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was a price gap due to copyright issues that made music CD-Rs more expensive than data CD-Rs. 3. CD-RW: CD-RW, or Compact Disc-ReWritable, is a CD format that provides flexible recording options. This format permits optical data to be written, re-written, read and erased multiple times. At its conception, it was known as CD-E (CDErasable) but was introduced as an extension of the Orange Book standard under the moniker CD-RW in 1997. CD-RWs are designed for computer storage and backup since they can be re-written, but their re-writable format results in a disc with a smaller storage capacity than a write-once CD-R disc. 4. PRINTABLE CD: A printable CD takes media to a higher level of creativity and customization. These discs are designed with a printable surface area to display artwork without interfering with the function of the CD. These discs are available in a variety of formats to suit the needs of specified printers as well as suit an artistic vision. CD-R is the most popular format of printable CDs available. The less frequently used CD-RWs are also available on the market.
DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made using some of the same materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the track of the disc. A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic, totalling about 1.2 millimetres thick. Each layer is created by injection moulding polycarbonate plastic. This process forms a disc that has microscopic bumps arranged as a single, continuous and extremely long spiral track of data. More on the bumps later. Once the clear pieces of polycarbonate are formed, a thin reflective layer is sputtered onto the disc, covering the bumps. Aluminium is used behind the inner layers, but a semi-reflective gold layer is used for the outer layers, allowing the laser to focus through the outer and onto the inner layers. After all of the layers are made, each one is coated with lacquer, squeezed together and cured under infrared light. For single-sided discs, the label is silk-screened onto the no readable side. Double-sided discs are printed only on the no readable area near the hole in the middle. Cross sections of the various types of completed DVDs (not to scale) look like this:
Data tracks on a DVD Each writable layer of a DVD has a spiral track of data. On single-layer DVDs, the track always circles from the inside of the disc to the outside. That the spiral track starts at the centre means that a single-layer DVD can be smaller than 12 centimetres if desired. What the image to the right cannot impress upon you is how incredibly tiny the data track is - just 740 nanometres separate one track from the next (a nanometre is a billionth of a meter). And the elongated bumps that make up the track are each 320 nanometres wide, a minimum of 400 nanometres long and 120 nanometres high. The following figure illustrates looking through the polycarbonate layer at the bumps. We will often read about "pits" on a DVD instead of bumps. They appear as pits on the aluminium side, but on the side that the laser reads from, they are bumps.
DVD pit layout The microscopic dimensions of the bumps make the spiral track on a DVD extremely long. If you could lift the data track off a single layer of a DVD, and stretch it out into a straight line, it would be almost 7.5 miles long! That means that a double-sided, double-layer DVD would have 30 miles (48 km) of data.
4. DVD-RW: DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disc-Rewritable) is an optical storage disc of the DVD format that shares the same sizes as a DVD-R, however a DVD-RW can be written, re-written and erased safely up to 1,000 times. They are likely to remain readable by the user for up to 30 years; however manufacturers and changing technology can affect this lifespan. 5. DVD+R: DVD+R is an optical write-once disc format specification made to directly compete with DVD-R. It is supported and maintained by these manufacturers of the DVD+RW Alliance but not limited to this scope and also subject to change: Philips, Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi, Sony, Ricoh and Yamaha. DVD+R was introduced in 2002 - after its rewritable cousin (DVD+RW), which typically bucks the trend in technical chronology. 6. DVD+R DL: DVD+R DL (Digital Versatile Disc, Recordable Dual Layer, plus format) is an optical storage format that's an extension of the DVD+R format and engineered by the DVD+RW Alliance in competition for market dominance with its DVD-R DL rival. The recordable dual layer disc, also known as the DVD+R9 was introduced in 2003 by Philips and MKM. 7. DVD+RW: DVD+RW is an optical storage rewritable disc format created by the DVD+RW Alliance as a market competitor of the DVD-RW (dash) format. It holds a high capacity of audio and video that can be read, written, erased and re-written dependably up to 1,000 times per disc. The format can accommodate one or two layer discs. DVD+RW was publicly introduced in 2001 at a 4.7B storage capacity. 8. PRINTABLE DVD: Function and art merge as printable DVDs provide professional grade media with a personal touch. Grade-A printable DVDs come in single and dual layer formats. No matter the storage capacity, each DVD format possesses a printable surface area for custom artwork. Printable DVDs are also versatile to a variety of printing options. Printable discs are like a blank canvas to a user's project-they provide room for creativity without compromising the integrity of the data stored on the DVD.
Higher-density data storage Less overhead, more area Multi-layer storage Higher Density Data Storage Single-sided, single-layer DVDs can store about seven times more data than CDs. A large part of this increase comes from the pits and tracks being smaller on DVDs. Specification Track Pitch Minimum Pit Length (single-layer DVD) Minimum Pit Length (double-layer DVD) CD 1600 nanometres 830 nanometres DVD 740 nanometres 400 nanometres
830 nanometres
440 nanometres
Let's try to get an idea of how much more data can be stored due to the physically tighter spacing of pits on a DVD. The track pitch on a DVD is 2.16 times smaller, and the minimum pit length for a single-layer DVD is 2.08 times smaller than on a CD. By multiplying these two numbers, we find that there is room for about 4.5 times as many pits on a DVD. Less Overhead, More Area On a CD, there is a lot of extra information encoded on the disc to allow for error correction -- this information is really just a repetition of information that is already on the disc. The error correction scheme that a CD uses is quite old and inefficient compared to the method used on DVDs. The DVD format doesn't waste as much space on error correction, enabling it to store much more real information. Another way that DVDs achieve higher capacity is by encoding data onto a slightly larger area of the disc than is done on a CD. Multi-Layer Storage To increase the storage capacity even more, a DVD can have up to four layers, two on each side. The laser that reads the disc can actually focus on the second layer through the first layer. Here is a list of the capacities of different forms of DVDs: Format Single-sided/single-layer Single-sided/double-layer Capacity Approx. Movie Time 4.38 GB 7.95 GB 2 hours 4 hours
Double-sided/single-layer Double-sided/double-layer
8.75 GB 15.9 GB
Why the capacity of a DVD doesn't double when you add a whole second layer to the disc?. This is because when a disc is made with two layers, the pits have to be a little longer, on both layers, than when a single layer is used. This helps to avoid interference between the layers, which would cause errors when the disc is played.
There are two essential physical differences between CD and DVD disc.
First, the smallest DVD pits are only 0.44 micron in diameter; the equivalent CD pits are nearly twice as large, or 0.83 micron wide. And DVD data tracks are only 0.74 micron apart; whereas 1.6 microns separate CD data tracks. So although a DVD is the same size as a CD, its data spiral is upward of 11 kilometres long-more than twice the length of a CD's data spiral. To read the smaller pits, a DVD player's readout beam must achieve a finer focus than a CD player's does. In order to do this, it uses a read semiconductor laser that has a wave length of 635 to 650 nanometre. In contrast, CD players use infrared laser with a longer wavelength of 780 nanometre. Also, DVD players employ a more powerful focusing lens-one having a higher numerical aperture than the lens in a CD player. The differences, together with the additional efficiencies of the DVD format described below, account for the huge 4.7-gigayte capacity of each DVD information layer. A DVDs capacity can be doubled to 9.4 gigabytes-and nearly doubled again to about 17 gigabytes- by two more innovations. Although DVDs and CDs have the same overall thickness-11.2 millimetre- DVDs possess two substrates that can carry information' whereas CDs have one. A DVD 's substrates are bonded together so that their pitted surfaces face each other in the centre of the of the disc.This setup shields the surfaces from the damaging effects of dust particles and scratches.
In the simplest design, the second DVD side is accessed by physically removing the disc from the player removing the disc from the player, turning it over and reinserting it. Another variation-the multilayer design enables both information surfaces to be payer from the side of the disc.
In a multilayer disc, the upper substrate is coated with a partially reflective, partially trasmissive layer. The reflectivity of the upper layer is sufficient to enable the laser to read the pits in the upper substrate; its transmissivity also permits the beam to focus on the lower substrate and read the pits on the in that layer. When the laser focuses on pits in the upper information layer are out of focus and so do not interfere.(To accommodate the small but unavoidable loss of paperback quality in this approach, a slight capacity reduction to 8.5 gigabytes unnecessary-which explains why a double-sided, double-layer DVD would hold about 17 gigabytes.)
4. BLU-RAY DISCS
In 1997, a new technology emerged that brought digital sound and video into homes all over the world. It was called DVD, and it revolutionized the movie industry. The industry is set for yet another revolution with the introduction of Blu-ray Discs (BD) in 2006. With their high storage capacity, Blu-ray discs can hold and play back large quantities of high-definition video and audio, as well as photos, data and other digital content. A current, single-sided, standard DVD can hold 4.7 GB (gigabytes) of information. That's about the size of an average two-hour, standard-definition movie with a few extra features. But a high-definition movie, which has a much clearer image (see How Digital Television Works), takes up about five times more bandwidth and therefore requires a disc with about five times more storage. As TV sets and movie studios make the move to high definition, consumers are going to need playback systems with a lot more storage capacity.
Blu-ray is the next-generation digital video disc. It can record, store and play back highdefinition video and digital audio, as well as computer data. The advantage to Blu-ray is the sheer amount of information it can hold:
A single-layer Blu-ray disc, which is roughly the same size as a DVD, can hold up to 27 GB of data -- that's more than two hours of high-definition video or about 13 hours of standard video.
A double-layer Blu-ray disc can store up to 50 GB, enough to hold about 4.5 hours of highdefinition video or more than 20 hours of standard video. And there are even plans in the works to develop a disc with twice that amount of storage .
Blu-ray discs not only have more storage capacity than traditional DVDs, but they also offer a new level of interactivity. Users will be able to connect to the Internet and instantly download subtitles and other interactive movie features. With Blu-ray, you can:
record high-definition television (HDTV) without any quality loss instantly skip to any spot on the disc record one program while watching another on the disc create playlists edit or reorder programs recorded on the disc automatically search for an empty space on the disc to avoid recording over a program access the Web to download subtitles and other extra features Discs store digitally encoded video and audio information in pits -- spiral grooves that run from the center of the disc to its edges. A laser reads the other side of these pits -- the bumps - to play the movie or program that is stored on the DVD. The more data that is contained on a disc, the smaller and more closely packed the pits must be. The smaller the pits (and therefore the bumps), the more precise the reading laser must be. Unlike current DVDs, which use a red laser to read and write data, Blu-ray uses a blue laser (which is where the format gets its name). A blue laser has a shorter wavelength (405 nanometers) than a red laser (650 nanometers). The smaller beam focuses more precisely, enabling it to read information recorded in pits that are only 0.15 microns (m) (1 micron = 10-6 meters) long -- this is more than twice as small as the pits on a DVD. Plus, Blu-ray has reduced the track pitch from 0.74 microns to 0.32 microns. The smaller pits, smaller beam and shorter track pitch together enable a single-layer Blu-ray disc to hold more than 25 GB of information -- about five times the amount of information that can be stored on a DVD. Each Blu-ray disc is about the same thickness (1.2 millimeters) as a DVD. But the two types of discs store data differently. In a DVD, the data is sandwiched between two polycarbonate layers, each 0.6-mm thick. Having a polycarbonate layer on top of the data can cause a problem called birefringence, in which the substrate layer refracts the laser light into two separate beams. If the beam is split too widely, the disc cannot be read. Also, if the DVD surface is not exactly flat, and is therefore not exactly perpendicular to the beam, it can lead to a problem known as disc tilt, in which the laser beam is distorted. All of these issues lead to a very involved manufacturing process.
Blu-ray discs only do the injection-molding process on a single 1.1-mm disc, which reduces cost. That savings balances out the cost of adding the protective layer, so the end price is no more than the price of a regular DVD.
Blu-ray also has a higher data transfer rate -- 36 Mbps (megabits per second) -- than today's DVDs, which transfer at 10 Mbps. A Blu-ray disc can record 25 GB of material in just over an hour and a half.
ON GUARD Blu-ray discs are better armed than current DVDs. They come equipped with a secure encryption system -- a unique ID that protects against video piracy and copyright infringement. FORMATS Unlike DVDs and CDs, which started with read-only formats and only later added recordable and re-writable formats, Blu-ray is initially designed in several different formats:
BD-ROM (read-only) - for pre-recorded content BD-R (recordable) - for PC data storage BD-RW (rewritable) - for PC data storage BD-RE (rewritable) - for HDTV recording
FAT 16/32
Default File system In Windows XP, 2k and NT Support For Drives over 40gb, Files over GB Allows extended file names, foreign characters Has a severely crippled maintenance system in chkdsk
Fat 16 not compatible with XP, FAT is more compatible with other operating Systems( Windows 95, etc)
FAT 16 has 8.3 character limitation Has better, more and interactive recovery utilities (scandisk)
Chkdsk is notoriously slow Increased security with file encryption Smaller file clusters, 4kb Compression to reduce disk space User permissions for files and folders File copies are undone if interrupted, cluster chains is cleaned
Scandisk is very quick Just a space for the OS to read files Faster on drives less than 10gb FAT 16 cluster size is 32kb Cluster chains containing data from interrupted copies are marked as damaged
Small files are kept in Master File Table at the beginning of the drive