.

APOLLO SPACECRAFT CONTROL SYSTEMS

by Robert 0 , Chilton
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NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Houston, Texas, UIS,A.

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To be Presented at
The Symposium on Automatic Control in Peaceful Uses of Space
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Sponsored by the International Federation of Automatic Control

Stavanger, Norway June 21-24, 1965

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(CODE1

(CATEGORY)

APOLIX)

SPACECRAFT CONTROL S Y S " S

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by Robert G, Chilton Deputy Chief, Guidance and Control Division NASA Manned Spacecraft Center Houston, Texas
ABSTRACT

The o v e r a l l Apollo spacecraft configuration includes two separate manned spacecraft. They are the command module designed f o r e a r t h launch and reentry and cislunar f l i g h t including lunar o r b i t , and the lunar excursion module designed f o r t h e excursion from lunar o r b i t t o t h e moon's surface and return. Each spacecraft has i t s own independent guidance and control system. This paper describes t h e Apollo spacecraft control systems including engine control and rocket engine configurations f o r a t t i t u d e control. The Apollo guidance systems are not discussed.

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The purpose of t h i s paper i s t o describe t h e automatic control systems employed f o r maintaining a t t i t u d e control over the Apollo spacecraft. The Apollo spacecraft i s a modular design and i s def i n e d as t h a t part of t h e Apollo space vehicle which s i t s atop t h e Saturn launch vehicle and which is separated from t h e launch vehicle a f t e r injection i n t o a translunar t r a j e c t o r y , i n the case of a lunar mission, o r i n t o an e a r t h o r b i t , i n the case of an e a r t h - o r b i t a l mis; sion, The Apollo space vehicle i s defined as the t o t a l configurationa t launch, Fig. 1 i l l u s t r a t e s the Apollo space vehicle, except f o r most of the Saturn launch vehicle which has been deleted t o show more d e t a i l of t h e spacecraft, The launch escape assembly houses a system of solid-fuel rockets which is employed t o separate the command module from the rest of the space vehicle i f it i s necessary t o abort the mission during t h e , a t mospheric phase of t h e launch trajectory. The abort maneuver i s pass i v e l y s t a b i l i z e d , and no control system i s employed, I n normal m i s sions, t h e launch escape assembly i s jettisoned after t h e space veh i c l e ha6 l e f t the atmosphere.
The command module houses the three-man crew during t h e e n t i r e misaion, except f o r t h e excursion t r i p from lunar o r b i t t o t h e moonls s u r f a c e and return which i e accompliehed with t h e lunar excursion

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module. The command module, which a l s o provides protection t o t h e crew against reentry heating and acceleration, has a system of merg o l i c rocket engines f o r three-axis control during t h e f i n a l e a r t h entry phase of t h e mission. It a l s o houses the command-service module guidance and control system which includes the sensing devices, electronics, displays, and controls which c o n s t i t u t e the automatic and m a n d l control systems f o r t h e spacecraft.

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The kervice module houses t h e service propulsion system and t h e major support elements f o r providing environmental control and elect r i c a l parer f o r the spacecraft, The service propulsion system includes a gimballed engine which provides t h e major velocity correct i o n s f o r changing t h e t r a j e c t o r y a f t e r separation from t h e launch vehicle, and a system of hypergolic rocket engines similar t o those on the command module f o r providing three-axis a t t i t u d e control and vernier t r a n s l a t i o n a l control f o r t h e spacecraft. The lunar excursion module (LEN) which houses a two-man crew separates from the command-service module (CSM) i n lunar o r b i t f o r E4 t h e excursion t r i p t o t h e moon's surface and return. The L 2 employs a descent engine, which i s staged on the moon's surface, an ascent engine, and a system of hypergolic rocket engines similar t o those on t h e CSM f o r t h r e e a x i s a t t i t u d e control and vernier t r a n s l a t i o n a l control. The LEN has i t s own independent guidance and control system including sensors, electronics, displays, and controls.

The Saturn instrument u n i t i s a part of t h e Saturn launch veh i c l e and contains t h e Saturn guidance and control system which cont r o l s t h e space vehicle during a l l the boost phases of the mission. The guidance system i n t h e command mod7fie provides data t o t h e crew f o r monitoring t h e performance of t h e Saturn guidance system. The command module system i s a l s o capable of providing t h e steering signals t o t h e Saturn control system as a back-up t o t h e Saturn guidance system. While coasting i n e a r t h parking o r b i t the crew i n the command module can a l s o provide a t t i t u d e control commands t o t h e Saturn c o n t r o l system, Neither the Saturn control system nor t h e monitoring and s t e e r i n g interfaces of t h e command module system with t h e Saturn system are discussed i n t h i s paper.
MISSION PROFILF:
A summary of t h e several phases o f t h e Apollo mission i s shown i n Fig. 2. The Apollo space vehicle is launched i n t o e a r t h o r b i t (1)under t h e control of t h e Saturn launch vehicle and i t s separate guidance and control system as described above. The space vehicle coasts f o r one or more o r b i t s ( 2 ) u n t i l t h e correct position f o r launching i n t o the translunar t r a j e c t o r y i s reached, Upon completion of t h e translunar i n j e c t i o n boost phase (3), which is accomplished i n t h e same manner as t h e earth o r b i t injection, t h e CSM separates from t h e space vehicle, r o t a t e s through 180, and docks with t h e LEM which is s t i l l attached t o t h e last launch-vehicle stage. The CSM and UBI

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separate from t h e launch vehicle and continue t h e mission alone. The necessity f o r t h i s procedure can be seen by comparing Fig. 1 which shows t h e r e l a t i v e position of CM and LEM a t t h e end of transS lunar injection, and Fig, 5 which shows t h e i r position is readiness f o r the first midcourse correction maneuver which is t o be executed S as soon as p r a c t i c a l after injection, The CM service propulsion engine provides the t h r u s t f o r that maneuver.
A maximum of three midcourse maneuvers (4) i s . planned p r i o r t o reaching t h e v i c i n i t y of the moon where t h e spacecraft i s inserted i n t o a c i r c u l a r o r b i t around the moon ( 5 ) . After an appropriate n m S ber of o r b i t s , t h e LE'Mwith a crew of two separates from t h e CM and maneuvers i n t o a t r a n s f e r o r b i t (6) which w i l l take it near t h e moon's surface. As the surface i s neared t h e descent engines are started, and t h e f i n a l powered descent and landing (7) i s made on t h e surface of t h e moon. A t t h e prescribed time t h e LEM, using t h e ascent engine, i s launched from the moon's surface (8) i n t o a lunar o r b i t along an intercept trajectory with t h e C M One o r more addiS . t i o n a l maneuvers are performed ( 9 ) t o bring t h e LE'M i n t o position with t h e CM so t h a t docking can be accomplished. S

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When t h e crew of three men has once again been assembled i n t h e C M it i s separated from the I;EM and a t t h e appropriate time i s inS , jected i n t o a transearth trajectory (10) leaving t h e LIEN i n lunar o r b i t , The necessary midcourse correction maneuvers a r e made (11)as on t h e out-bound l e g and, f i n a l l y , t h e command module i s separated from the service module and oriented f o r entry i n t o the e a r t h ' s a t mosphere (12). During t h e atmospheric entry phase t h e command module i s s t a b i l i z e d i n two axes and maneuvered about the r o l l axis i n order t o d i r e c t the aerodynamic l i f t vector of t h e module i n sxch a way a s t o achieve t h e desired landing s i t e on t h e e a r t h ' s surface. When t h e velocity has been reduced t o a low value and the module'is i n essent i a l l y v e r t i c a l f a l l , a parachute system i s deployed t o achieve a landing e

OVERALL BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The o v e r a l l guidance and control block diagram f o r t h e CM i s S shown i n Fig. 3 and that f o r the LF51 i s shown i n Fig. 4. The e a r l y development f l i g h t s in e a r t h o r b i t w i l l be accomplished with t h e CM S Biocic I config-urution ~ h c i a i ~ i Pig. 32. 611 suhseyient f l i g h t s of t h e CM including lunar missions w i l l f l y t h e Block I1 configuration S shown i n Fig. j b . The similarity between t h e system concepts of t h e L 3 and CM i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figs. 3b and 4. On t h e l e f t s i d e of E4 S t h e diagrams a r e depicted the controls and displays which comprise t h e i n t e r f a c e between the crew and t h e automatic guidance and cont r o l systems. The displays f o r the CM and LEM a r e designed t o proS vide spacecraft a t t i t u d e and r a t e information, velocity information, and other data t a i l o r e d t o the p a r t i c u l a r requirements of each spacecraft. Each spacecraft has a hand-controller f o r threelaxis spacecraft a t t i t u d e control by command inputs from t h e crew and a

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hand-controller f o r three-axis t r a n s l a t i o n a l control of c r a f t , There are several modes of control available t o through these hand-controllers including attitude-hold, and open-loop acceleration control. N more d e t a i l e d d o t h e displays and controls w i l l be given i n t h i s paper. t h e spacet h e crew rate-command, scussions of

On t h e r i g h t side of t h e block diagram of both CM and M are S depicted t h e engine controls and attitude-control engines which are t h e primary control elements f o r accomplishing two general classes of spacecraft maneuvers. These are orientation maneuvers i n coasting f l i g h t and steering maneuvers i n powered f l i g h t . I n addition, there i s a s p e c i a l c l a s s of maneuvering f l i g h t i n t h e atmosphere i n which orientation of the l i f t vector accomplishes t h e equiv l e n t of s t e e r ing t h e cormnand module t o control the reentry t r a j e c t o The engine configurations are t h e same f o r CSM Block I and but t h e LEN configuration i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t eince t h e mission is d f f f e r e n t from that of the C M These w i l l be discussed i n more detail l a t e r S . i n t h i s paper.

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E The center portion of the block diagrams f o r CM and L M i n S cludes t h e sensors, electronics, and computation necessary t o close t h e o v e r a l l guidance and control loops. In t h e CM Block I1 and t h e S LEM t h e r e are two major systems, a primary guidance and control syst e m and a s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control system which i s employed as a secondary channel of control available t o the crew. With the backup a t t i t ' e reference t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control system i s suffic i e n t t o ~ ~ 1t h e 0 ~ with assistance from ground control systems, 1 crew, t o bring t h e CM safely back t o e a r t h i n t h e event of primary guiS dance and k o n t r o l system failure, A n abort guidance system is required t o provide steering signals t o t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control system f o r t h e LEMto enable the crew t o abort t h e descent t o t h e S moon and steer back t o the CM i n case of f a i l u r e of t h e primary guidance and control system.

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The primary difference between CSM Block I and Block I1 i s that Block I t h e two major systems are operated i n s e r i e s and i n Block I1 they are operated i n parallel. I n the Block I configuration shown i n Fig. 3, the s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control system (SCS) performs t h e primary control function, accepting steering e r r o r commands from the primary guidance system o r f r o m t h e crew controllers and sending signals t o t h e gimbal-drive electronics of t h e service-propulsion engine and io s o k r o i d - z e n t r z l x d ~ e a the reaction-control SYSnf t e m . I n the Block I1 configuration shown i n Fig, 3by t h e primary guidance system is expanded by increasing computer capability t o include the s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control function. The guidance computer accepts inputs from the crew controllers and sends signals d i r e c t l y t o t h e gimbal electronics f o r t h e service-propulsion engine and t o t h e driver-amplifiers f o r t h e reaction-control solenoid valves. The SCS becomes a p a r a l l e l back-up system available t o the crew. The l i n k between t h e primary guidance computer and t h e SCS r e t a i n s t h e option f o r series operation of t h e two major systems. The remainder of t h e paper i s concerned with t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control systems

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of t h e CM and t h e LEM and with t h e engine control and a t t i t u d e S control engine configurations. "he primary guidance and control system is not discussed.
CONTROL CONFIGURATIONS

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In t h i s section t h e right-hand portions of t h e o v e r a l l block diagrams of Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 a r e discussed. These are t h e primary control elements f o r accomplishing spacecraft maneuvers. They are employed with both t h e SCS and the primary guidance and control system. Two classes of engines are discussed: the main rocket engines f o r developing t h e t h r u s t necessary f o r accomplishing major maneuvers f o r changing the spacecraft trajectory, and t h e small reaction-control engines f o r developing t h e control torques necessary f o r controlling t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e spacecraft, The command module has I 2 reaction-control engines. The service module has 1 large rocket engine and 16 reaction-control engines. The LF51 has 2 large rocket engines, 1 f o r descent and 1 f o r ascent, and 16 reaction-control engines. The reaction-control engines f o r the LEM and service module are a l s o employed t o obtain vernier transl a t i o n a l control.
There are some general statements that can be made about the engines before going i n t o particular configurations. A l l a r e hy-perg o l i c rocket engines designed for m u l t i p l e , s t a r t s . They employ hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide o r variations thereof as f u e l and oxidlzer. A l l of t h e reaction-control engines are very similar i n t h r u s t l e v e l and other design features. Those on the command module require s p e c i a i a t t e n t i o n with regard t o cooling. The reactioncontrol engines are solenoid-controlled t o provide off-on t h r u s t control. The t o t a l of t h e hypergolic chemical reaction time and t h e electro-mechanical response time of t h e solenoid valves and driver is very short; therefore, very short control pulses can be obtained. For t h i s reason very good limit-cycle performance can be achieved i n t h e control loops.
In t h e remainder of t h i s section the control configurations w i l l
be discussed f o r t h e command-service module combination both with

E4 and without t h e LFM attached, the command module alone, and the L 2 alone.
Command-Service Module Configuration There a r e two CM control S E4 configurations, the CSM with L2 attached (Fig. 3 ) and t h e CSM alone (Fig. 6). As described above, the service module employs 1 large rocket engine f o r performing the major thrusting maneuvers and 16 small attitude-control engines which make up the reaction control system, The reaction control system i s employed f o r three-axis -_ -r a t t i t u d e control, three-axis t r a n s l a t i o n a l control f o r docking, -_ u l l a g e f o r t h e service propulsion system, and vernier control f o r midcourse corrections and separation of various stages. As i l l u s trated i n Fig. 5 t h e reaction control system includes four hypergolic

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rocket engines i n a quad arrangement located a t four s t a t i o n s around t h e sides of t h e service module. Fig, 5a illustrates how t h e engines are employed f o r three-axis a t t i t u d e control i n coasting f l i g h t , 1 The engines are normally f i r e d i n p a i r s t o produce control couples ' i n p i t c h , yaw, and r o l l . There i s a redundant p a i r of r o l l engines., A partially redundant control c a p a b i l i t y e x i s t s f o r t h e p i t c h an yaw axes since t h e engines can be employed singly with only min r degradation i n performance,

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Fig. \5b i l l u s t r a t e s the operation of t h e service propulsion engine f o r performing t h e major thrusting maneuvers such as lunar o r b i t insertion, transearth injection, and cislunar midcourse corrections. This engine operates a t constant t h r u s t l e v e l and is designed f o r multiple starts. The engine assembly i s gimbal-mounted and controlled by electro-mechanical servo actuators t o achieve \pitch and y a w control while thrusting, The gimbal drive servo conBists of a constant speed motor driving a gear t r a i n and two magnetic-particle clutches f o r driving t h e gimbals i n t h e p o s i t i v e and negative directions. The servo loop incorporates both position and velocity feedback for gimbal position control, There a r e two complete servo loops f o r each axis t o provide p a r a l l e l redundancy. Roll control while thrusting i s obtained from the service module reaction control system as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 5b. T o r o l l enw gines are shown operating, but a l l four roll engines may be operated a t t h e option of t h e crew. Special provisions w i l l a l s o allow the use of only one r o l l engine when desired, The need f o r t h i s occurs when taking navigation sighting6 under conditions of low i n e r t i a , In p i t c h and yaw a s p e c i a l sequence is followed when a t h r u s t maneuver i s i n i t i a t e d . The p i t c h and y a w reaction control engines a r e disabled 1 second a f t e r i g n i t i o n of the service propulsion engine t o prevent t r a n s i e n t s during t h r u s t buildup and t o conserve fuel. The gimbal servo-actuators are turned off 1 second after engine cutoff t o prevent t r a n s i e n t s during thrust decay.
F i g . 6 i l l u s t r a t e s the operation of the reaction control system t o achieve three-&is t r a n s l a t i o n a l control, The engines a r e opera t e d i n p a i r s i n order not t o induce disturbing moments. For transl a t i o n along the longitudinal axis, e i t h e r two o r four engines can be employed a t the option of t h e crew. There i s no redundancy afforded f o r lateral t r a n s l a t i o n except by r o l l i n g through 90".
Fig. 7 lllusti26kS thz e m f i g Command Module Configuration uration of reaction control engines required t o provide three-axis a t t i t u d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control f o r the command module. Two comp l e t e l y independent systems are provided f o r p a r a l l e l redundancy. The center of gravity of t h e command module i s off-set from the a x i s of symmetry t o cause t h e reentry body t o assume an aerodynamic t r i m angle with t h e r e l a t i v e wind. The resulting l i f t i s employed t o c o n t r o l t h e reentry t r a j e c t o r y so t h a t the desired landing s i t e can be reached, This is achieved by controlling t h e r o l l angle of the spacecraft during reentry. When t h e lift is directed downward, the t r a j e c t o r y steepens; when it i a directed upward, the t r a j e c t o r y

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becomes shallow, and r i g h t and l e f t r o l l angle causes t h e t r a j e c t o r y t o curve i n t h a t direction. Because t h e command module i s a t a constant angle of a t t a c k with respect t o t h e r e l a t i v e wind, one s i d e of t h e module experiences much more heating and is unsuitable f o r locating control engines. As s h a m i n Fig. 7 they are a l l located i n t h e upper half of t h e conical section of t h e module. No attempt i s made t o provide control couples. It i s very d i f f i c u l t t o position t h e rocket engines without introducing excessive i n t e r - a x i s coupling,
I M Descent Configuration X The LEM descent configuration ill u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 8 employs a single hypergolic engine f o r achieving the necessary thrust f o r t h e descent and landing maneuver. The engine i s throttle-controlled over a wide range of t h r u s t t o allow t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r hovering above the surface of t h e moon. Although t h i s engine is gimbal-mounted, as i n the case of t h e service module, the gimbal actuators are very different, The LEN descent-engine gimbal actuators are employed only as a r e l a t i v e l y slow-acting trim loop. The main control loop i s closed, u t i l i z i n g t h e small rocket engines of t h e I M reaction control system, The gimbal a c t E uators a r e screwjacks driven by a reversible constant-speed motor which is operated i n an off-on mode.

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. The LEN reaction control system (Fig. 8) i s made up of four s e t s of engines fixed t o t h e spacecraft with four engines a t each location. The engines are located on axes rotated 4 5 O i n r o l l from t h e spacecraft axes. They are operated as control couples f o r threea x i s a t t i t u d e control. As can be seen in Fig. 8 two p a i r s of control couples are available f o r each axis. A t t h e option of t h e crew, both p a i r s may be selected t o provide double control authority. The method of providing t r a n s l a t i o n a l control while i n the hovering condition i s t o tilt t h e spacecraft by means of t h e a t t i t u d e cont r o l system, This produces a l a t e r a l component of acceleration from t h e descent engine t h r u s t i n t h e desired direction which i s stopped by returning t o v e r t i c a l and reversed by t i l t i n g i n t h e opposite direction.
LED4 Ascent Configuration The LEM ascent configuration i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 9 employs a single rocket engine of constant t h r u s t f o r achieving t h e launch ascent. The engine i s fixed, and a t t i t u d e control i s obtained by tile i-eattior zoztrsl system 2s rlescrthed f o r t h e descent configuration. The control power i s s u f f i c i e n t without t h e necessity f o r t h e main engine t r i m feature. I n the ascent conf i g u r a t i o n , a t t i t u d e control is obtained as i n the descent configuration except that a l l of the engines pointing upward are disabled. This allows a l l t h e downward-firing engines t o augment t h e ascent t h r u s t . The f u e l saving f o r ascent propulsion more than o f f s e t s the e x t r a f u e l burned as a result of cross-coupling which t h i s introduces. In case of failure of an engine, normal operation i s resumed. Fig. 9 illustrates how the same reaction control system is employed f o r three-axis t r a n s l a t i o n a l control t o achieve f i n a l rendezvous and

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docking with t h e command module. The operation i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as that employed f o r t h e C M S . SCS FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION S In t h i s section t h e SCS systems of t h e CM and L@M are discussed. The general requirements f o r both systems ar8, t h e same. Attitude control i s required under conditions of large disturbance torques (during thrusting maneuvers ); a t t i t u d e control i s required under conditions of very small disturbance torques (during coasting f l i g h t ) ; provisions are required f o r accurate control (narrow dead band) t o meet c e r t a i n maneuver requirements (for example, LEM a t t i tude control while main engine i s thrusting); provisions are r e quired f o r coarse control (wide dead band) t o provide s t a b i l i z a t i o n economically f o r long periods of time; provisions are required t o achieve t h e ultimate capability of the reaction control engines t o deliver a small impulse i n order t o assure t h a t limit-cyc;le periods duration coasting f l i g h t s a r e economical; and provisions during a r e required f o r control t o be exercised by t h e crew under various conditions of automatic assistance by s t a b i l i z a t i o n loops, However, t h e configurations of t h e spacecraft, t h e engine configurations and the missions are d i f f e r e n t , and the SCS mechanizations t o meet these requirements are d i f f e r e n t f o r each spacecraft.

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Before describing t h e individual systems some remarks are i n order concerning the design of space s t a b i l i z a t i o n systems employing reaction control engines which operate i n an off-on mode. The chargcterizing feature of such a system is t h a t a large dynamic range i s required, Control f o r maneuvering and control against r e l a t i v e l y large disturbance torques require a high gain o r e f f e c t i v e control power. To provide economical long-term limit-cycle s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n t h e presence of extremely small disturbances requires small vern i e r c o n t r o l capability. It i s desirable, therefore, t o employ a c o n t r o l logic which provides off-on control i n t h e c l a s s i c a l sense when l a r g e control gain i s required and which meters out s m a l l cont r o l impulses t o achieve low-rate l i m i t cycles i n t h e presence of small e r r o r s . A s stated previously the Apollo reaction control engines have a very short response time permitting low impulse operat i o n . Therefore a t t e n t i o n t o t h e control logic has large p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t t o t h e system operation. Two d i f f e r e n t principles are employed i n t h e CM and LEN t o achieve e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same r e s u i t . S Elach transforms the input s i g n a l t o a s e r i e s of width and frequencymodulated pulses which drive t h e solenoid control c i r c u i t r y . I n t h e CM t h e technique i s called pseudo-rate logic; i n the I;EM it i s S c a l l e d pulse-ratio modulation. These two techniques w i l l be described i n more d e t a i l i n t h e paragraphs t o follow. C M The SCS functional diagram f o r the CM is i l l u s t r a t e d i n S S Fig, 10. The control loops f o r t h e reaction control engines and f o r t h e s e r v i c e propulsion gimbal drive actuators are functionally independent. The latter is c a l l e d the thrust-vector control loop

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since it i s employed f o r a l l major thrusting m a euvers. The primary mode f o r t h r u s t vector control, as illustrated i t h e lower h a l f of Fig. 10, has the loop closed t o hold a constant a t t i t u d e i n space. A manual gimbal trim c a p a b i l i t y is provided t o aline t h e engine t h r u s t a x i s with the estimated position of t h e spacecraft centerof-gravity p r i o r t o i n i t i a t i n g t h r u s t , Rate gyro feedback i s employed, and f i l t e r i n g and gain adjustment a r e provided t o accommodate t h e large differences i n i n e r t i a and bending frequencies between t h e configuration with LEM attached and CSM alone. G i m b a l p o s i t i o n i s integrated and summed with t h e a t t i t u d e e r r o r i n order t o reduce t h e e r r o r i n pointing the t h r u s t vector which r e s u l t s from lateral s h i f t s of t h e center-of-gravity. This technique is employed i n t h e intierest of simplicity since it is a back-up mode, The primary gui&e & and control steering loop is not subject t o t h i s error. The gimbal-drive actuator servo loop w s described i n a precious seca t i o n \ & inputs from t h e a t t i t u d e controller t h e crew can control t h i s loop employing v i s u a l reference e i t h e r by d i r e c t control of t h e gimbal-drive servo loop o r with assistance by closing t h e r a t e gyro feedback loop. 4 '
The reaction-control engine loop i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the upper feedback are proh a l f of Fig, 10. Attitude e r r o r and r a t e ~ y r o vided i n t h e same manner as i n t h e thrust-vector control loop. The a t t i t u d e e r r o r i s limited i n order t o l i m i t t h e maximum maneuver rate i n t h e i n t e r e s t of f u e l economy. The output of the a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l l e r is limited f o r t h e same reason when t h e crew exercises manual control. The a t t i t u d e dead band is selectable a t e i t h e r k5' or f/' 12. The switching amplifier and pseudo-rate logic provide an off-on pulse t o t h e engine-select logic i n response t o t h e analog e r r o r s i g n a l input. The principle of operation of pseudorate logic i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11. This technique, sometimes
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c a l l e d derived-rate increment stabi1izationlLI , has been employed i n other space s t a b i l i z a t i o n applications. The on-off output of t h e switching amplifier controls the t h r u s t of t h e reaction control engines and, therefore, i n an idealized system, i s proportional t o veh i c l e angular acceleration. When t h i s s i g n a l i s feed back through t h e l a g network, t h e feedback i n a short period sense i s proportional t o angular rate, hence t h e name pseudo or derived rate. The gain and t i m e constant of t h e lag network a r e selected t o provide t h e desired s i g n a l f o r an average spacecraft i n e r t i a . When t h e switching amplif-iar is closed. t h e feedback signal builds up u n t i l , through t h e hysteresis loop of t h e dead band, it i s opened again, ii-ledoy- shtipiiig t h e pulse t o t h e solenoid control valve, The hysteresis loop i s set t o obtain the desired t h r u s t impulse f o r l i m i t cycling. During ree n t r y and during manual maneuvers the pseudo-rate feedback is switched out t o prevent an overdamped response. (l)Superior numbers refer t o s i m i l a r l y numbered references a t the end of t h i s paper.

10
The control pulse enters t h e engine s e l e c t l o g i c which a l s o accepts signals from t h e t r a n s l a t i o n controller. The function of t h e logic is primarily t o provide i s o l a t i o n of t h e j e t d r i v e r c i r c u i t s t o prevent undesirable e l e c t r i c a l interaction. The solenoid d r i v e r s apply a fixed voltage t o t h e engine control solenoid valves, The c i r c u i t i s designed t o suppress inductive spikes a t turn-off, The solenoid control valves of both command module and service module reaction control system have a primary and a secondary c o i l . The primary c o i l provides t h e normal driving force. The secondary c o i l s are connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e t r a n s l a t i o n and a t t i t u d e cont r o l l e r s and a r e powered from t h e b a t t e r y bus.

- The SCS functional diagram f o r t h e LEM is illustrated i n LEM Fig, 12. The loop i s closed i n a conventional manner about a t t i t u d e e r r o r and rate gyro feedback, The a t t i t u d e e r r o r i s limited f o r t h e same reason as s t a t e d f o r t h e CSM, The loop e r r o r i s introduced t o a separate assembly mounted on t h e descent stage, This i s t h e descent-engine gimbal t r i m function which i s l e f t with that stage when t h e LEN i s launched from the moon. The t r i m function was described i n an e a r l i e r section. As i n the case of the CSM, the LEM SCS rovides a narrow dead band and a wide dead band. They are *0.3 g and f ? ' respectively. ,
The combinational logic f o r the LEN provides, i n addition t o the i s o l a t i o n function of the CSM engine logic, t h e necessary logic c i r c u i t r y t o s e l e c t t h e proper combination of engines t o be f i r e d t o achieve t h e desired torque. This i s required because of t h e 45" engine configuration described e a r l i e r , Each engine i s capable of producing torques about two axes. The combinational logic s e l e c t s t h e desired engines t o perform e i t h e r r o t a t i o n or t r a n s l a t i o n about any a x i s without f i r i n g opposing 'engines. From t h e combinational l o g i c t h e s i g n a l goes t o t h e pulse-ratio modulator which produces t h e off-on control signals which drive the solenoid control valves. The solenoid drivers and control valves work i n t h e same fashion as described f o r t h e CSM except that the t r a n s l a t i o n controller i s not connected t o t h e secondary c o i l s of the solenoid valves. This emergency t r a n s l a t i o n feature i s provided i n t h e positive longitudinal d i r e c t i o n only and i s controlled from a panel switch.

The pulse-ratio modulator (PRM) i s so named because t h e input s i g n a l controls t h e duty r a t i o of the pulse t r a i n ( 2 ) . The r e s u l t i n g performance can be similar t o t-hat obtained from pi70j+i-tiGnd CGEt r o l . Fig. 13 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e switching c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the FSM i n comparison with off-on control. PRM introduces an interim range of values of a t t i t u d e e r r o r between that required t o exceed t h e dead band and that required f o r f u l l "on" control. The linear PRM c h a r a c t e r i s t i c gives a proportional relationship between duty r a t i o and a t t i t u d e e r r o r , The PRM f o r t h e LEN SCS has a non-linear chara c t e r i s t i c . PRM performance f o r LEN i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 14. The duty r a t i o varies nonlinearly with attitude e r r o r making t h e trans i t i o n from small infrequent pulses t o f u l l off-on over a small range

11 of errors. The minimum pulse width is approximately 1 milliseconds. 0 The maximum pulse frequency is less than 6 pulses per second in the interest of reducing the number of cycles for the solenoid valves. CONCLUSIONS This paper has described in some detail the engine controls and attitude-control engines which are the primary control elements for accomplishing the maneuvers required of the Apollo spacecraft. The stabilization and control loops for the command-service module and the lunar excursion module have also been described. These loops comprise the back-up method of providing control to the crew for returning safely to earth in the event of failure of the primary guidance and control system.
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NOMENCLATURE CCW CSM

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counterclockwise command and service module combination clockwise lunar excursion module gain pulse-ratio modulation stabilization and control system time constant

REFERENCES

(1) Nickhs, J. C. and Vivian, H C., Derived-Rate Increment . Stabilization: Its Application to t h e Attitude-Control Problem, Jet Propulsion Iaboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, Technical Report
( 2 ) Schaefer,-R.A,, A New Pulse Modulator for Accurate D.C. Amplification with Linear or Nonlinear Devipes, IRE Trans-

actions on Instrumentation, Volume 1-11, N . 2, Sept. 1962, o\ PP. 34-47.

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