CHAPTER 13

Continuous Systems;
Waves

13-1. The initial velocities are zero and so all of the ν r vanish [see Eq. (13.8b)]. The µr are
given by [see Eq. (13.8a)]
3π x rπ x
L
2A
L ∫0
µr = sin sin dx
L L (1)
= Aδ 3 r
so that
µ3 = A 
 (2)
µr = 0, r ≠ 3 
The characteristic frequency ω 3 is [see Eq. (13.11)]

3π τ
ω3 = (3)
L ρ
and therefore,

 3π τ   3π x 
q ( x , t ) = A cos  t  sin  (4)
 L ρ   L 

For the particular set of initial conditions used, only one normal mode is excited. Why?

13-2.
L
3
h

435
436 CHAPTER 13

The initial conditions are

 3h L
 L x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
q ( x , 0) =  (1)
 3h L
 ( L − x) , ≤x≤L
 2L 3
q ( x , 0) = 0 (2)

Because q ( x , 0 ) = 0 , all of the ν r vanish. The µr are given by

rπ x rπ x
L3 L
6h 3h
µr = 2
L ∫ x sin
L
dx + 2
L ∫ ( L − x ) sin L
dx
0 L3

9h rπ
= sin (3)
rπ
2 2
3
We see that µr = 0 for r = 3, 6, 9, etc. The displacement function is

9 3h  πx 1 2π x 1 4π x 
q ( x, t) =  sin L cos ω 1t + 4 sin L × cos ω 2t − 16 sin L cos ω 4 t − … (4)
2π 2

where

rπ τ
ωr = (5)
L ρ
The frequencies ω 3 , ω 6 , ω 9 , etc. are absent because the initial displacement at L 3 prevents
that point from being a node. Thus, none of the harmonics with a node at L 3 are excited.

13-3. The displacement function is

q ( x, t) πx 1 3π x 1 5π x
= sin cos ω 1t − sin cos ω 3t + sin cos ω 5t + … (1)
8h π 2 L 9 L 25 L
where

π τ 
ω1 = 
L ρ  (2)

ω r = rω 1 
For t = 0,
q ( x, 0) πx 1 3π x 1 5π x
= sin − sin + sin +… (3)
8h π 2
L 9 L 25 L
The figure below shows the first term, the first two terms, and the first three terms of this
function. It is evident that the triangular shape is well represented by the first three terms.
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 437

1 term
1

0
L
2 terms
1

0
L
3 terms
1

0
L

The time development of q(x,t) is shown below at intervals of 1 8 of the fundamental period.
t = 0, T

1 7
t= T, T
8 8

1 3
t= T, T
4 4

3 5
t= T, T
8 8

1
t= T
2

13-4. The coefficients ν r are all zero and the µr are given by Eq. (13.8a):

rπ x
L
8
µr = 2 ∫ x ( L − x ) sin dx
L 0 L

16
= 1 − ( −1) r  (1)
rπ 3 3 

so that

 0, r even

µ r =  32 (2)
 3 , r odd
 rπ 3
Since
438 CHAPTER 13

rπ x
q ( x , t ) = ∑ µ r sin cos ω r t (3)
r L
the amplitude of the n-th mode is just µn .
The characteristic frequencies are given by Eq. (13.11):

nπ τ
ωn = (4)
L ρ

13-5. The initial conditions are

q ( x , 0) = 0

 1 
 v0 , x− ≤s  (1)
q ( x, t) =  2

 
 0, otherwise 

The µr are all zero and the ν r are given by [see Eq. (13.8b)]
( L 2) + s
2 rπ x
ω r L ( L ∫2) − s 0
νr = − v sin dx
L

4 v0 rπ rπ s
= sin sin (2)
rπω r 2 L
from which
 0, r even

ν r =  4v rπ s (3)
−
0
( −1)( r −1) 2 sin , r odd
 rπω r L

(Notice that the even modes are all missing, as expected from the symmetrical nature of the
initial conditions.)
Now, from Eq. (13.11),

π τ
ω1 = (4)
L ρ
and ω r = rω 1 . Therefore,
−4v0 rπ s
νr = ( −1)( r −1) 2 sin , r odd (5)
r 2πω 1 L
According to Eq. (13.5),
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 439

rπ x
q ( x , t ) = ∑ β r e iω r t sin
r L

rπ x
= − ∑ ν r sin ω r t sin (6)
r L
Therefore,

4 v0  πs πx 1 3π s 3π x 
q ( x, t) =  sin ω 1t sin sin − sin ω 3t sin sin + … (7)
πω 1  L L 9 L L 

Notice that some of the odd modes—those for which sin ( 3π s L) = 0 —are absent.

13-6. The initial conditions are

q ( x , 0) = 0

 4 v0 L
 L x 0≤x≤
4
 
 4v L (1)
L  L
q ( x , 0) =  0  2 − x  ≤x≤ 
 L 4 2
 
 L 
0 ≤x≤L
 2 
The velocity at t = 0 along the string, q ( x , 0 ) , is shown in the diagram.
v

v0

L L 3L L
4 2 4

The µr are identically zero and the ν r are given by:

rπ x
L
2
νr = − ∫ q ( x , 0 ) sin dx
rLω 1 0 L

8 v0  rπ rπ 
=  sin − 2 sin  (2)
r π ω1 
3 2
2 4
Observe that for r = 4n, ν r is zero. This happens because at t = 0 the string was struck at L 4 ,
and none of the harmonics with modes at that point can be excited.
Evaluation of the first few ν r gives
440 CHAPTER 13

8 v0 
ν1 = −0.414 ⋅ ν4 = 0 
π ω1
2


1 8 v0 2.414 8v0 
ν2 = − ⋅ ν5 = ⋅ (3)
4 π 2ω 1 125 π 2ω 1 


2.414 8v0 2 8 v0 
ν3 = − ⋅ ν6 = ⋅ 2
27 π 2ω 1 216 π ω 1 

and so,

8 v0  πx 1 2π x
q ( x, t) =  0.414 sin ω 1t sin + sin ω 2t sin
π ω1
2
L 4 L
(4)
2.414 3π x 2.414 5π x 
+ sin ω 3t sin − sin ω 5t sin − …
27 L 135 L 

From these amplitudes we can find how many db down the fundamental are the various
harmonics:
Second harmonic:
2
 0.250 
10 log  = −4.4 db (5)
 0.414 
Third harmonic:
2
 2.414 27 
10 log  = −13.3 db (6)
 0.414 
These values are much smaller than those found for the case of example (13.1). Why is this so?
(Compare the degree of symmetry of the initial conditions in each problem.)

13-7.
3
L
7
h
O L
h
3
L
7

Since q ( x , 0 ) = 0 , we know that all of the ν r are zero and the µr are given by Eq. (13.8a):

rπ x
L
2
µr = ∫ q ( x , 0 ) sin dx (1)
L0 L

The initial condition on q ( x , t ) is

CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 441

 7h 3
 − 3L x , 0≤x≤
7L
 
7h 3 4 
q ( x , 0 ) =  ( 2 x − L) , L ≤ x ≤ L (2)
L 7 7 
 
 7h 4 
 3L ( L − x ) , 7
L≤ x≤L 

Evaluating the µr we find

98 h  4 rπ 3rπ 
µr = sin 7 − sin 7  (3)
3 r 2π 2

Obviously, µr = 0 when 4 r 7 and 3r 7 simultaneously are integers. This will occur when r is
any multiple of 7 and so we conclude that the modes with frequencies that are multiples of 7ω 1
will be absent.

13-8. For the loaded string, we have [see Eq. (12.152)]

τ rπ
ωr = 2 sin (1)
md 2 ( n + 1)

Using ρ = m d and L = ( n + 1) d , we have

2 τ rπ
ωr = sin
d ρ 2 ( n + 1)

2 ( n + 1) τ rπ
= sin (2)
L ρ 2 ( n + 1)
The function
ωr rπ
= ( n + 1) sin (3)
2 τ 2 ( n + 1)
L ρ

is plotted in the figure for n = 3, 5, and 10. For comparison, the characteristic frequency for a
continuous string is also plotted:
ωr rπ
= (4)
2 τ 2
L ρ
442 CHAPTER 13

12

n = 10
10

ng
tri
ss
8
ωr

ou
nu
2 τ

nti
ρ

Co
L
6 n=5

4 n=3

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Of course, the curves have meaning only at the points for which r is an integer.

13-9. From Eq. (13.49), we have:

D s 2π 2τ
β= ; ω 02 = (1)
2ρ ρb
From section 3.5, we know that underdamped motion requires:
β 2 < ω 02
Using (1) this becomes
D 2 s 2π 2τ
<
4ρ 2 ρb

4 ρ s 2 π 2τ
or D2 < underdamped
b

4 ρ s 2π 2 τ
Likewise D 2 = critically damped
b

4 ρ s 2 π 2τ
D2 > overdamped
b
The complementary solution to Eq. (13.48) for underdamped motion can be written down using
Eq. (3.40). The result is:
ηs ( t ) = Cs e − βt cos (ω 1t − φs )
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 443

where ω 12 = ω 02 − β 2 , ω 0 and β are as defined in (1), and Cs and φs are arbitrary constants
depending on the initial conditions. The complete solution to Eq. (13.48) is the sum of the
particular and complementary solutions (analogous to Eq. (13.50)):

 sπ 
2 F0 sin   cos (ω t − δ s )
ηs ( t ) = C s e − β t cos (ω 1t − φ s ) + 2
s π τ
2 2
 D
ρb  − ω2  + ω2
 ρb  ρ
where
Dω
δ s = tan −1  

s π τ 
2
2
ρ  − ω2 
  ρb  
From Eq. (13.40):
rπ x
q ( x , t ) = ∑ ηr ( t ) sin
r b
Thus

 
 rπ 
 2 F0 sin  2  cos (ω t − δ r ) 
 
  Dt   s 2π 2τ D 2 rπ x
q ( x , t ) = ∑ Cr exp  −  cos  − 2 t − φr  +  sin
 2 ρ   ρ b 4 ρ  r π τ
2 2
 D b
r
 ρb  − ω2  + ω2 
  ρb  ρ 
 
(underdamped)

13-10. From Eq. (13.44) the equation for the driving Fourier coefficient is:

sπ x
b
f s ( t ) = ∫ F ( x , t ) sin dx
0
b

If the point x is a node for normal coordinate s, then

x n
= where n is an integer ≤ s
b s
(This comes from the fact that normal mode s has s-half wavelengths in length b.)
x n
For = ,
b s
sπ x
sin = sin nπ = 0; hence f s ( t ) = 0
b
444 CHAPTER 13

Thus, if the string is driven at an arbitrary point,

none of the normal modes with nodes at the driving
point will be excited.

13-11. From Eq. (13.44)

sπ x
b
f s ( t ) = ∫ F ( x , t ) sin dx (1)
0
b

where F ( x , t ) is the driving force, and f s ( t ) is the Fourier coefficient of the Fourier expansion of
F ( x , t ) . Eq. (13.45) shows that f s ( t ) is the component of F ( x , t ) effective in driving normal
coordinate s. Thus, we desire F ( x , t ) such that
f s ( t ) = 0 for s ≠ n

≠ 0 for s = n

From the form of (1), we are led to try a solution of the form
nπ x
F ( x , t ) = g ( t ) sin
b

where g(t) is a function of t only.

Thus

nπ x sπ x
b
f s ( t ) = ∫ g ( t ) sin sin dx
0
b b

( n ± s) π x 
b

For n ≠ s, the integral is proportional to sin  ; hence f s ( t ) = 0 for s ≠ n.

b x=0

For n = s, we have

nπ x
b
b
f s ( t ) = g ( t ) ∫ sin 2 dx = g ( t ) ≠ 0
0
b 2

Only the nth normal coordinate will be driven.

Thus, to drive the nth harmonic only,

nπ x
F ( x , t ) = g ( t ) sin
b
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 445

13-12. The equation to be solved is

D s 2π 2τ
ηs + ηs + η =0 (1)
ρ ρb s
Compare this equation to Eq. (3.35):
x + 2β x + ω 02 x = 0

The solution to Eq. (3.35) is Eq. (3.37):

x ( t ) = e − βt  A1 exp ( ) ( )
β 2 − ω 02 t + A2 exp − β 2 − ω 02 t 

Thus, by analogy, the solution to (1) is

  D 2 s 2π 2τ   D 2 s 2 π 2τ  
ns ( t ) = e − Dt 2 ρ  A1 exp  − t  + A exp  − − t
 4 ρ ρb   4 ρ ρb  
2 2 2
 

13-13. Assuming k is real, while ω and v are complex, the wave function becomes

ψ ( x , t ) = Ae i(αt + iβt − kx)

= Ae (α t − kx ) e − βt (1)

whose real part is

ψ ( x , t ) = Ae − βt cos (α t − kx ) (2)

and the wave is damped in time, with damping coefficient β.

From the relation
ω2
k2 = (3)
v2
we obtain

(α + iβ ) 2 = k 2 ( u + iw ) 2 (4)

By equating the real and imaginary part of this equation we can solve for α and β in terms of u
and w:
k 2 uw
α= (5)
β
and
 kw
β= (6)
 iku

Since we have assumed β to be real, we choose the solution

446 CHAPTER 13

β = kw (7)

Substituting this into (5), we have

α = ku (8)
as expected.
Then, the phase velocity is obtained from the oscillatory factor in (2) by its definition:
Re ω α
V= = (9)
k k
That is,

V=u

13-14.
In–2 In In+1 In+2
Vn–2 Vn–1 Vn Vn+1 Vn+2
L′ L′ L′ L′
Qn–2 Qn–1 Qn Qn+1 Qn+2
C′ C′ C′ C′ C′

Consider the above circuit. The circuit in the nth inductor is I n , and the voltage above ground
at the point between the nth elements is Vn . Thus we have
Qn
Vn =
C′
and
dI n
L′ = Vn −1 − Vn
dt
Qn −1 Qn
= − (1)
C′ C′
We may also write
dQn
= I n − I n+1 (2)
dt
Differentiating (1) with respect to time and using (2) gives
d2 I n 1
L′
dt 2
=
C′
[ I n −1 − 2I n + I n + 1 ] (3)

or
d2 In 1
dt 2
=
L′ C ′
[ I n − 1 − 2I n + I n + 1 ] (4)
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 447

Let us define a parameter x which increases by ∆x in going from one loop to the next (this will
become the coordinate x in the continuous case), and let us also define
L′ C′
L≡ ; C≡ (5)
∆x ∆x
which will become the inductance and the capacitance, respectively, per unit length in the limit
∆x → 0 .
From the above definitions and
∆I r = I r + 1 − I r (6)
(4) becomes
d2 In 1
dt 2
+
L′C ′
( ∆I n−1 − ∆I n ) = 0 (7)

or,
d 2 I n ∆ ( ∆I n )
− =0 (8)
dt 2 L′C ′
Dividing by ( ∆x ) , and multiplying by (–L′C′), we find
2

∆ ( ∆I n ) d2 In
− LC =0 (9)
( ∆x ) 2
dt 2

But by virtue of the above definitions, we can now pass to the continuous limit expressed by
In (t) → I ( x, t) (10)
Then,
∆ ( ∆I ( x , t ) ) ∂2 I ( x, t)
− LC =0 (11)
∆x 2 ∂t 2
and for ∆x → 0 , we obtain

∂2I 1 ∂2I
− =0 (12)
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
where
1
v= (13)
LC

13-15. Consider the wave functions

ψ 1 = A exp  i (ω t − kx )  
 (1)

ψ 2 = B exp i ( (ω + ∆ω ) t − ( k + ∆k ) x )  

where ∆ω ω ; ∆k k . A and B are complex constants:

448 CHAPTER 13

A = A exp ( iφ a ) 
 (2)

B = B exp ( iφb ) 

The superposition of ψ 1 and ψ 2 is given by

ψ = ψ1 + ψ2

∆k   
 ∆ω t −∆kx   ∆ω t −∆kx   (3)
  ∆ω   −i
( a) ( b)
i
 
= exp  i  ω +  
t − k +  x ×  A exp iφ e  2
+ B exp iφ e  2

  2   2    
which can be rewritten as

φ a + φb    
 ∆ω t −∆kx − φ a + φb   ∆ω t −∆kx + φb − φ a  
   ∆ω   ∆k  −i

i

ψ = exp i  w +  
t − k +  x + ×
  A e  2
+ B e  2
 (4)
 
  2   2 2     

Define
t∆ω − x∆k ≡ δ 
 (5)
φb − φ a ≡ α 
and

A e − i(δ +α ) 2 + B e i(δ +α ) 2 = Γ e iθ (6)

Therefore,

Γ =2 A + B
2
( 2 2
) (7)

A+B (δ + a )
cos θ = cos (8)
( )
12
2 A + B  2 2 2
 
B− A (δ + a )
sin θ = sin (9)
( )
12
2 A 2 + B 2  2
 
That is, θ is a function of ( ∆ω ) t − ( ∆k ) x . Using (6) and (7) – (9), we can rewrite (4) as

  ∆ω   ∆k  φ + φb  iθ
ψ = Γ exp i  ω +  t −k +  x + a  e (10)
  2   2 2 
and then,

  ∆ω   ∆k    φ a + φb 
Re ψ = Γ cos  ω +  t −  k +  x  cos  θ + 
   2  2  2 
(11)
 ∆ω   ∆k    φ a + φb  
− sin  ω +  t −  k +  x  sin  θ +
  2  2  2  
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 449

From this expression we see that the wave function is modulated and that the phenomenon of
beats occurs, but for A ≠ B, the waves never beat to zero amplitude; the minimum amplitude is,
from Eq. (11), A − B , and the maximum amplitude is A + B . The wave function has the form
shown in the figure.
A+B Reψ A−B

wt – kx

13-16. As explained at the end of section 13.6, the wave will be reflected at x = x0 and will
then propagate in the –x direction.

13-17. We let
 m′ , j = 2n
mj =  (1)
 m′′ , j = 2n + 1

where n is an integer.
Following the procedure in Section 12.9, we write
τ
F2 n = m′ q2 n =
d
( q2 n−1 − 2q2n + q2n+1 ) (2a)

τ
F2 n +1 = m′′ q2 n +1 =
d
( q2n − 2q2n+1 + q2n+ 2 ) (2b)

Assume solutions of the form

q2 n = Ae i(ωt − 2 nkd) (3a)

q2 n + 1 = Be [
i ω t − ( 2 n + 1) kd ]
(3b)

Substituting (3a,b) into (2a,b), we obtain

τ 
−ω 2 A =
m′ d
( Be ikd
− 2 A + Be − ikd ) 
 (4)
τ 
−ω B =
2

m′′ d
( Ae ikd
− 2B + Ae − ikd
) 

from which we can write
450 CHAPTER 13

 2τ  2τ 
A − ω2  − B cos kd = 0 
 ′
m d  m ′ d

 (5)
2τ  2τ 
−A cos kd + B  − ω2  = 0 
m′′ d  m′′ d  
The solution to this set of coupled equations is obtained by setting the determinant of the
coefficients equal to zero. We then obtain the secular equation

 2τ 2   2τ  2τ
2
2 1 
 m′ d − ω   m′′ d − ω  − m′ m′′  d cos kd  = 0 (6)

Solving for ω, we find

τ  1 
12
1   1 
2
1  4
ω =  +
2
 ±   +  − sin 2 kd   (7)
d  m′ m′′   m′ m′′  m′ m′′  

from which we find the two solutions

τ  1 
12
1   1 
2
1  4
ω =  +
2
 +   +  − sin 2 kd  
d  m′ m′′   m′ m′′  m′ m′′
1
  
(8)
τ  1  
12
1   1
2
1  4
ω 2 =  +
2
 −  +  − sin kd  
2

d  m′ m′′   m′ m′′  m′ m′′  



If m′ < m″, and if we define

2τ 2τ
ωa ≡ , ωb ≡ , ω c = ω a2 + ω b2 (9)
m′′ d m′ d
Then the ω vs. k curve has the form shown below in which two branches appear, the lower
branch being similar to that for m′ = m″ (see Fig. 13-5).
ωc

ωb
ω
ωa

0 k π/2d

Using (9) we can write (6) as

ω2
2 2 ( a
sin 2 kd = ω 2 + ω b2 − ω 2 ) ≡ W (ω ) (10)
ωaωb
From this expression and the figure above we see that for ω > ω c and for ω a < ω < ω b , the wave
number k is complex. If we let k = κ + iβ , we then obtain from (10)

sin 2 (κ + iβ ) d = sin 2 κ d cosh 2 β d − cos 2 κ d sinh 2 β d + 2i sin κ d cos κ d sinh β d cosh β d = W (ω ) (11)

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we find

CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 451

sin κ d cos κ d sinh β d cosh β d = 0 

 (12)
sin κ d cosh β d − cos κ d sinh β d = W (ω ) 
2 2 2 2

We have the following possibilities that will satisfy the first of these equations:
a) sin κd = 0, which gives κ = 0. This condition also means that cos κd = 1; then β is
determined from the second equation in (12):
− sinh 2 β d = W (ω ) (13)

Thus, ω > ω c , and κ is purely imaginary in this region.

b) cos κd = 0, which gives κ = π/2d. Then, sin κd = 1, and cosh 2 β d = W (ω ) . Thus, ω a < ω < ω b ,
and κ is constant at the value π/2d in this region.
c) sinh βd = 0, which gives β = 0. Then, sin 2 κ d = W (ω ) . Thus, ω < ω a or ω b < ω < ω c , and κ is
real in this region.
Altogether we have the situation illustrated in the diagram.
k
β
π κ
2d β
κ
κ
κ
ωa ωb ωc ω

13-18. The phase and group velocities for the propagation of waves along a loaded string are

ω ω c d sin ( kd 2)
V (k) = = (1)
k 2 kd 2

dω ω c d
U (k) = = cos ( kd 2) (2)
dk 2
where

ω = ω c sin ( kd 2) (3)

The phase and group velocities have the form shown below.
ωc d
2 V(k)

V,U U(k)

0 π/d k

When k = π d , U = 0 but V = ω c d π . In this situation, the group (i.e., the wave envelope) is
stationary, but the wavelets (i.e., the wave structure inside the envelope) move forward with the
velocity V.
452 CHAPTER 13

13-19. The linear mass density of the string is described by

 ρ1 if x < 0; x > L
ρ=
 ρ2 > ρ1 if 0 < x < L
I II III
ρ1 ρ2 ρ1

x
0

Consider the string to be divided in three different parts: I for x < 0, II for 0 < x < L, and III for
x > L.

Let φ = A e (
i ω t − k1 x )
be a wave train, oscillating with frequency ω, incident from the left on II. We can write
for the different zones the corresponding wave functions as follows:

ψ I = Ae i(ωt − k1x ) + Be i(ωt + k1x) = e iωt  Ae − ik1x + Be ik1x  



ψ II = Ce i(ωt − k2 x) + De i(ωt + k2 x ) = e iωt Ce − ik2 x + De ik2 x   (1)


ψ III = Ee i(ωt − k1x ) 
Where

ω ω τ τ
k1 = , k2 = , V1 = , V2 = (2)
V1 V2 ρ1 ρ2
and where τ is the tension in the string (constant throughout). To solve the problem we need to state first
the boundary conditions; these will be given by the continuity of the wave function and its derivative at
the boundaries x = 0 and x = L. For x = 0, we have

ψ I ( x = 0 ) = ψ II ( x = 0 ) 

∂ψ I ∂ψ II  (3)
= 
∂x x=0 ∂x x=0 
and for x = L, the conditions are

ψ II ( x = 0 ) = ψ III ( x = L) 

∂ψ II ∂ψ III  (4)
= 
∂x x=L ∂x x=L 
Substituting ψ as given by (1) into (3) and (4), we have
A+B=C+D 

k2  (5)
− A + B = ( −C + D) 
k1 
and
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 453

C e − ik2 L + D e ik2 L = E e − ik1L 


k  (6)
− ik2 L
−C e +De ik2 L
= − 1 E e − ik1L 
k2 
From (6) we obtain

1 k1  i ( k2 − k1 ) L 
C= 1 + E e 
2  k 2  
 (7)
1  k  
D =  1 − 1  E e − i( k2 + k1 ) L 
2 k2  
Hence,
k 2 + k1 i 2 k 2 L
C= e D (8)
k 2 − k1
From (5) we have

1 k  1 k 
A=  1 + 2  C + 1 − 2  D (9)
2 k1  2 k1 
Using (7) and rearranging the above equation

1  ( k1 + k 2 ) i 2 k2 L 
2

A=  e − ( k 2 − k1 )  D (10)
2k1  ( k 2 − k1 ) 
In the same way
1
B=  − ( k 2 + k1 ) e i 2 k2 L + ( k1 + k 2 )  D (11)
2 k1
From (10) and (11) we obtain

B
=
( )
k12 − k 22  e i 2 k2 L − 1
(12)
A ( k1 + k 2 ) 2 e i 2 k 2 L − ( k1 − k 2 ) 2

On the other hand, from (6) and (8) we have

2k 2 D i( k2 + k1 ) L
E= e (13)
k 2 − k1
which, together with (10) gives

E 4 k1 k 2 e i( k1 + k2 ) L
= (14)
A ( k1 + k 2 ) 2 e i 2 k 2 L − ( k1 − k 2 ) 2

Since the incident intensity I 0 is proportional to A , the reflected intensity is I r = B , and the total
2 2

transmitted intensity is I t = E , we can write

2
454 CHAPTER 13

2 2
B E
Ir = I0 2
, It = I 0 2
(15)
A A
Substituting (12) and (14) into (15), we have, for the reflected intensity,

(k )
2
− k 22  e i 2 k2 L − 1
2
1
Ir = I0 (16)
( k1 + k 2 ) 2 e i 2 k 2 L − ( k1 − k 2 ) 2
From which

 ( )
k12 − k 22 (1 − cos 2k 2 L) 
2

Ir = I0   (17)
( )
 k14 + k 24 + 6 k12 k 22 − k12 − k 22 2 cos 2k2 L 
 
and for the transmitted intensity, we have
2
4 k1k 2 e i( k1 + k2 ) L
It = I0 (18)
( k1 + k 2 ) 2 e i 2 k L − ( k1 − k 2 ) 2
2

so that

8 k12 k 22
It = I0 (19)
( )
2
k14 + k 24 + 6k12 k 22 − 2 k12 − k 22 cos 2k 2 L

We observe that I r + I t = I 0 , as it must.

For maximum transmission we need minimum reflection; that is, the case of best possible transmission is
that in which

It = I0 
 (20)
I r = 0 

In order that I r = 0 , (17) shows that L must satisfy the requirement

1 − cos 2k2 L = 0 (21)

so that we have

mπ mπ τ
L= = , m = 0,1, 2,… (22)
k2 ω ρ2

The optical analog to the reflection and transmission of waves on a string is the behavior of light
waves which are incident on a medium that consists of two parts of different optical densities
(i.e., different indices of refraction). If a lens is given a coating of precisely the correct thickness
of a material with the proper index of refraction, there will be almost no reflected wave.
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 455

13-20.
y
I II

M
0

We divide the string into two zones:

I: x < 0

II: x > 0
Then,

ψ I = A1e i(ωt − kx) + B1e i(ωt + kx) 

 (1)
i (ω t − kx ) 
ψ II = A2 e 
The boundary condition is
ψ I ( x = 0 ) = ψ II ( x = 0 ) (2)
That is, the string is continuous at x = 0. But because the mass M is attached at x = 0, the
derivative of the wave function will not be continuous at this point. The condition on the
derivative is obtained by integrating the wave equation from x = –ε to x = +ε and then taking
the limit ε → 0.
Thus,

∂ 2ψ  ∂ψ ∂ψ I 
M = τ  II − (3)
∂t 2 x=0  ∂x ∂x  x=0

Substituting the wave functions from (1), we find

A1 + B1 = A2 (4)

ikτ ( − A2 + A1 − B1 ) = −ω 2 MA2 (5)

which can be rewritten as

A1 − B1 = A2
( ikτ − ω M)2

(6)
ikτ
From (4) and (6) we obtain
A1 + B1 ikτ
= (7)
A1 − B1 ikτ − ω 2 M
from which we write
B1 ω2M ω 2 M 2ikτ
= = (8)
A1 2ikτ − ω 2 M 1 − ω 2 M 2ikτ
Define
456 CHAPTER 13

ω2M
= P = tan θ (9)
2kτ
Then, we can rewrite (8) as
B1 − iP
= (10)
A1 1 + iP
And if we substitute this result in (4), we obtain a relation between A1 and A2 :
A2 1
= (11)
A1 1 + iP
2
B
The reflection coefficient, R = 1 , will be, from (10),
A1
2
B P2 tan 2 θ
R= 1 = = (12)
A1 1 + P 2 1 + tan 2 θ

or,

R = sin 2 θ (13)
2
A
and the transmission coefficient, T = 2 , will be from (10)
A1
2
A2 1 1
T= = = (14)
A1 1+ P 2
1 + tan 2 θ

or,

T = cos 2 θ (15)

The phase changes for the reflected and transmitted waves can be calculated directly from (10)
and (11) if we substitute
B1 = B1 e iφ B1 

iφ 
A1 = A1 e A1  (16)

A2 = A2 e iφ A2 

Then,

B1 B i(φ −φ ) P i tan −1 ( 1 P )
= 1 e B1 A1 = e (17)
A1 A1 1 + P2
and

A2 A2 i(φA2 −φA1 ) 1
e i tan ( − P)
−1
= e = (18)
A1 A1 1 + P2
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 457

Hence, the phase changes are

1
φB1 − φ A1 = tan −1   = tan −1 ( cot θ )
P (19)
φ A2 − φ A1 = − tan ( P ) = − tan −1 −1
( tan θ ) = −θ

13-21. The wave function can be written as {see Eq. (13.111a)]

+∞
ψ ( x, t) = ∫ A(k) e
i (ω t − kx )
dk (1)
−∞

Since A(k) has a non-vanishing value only in the vicinity of k = k0 , (1) becomes
k0 +∆k

ψ ( x, t) = ∫ e i(ωt − kx ) dk (2)
k0 −∆k

According to Eq. (13.113),

ω = ω 0 + ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) (3)

Therefore, (2) can now be expressed as

k0 +∆k

ψ ( x , t ) = e i(ω0 − w0′ k0 )t ∫ e(
i ω 0′ t − x ) k
dk
k0 −∆k

 e i( k0 +∆k )(ω0′ t − x ) − e i( k0 −∆k )(ω 0′ t − x) 

=e(
i ω 0 −ω 0′ k0 ) t
 
 i (ω 0′ t − x ) 

2e (
i ω 0 −ω 0′ k0 ) t
 e i(ω 0′ t − x) ∆k − e i(ω 0′ t − x) ∆k 
=   (4)
ω 0′ t − x  2i 
and writing the term in the brackets as a sine, we have

2 sin (ω 0′ t − x ) ∆k  i(ω 0t − k0 x)

ψ ( x, t) = e (5)
ω 0′ t − x

The real part of the wave function at t = 0 is

2 sin ( x∆k )
Re ψ ( x , 0 ) = cos k0 x (6)
x
If ∆k k0 , the cosine term will undergo many oscillations in one period of the sine term. That
is, the sine term plays the role of a slowly varying amplitude and we have the situation in the
figure below.
458 CHAPTER 13

ReΨ(x,0)

13-22.
a) Using Eq. (13.111a), we can write (for t = 0)
+∞
ψ ( x, 0) = ∫ A(k) e
− ikx
dk
−∞

+∞
− σ ( k − k0 )
∫e
2
=B e − ikx dk
−∞

+∞
− σ ( k − k0 )
∫e e ( 0 ) dk
2
− ik0 x −i k−k x
= Be
−∞

+∞

∫e
− σ u2
= Be − ik0 x e − iux du (1)
−∞

This integral can be evaluated by completing the square in the exponent:

+∞ +∞  b 
− a  x 2 − x
∫e ∫e
− ax 2  a 
e dx =
bx
dx
−∞ −∞

+∞ − a  x 2 − b x + b 
2
b2

∫
4 a2 
=  a
e e 4 a dx
−∞

2
b 2 +∞  b 
− a x − 
=e 4a
∫e  2a 
dx (2)
−∞

and letting y = x − b 2a , we have

+∞ b 2 +∞

∫e ∫e
− ax 2 − ay 2
e dx = e
bx 4a
dy (3)
−∞ −∞

Using Eq. (E.18c) in Appendix E, we have

+∞ b2
π
∫e
− ax 2
e dx =
bx
e 4a
(4)
−∞
a

Therefore,
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS; WAVES 459

π − ik0 x − x2 4σ
ψ ( x , 0) = B e e (5)
σ

The form of ψ ( x , 0 ) (the wave packet) is Gaussian with a 1 e width of 4 σ , as indicated in the
diagram below.
Ψ ( x, 0 )
π
B
σ
1 π
⋅B
e σ
x
−2 σ 2 σ

b) The frequency can be expressed as in Eq. (13.113a):

ω ( k ) = ω 0 + ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) + … (6)

and so,
+∞
ψ ( x, t) = ∫ A(k) e
i (ω t − kx )
dk
−∞

+∞
i ω 0 t + ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) t − kx 
= ∫ A(k) e dk
−∞

+∞
i ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) t − ( k − k0 ) x 
= Be (
i ω 0 t − k0 x ) − σ ( k − k0 )
∫e
2
e dk
−∞

+∞
= Be (
i ω 0 t − k0 x )
e(
i ω 0′ t − x ) u
∫e
− σ u2
du (7)
−∞

Using the same integral as before, we find

π i(ω0t − k0 x) − (ω0′ t − x )2
ψ ( x, t) = B e e
4σ
(8)
σ

c) Retaining the second-order term in the Taylor expansion of ω (k), we have

1
ω ( k ) = ω 0 + ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) + ω 0′′( k − k0 ) + …
2
(9)
2
Then,
+∞  1 
i ω 0′ ( k − k0 ) t + ω 0′′( k − k0 ) t − ( k − k0 ) x 
2

ψ ( x , t ) = e i (ω 0 t − k 0 x ) ∫ A(k) e  2 
dk
−∞

+∞  ω ′′t 
−  σ − i 0  u2
= Be (
i ω 0 t − k0 x )
e(
i w0′ t − x ) u
∫
 2 
e du (10)
−∞

We notice that if we make the change σ − iω 0′′t 2 → σ , then (10) becomes identical to (7).
Therefore,
460 CHAPTER 13

2π
ψ ( x, t) = B i ( 0 0 ) e −α ( x ,t)
i ω t−k x
(11)
2σ − iw0′′t

where

(ω 0′t − x ) 2  σ + 2 iω 0′′t

1
α ( x, t) = (12)
4σ 2 + (ω 0′′) t 2
2

The 1 e width of the wave packet will now be

4σ 2 + (ω 0′′) t 2
2

w1 e ( t ) = 2 (13)
σ
or,

 ω ′′t 
2

W1 e ( t ) = 4 σ 1+  0  (14)
 2σ 

In first order, W1 e , shown in the figure above, does not depend upon the time, but in second
order, W1 e depends upon t through the expression (14). But, as can be seen from (8) and (11),
the group velocity is ω 0′ , and is the same in both cases. Thus, the wave packet propagates with
velocity ω 0′ but it spreads out as a function of time, as illustrated below.
Ψ (x, t)

t=0
t = t1

x
O