delay in receiving such documents, since that was our fault. (BRASHOLL13) [092]Sorry for not responding earlier; just back from another mission. (HOLLVET15) C2. Oering something in return/incentives [093]We regret the impossibillity of our visit on 1819, but fortunately we are able to make it so on the week April 29th to May 3rd. (BRASHOLL07)
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[094]These increases are not yet nalised, but I will send you and advance copy as soon as possible. (BRITVET06) [095]. . .On basis of this I will try and obtain agreement within one week. (BRITVET008) [096]. . .there's no possibility. . .In that way, he suggested two contracts:. . .(BRASHOLL22) [097]1) We only have an approved budget for US$ 32,000. The only possibility is that towards the end of the year I can use some spare money from our international exhibition budget. (BRITVET14) [098]I will tell you that we are well advanced in our plans for a BRITVET meeting which you will be invited to attend in February 1994. (BRITVET11) [099]5) I have started to work on my presentations. I will send you copies as soon as they are ready. (BRITVET14) C3. Evaluating C3.1. Giving personal opinion [100]I understand that we could spend a lot more money and see good results from them. (BRITVET15) [101]I am sure we will contemplate the diagnostic line as much as we can aord for 1994. (BRASBRIT07) [102]I guess that some of those we met won't be there next year but on the whole we have a good group of people. (BRITVET17) [103]I did appreciate to learn that we are to work much closer this year. I am sure we both will achieve better results from that. I consider your plans very stimulating and feasible. (BRASBRIT03) [104]I am very happy that you are willing to help us out of this problem. (HOLLVET34) [105]I consider also a very good idea to get together to your people overthere. (BRASHOLL30) [106]With pleasure will travel with you to Bela Vista in order to visit your plant. (HOLLVET03) [107]It occurs to me that HOLLVET in Brazil could help us. . . (BRASHOLL11) C3.2. Making comments [108]We consider Brasvet as an interesting partner for our future operations in Brasil. (HOLLVET12) [109]. . ., we think that most of our points of discussion are mentioned in the market survey prepared by you. (HOLLVET04) [110]As discussed by telephone we think that it is a good idea to get together soon with the people. . .(HOLLVET53) [111]As promised here are some of my comments. . .(BRITVET17) [112]As agreed there will be no salary invol. . .(HOLLVET22)
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[113]As we discussed earlier, the visit of Dr. Egger will be very important in our strategy. (BRASHOLL38) [114]As I told you, I am just starting my job here and we will need you to much. (BRASHOLL37) [115]As you know in Brazil we pratice dieren. . .(BRASHOLL09) [116]As you can see, there are three scenarios. . .(BRASHOLL28) [117]As you will understand prefer to spend weekend in Rio de Janeiro. (HOLLVET28) [118]As you could realize we have surpassed the amount. . .(BRITVET05) [119]As far as the letter of intent is concern. . .(HOLLVET15) [120]We are pleased to know you are coming to visit our plant in Bela Vista. (BRASHOLL05) [121]We will be happy to meet you in Boxmeer. (HOLLVET14) [122]It is clear that we should try to. . .(HOLLVET16) [123]It has been a pleasure over the recent months to see how well your sales have been developing. (BRITVET11) [124]It seems that it used to be a norm form CACEX sometime ago and it is no longer currently. (BRASHOLL06) [125]However, in our opinion the only way in which we can get a 100% clear picture of the. . .(HOLLVET16) [126]First we like to make some comments with regard to your marketing survey. (HOLLVET16) C3.3. Indicating: i-availability [127]In case of any problems with programme, please contact us. (HOLLVET44) [128]Any doubt about it, please let us know. Think it over with care and kindness. (BRAHOLL18) C3.3.1. Wishes/plans/intentions/engagement [129]3) I intend to visit Brazil during the week of 14 September. (BRITVET04) [130]We intend to visit Dutchvet on 28 and 29/october;(BRASHOLL10) [131]Mr Franz van Boock has the intention to visit Brasil. he will arrive in Sao Paulo at Thursday the 19th of December at 10.45 hrs. with ight nr. AR 222 and will leave at Friday athe 20th of December at 23.59 hrs. with ight nr. RG 764. (HOLLVET17) [132]With this product we expect to have good opportunities as through this management system. . .(HOLLVET16) [133]We are planning to spend two a three days in Boxmeer, if necessary, to visit you and Dutchvet and to discuss on the lates material you have sent us. (BRASHOLL07) [134]. . .I envisage a presentation pack with information on Britvet/Brasvet and a small gift for each attendant. (BRITVET09)
196
[135]As already explained, we want to follow a well structured approach based on preferably nished and already registered products. (HOLLVET12) C3.4. Drawing the attention to something [136]Note: We are working with a target of US$ 300,000 For 1993. (BRITVET08) [137]. . .Please note that you will only have to take care of reservations for the ights (not tickets), as mr. van Boock and mr. Bohn both have an open ticket. (HOLLVET10) [138]OBS.:This vaccine is not tested by the MA. (BRASHOLL37) [139]One of the main topics will be the feasibility study as carried out by you on basis of our indicative prices. (HOLLVET07) [140]It is important to complete the line of poultry and swine biologicals. (BRASHOLL37) [141]Very important to know more about the vaccination programme of Schimmidt Line products. Any leaets available?(HOLLVET16) [142]Of eminent importance is the vaccination programme as with our. . .(HOLLVET16) [143]We would like to emphasise that we made our best to achieve those results showed above. (BRITVET05) [144]Focusing the market segment of physician's oces for the HCG Niceview test, we can study. . .(BRASBRIT07) C3.5. Applying pressure tactics (in different degrees) [145]As you will understand. . .(HOLLVET28) [146]To help convince you,. . .(BRITVET11) [147]Mr Franz van Boock has the intention to visit Brasil. he will arrive in Sao Paulo at Thusrday the 19th of December at 10.45 hrs. with ight nr. AR 222 and will leave at Friday athe 20th of December at 23.59 hrs. with ight nr. RG 764. (HOLLVET17) [148]As soon as you have details of when you will be s (BRITVET17) [149]We ask you again to send us as soon as possible (before May 1st) the picture,(HOLLVET45) [150]Please send me as soon as possible details of the venue and the (BRITVET12) [151]Please let me know as soon as possible. We also need to know if the (BRASBRIT04) [152]Call you in the course of next week in order to discuss more details. (HOLLVET12) [153]It will be very important to do an institutional marketing of Dutchvet. We programm his visit to the biggest company, Salmia. (BRASHOLL38) [154]The follow up of this event will be very important and I hope you will manage to get a regular newsletter out. (BRITVET17) [155]Nevertheless, they prefer you to arrange a programme as follows: (HOLL-
197
VET10) [156]Decisions have to be taken about promotion budget and how to divide it over the following options:. . .(HOLLVET53) [157]From your side we expect also a realistic distributors margin. (HOLLVET28) [158]1) Have you and Michael discussed a programme? I have not seen one and would like you to give me the. . . 2) Do you have a proposed delegate list? How many companies will be represented? 3) Do you have a detailed timetable of deadline for events leading to the congress? It is now less than four weeks to the proposed date for this meeting and a signicant part of that time is taken up by the Easter break. (BRITVET11) [159]The diluent must be registered in the MA. (BRASHOLL37) [160]. . .we should concentrate on the higher market segments (breeders). (HOLLVET13) [161]. . .Perhaps we should talk on the telephone. (BRITVET11) [162]Could you please urgently contact a.m. rm, as we were informed that they are in urgent need of large quantities of . . .(HOLLVET30) [163]Please consider above as a guideline to the presentation of your ideas. . .(HOLLVET53) [164]I understand you were to send us some suggestions for sanitary programs in poultry farms, including the number of vaccinations for our appreciation and feed-back. (BRASHOLL32) [165]So we depend on the document you will provide to Brasvet as your distributor for the Ministry, and/or to Dr. pesto as your responsible to obtain those information in a legal way.BRASHOLL11 [166]The follow up of this event will be very important and I hope you will manage to get a regular newsletter out. (BRITVET17) [167]From your side we expect also a realistic distributors margin. (HOLLVET28) [168]We would like to request the inclusion of Brasvet to receive all technical informations (as Updates, newsletters, etc) produced by your Documentation service. it will be very important for our work here. (BRASHOLL37) [169]We do, however, need to ensure that the planning and preparation is such that not only BRITVET and BRASVET, but also our distributors and clients, get the most out of this investment. (BRITVET11) [170]I need you conrmation that you will price on the basis of 20 USD. . .(BRITVET17) [171]Please indicate soonest how we have to ship them to you. (HOLLVET25) References
Barbara, L., Celani, M. A. A., Collins, H., & Scott, M. (1996). A survey of communication needs in the Brazilian business context. Direct papers no. 15, University of Liverpool (UK: CEPRIL, PUC-SP, Brazil & ELU.
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Bhatia, V. K. (1992). The bilingual's orthodoxy in professional genres. World Englishes, 11(2/3), 225234. Bhatia, V. K. (1993a). Analysing genre: language use in professional settings. (Applied Linguistics and Language Study). London & New York: Longman. Bhatia, V. K. (1993b). Description to explanation in English for professional communication-application of genre analysis. In T. Boswood, R. Homan, & P. Tung, Perspectives on English for professional communication (pp. 133157). Hong Kong: City Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Celani, M. A. A., & Scott, M. (1997). Pinning down the meaning of business terms. Direct papers no. 36. University of Liverpool, UK: CEPRIL, PUC-SP, Brazil & ELU. Charles, M. (1996). Business negotiations: interdependence between discourse and the business relationship. English for Specic Purposes, 15, 1936. Collins, H., Barbara, L., Celani, M. A. A., Souza, E., & de Silva, M. C. P. (1997). Angulos de analise do discurso Empresarial. Direct papers no. 37, University of Liverpool, UK. CEPRIL, PUC-SP, Brazil & ELU. Eggins, S. (1994). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics. London: Pinter Publishers. Eustace, G. (1996). Business writing some aspects of current practice. English for Specic Purposes, 15, 5356. Firth, A. (1991). Discourse at work: negotiations by telex, FAX and 'phone. Department of Languages and Intercultural Studies, University of Aalborg. Garcez, P. M. (1993). Point-making styles in cross-cultural business negotiation: a microethnographic study. English for Specic Purposes, 12, 103120. Ghadessy, M. (1993). On the nature of written business communication. In M. Ghadessy, Register analysis theory and practice (pp. 149164). London: Pinter Publishers. Gunnarson, B.-L. (1997). The writing process from a sociolinguistic viewpoint. Written Communication, 14, 139188. Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). Edward Arnold. Harrison, T. M. (1987). Frameworks for the study of writing in organizational contexts. Written Communication, 4, 323. Jenkins, S., & Hinds, J. (1987). Business letter writing: English, French, and Japanese. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 327349. Lampi, M. (1993). Discourse organization and power: the pragmatics of sales negotiations. In T. Boswood, R. Homan, & P. Tung, Perspectives on English for professional communication (pp. 159168). Hong Kong: City Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Louhiala-Salminen, L. (1996). The business communication classrooms vs. reality: what should we teach today? English for Specic Purposes, 15, 3751. Louhiala-Salminen, L. (2002, English for Specic Purposes). The y's perspective: discourse in the daily routine of a business manager 21(3), in press. Maier, P. (1992). Politeness strategies in business letters by native and non-native English speakers. English for Specic Purposes, 11, 189205. Ma, K. C. B. (1993). Text analysis of direct sales letters. In T. Boswood, R. Homan, P. Tung, Perspectives on English for professional communication. (pp. 271288). City of Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Neu, J. (1986). American English business negotiations: training for non-native speakers. English for Specic Purposes, 5, 4157. Nickerson, C. (1998). Corporate culture and the use of written english within British subsidiaries in the Netherlands. English for Specic Purposes, 171, 281294. Paltridge, B. (1994). Genre analysis and the identication of textual boundaries. Applied Linguistics, 15, 287299. Santos, V. B. M. P. dos (1994a). Language awareness of non-native speakers in the business eld. Language Awareness, 3(3 and 4), 201208. Santos, V. B. M. P. dos (1994b). Analise de Genero em Cartas comerciais em Ingles via fax. the ESPe cialist, 15(1 and 2), 7390. Santos, V.B.M.P. dos (1996). Padroes Interpessoais no Genero de Cartas de Negociacao. Dissertacao de Mestrado em Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino de Lnguas. LAEL-PUC/SP Scott, M. (1994): WordSmith shell (test version). OUP.
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St. John, M. J. (1996). Business is booming: business English in the 1990s. English for Specic Purposes, 15, 318. Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: CUP (Reprinting. 1991). Swales, J. (1992). Re-thinking genre: another look at discourse community eect. Carleton University. Ottawa: (Mimeo). Swales, J. (1993). Genre and engagement. Revue Belge de Philogie et d'Histoire, 71, 687698. Thompson, S. (1994). Frameworks and contexts: a genre-based approach to analysing lecture introductions. English for Specic Purposes, 13, 171186. Valeria B.M. Pinto dos Stantos nished her Master Degree at PUC-SP on professional writing in English. She teaches ESP courses and General English to under-graduate and professional students. Her research interests include discourse analysis for professional and academic usage. She is now doing her doctorate at PUC-SP, which focuses on written discourse in the business eld on both languages: English and Portuguese.

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English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002) 167199 www.elsevier.

M1. (iv) REF.: DUTCHVET VISIT

M2 (i-a). M3 (iii-b) (vi-c-I) (viii) M4.(i) (ii) (iii)

(vi-c-i) M4 (i) (ii) (v)

(iii) M1. (v) M2. (a) (b) 2)

M3. (ii) (iii-b) (vi-c-ii) (viii) M4. (i)

Fig. 1. Business letters of negotiation.

(iii) (iv) (v)

(i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i) (i)

(i) (i) (i) (ii) (iii)

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