1.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Bismillahirrahmannirrahim. Alhamdulillah praise to Allah because finally I can finish this first assignment.

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to all those who have directly and indirectly guided me in the writing of this assignment. Without them it must be hard for me to finish this assignment. To finish this assignment, I must put so much effort. Thank you to my lecturer, Mr. Muhaimin because give me opportunity for me to do this work. He also gives me guidance and new knowledge for me which I used all of it in making this assignment. This is my first assignment for this subject and he gave me the procedure in doing this assignment. Actually, I feel so excited to do this first assignment. That is enough for me to complete this assignment successfully. I also want to give a big thanks to my parents Encik Markhani Bin Ishak and Puan Khamisah Binti Yusof because they give a very perfect equipment to me so that I can finish this work properly and on time. They also give me support in mentally even physically. They always motivated me to do the best for the this first assignment. Last but not least, to my roommate and my classmate. They always give me a hand when I need in the progress of this assignment. Thank you to MohdSyariati bin Ibrahim, Muhammad Tarmizi Bin Abd Hamid, Muhammad NasirMukhriz bin Rahman and Sonny Romadhan Bin Kamarazaman. I want to take this opportunity once again to appreciate what they already do for me to make sure my assignment I hope this assignment can give me knowledge about what are the types of stones and manufacturing process. I also hoped that the knowledge that I get not only can be applied in subject QSD 132, but also can be applied in my daily life. Thank you so much to all of you.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION & DEFINITIONS OF STONE Besides loam and wood, stone is natural from was one of the first materials people used for building. In the early days of civilizations, everyday objects such as weapons, simple tools and jewellary were made from stone. Besides the pyramid of Egypt, the first structure built with natural stoned worked into a more or less regular shape were the so-called megalithic monument (from greek. Megas= great+lithos = stone) and the stone circles of stonehage in southern England in probably the best known example. From the times before recorded history, stone has played a fundamental role in the building of humankinds societies. Through its use in architecture, it has granted us greater security, convenience, and a higher aesthetic for millennia. Without stone, the people of ancient Greece would never have known the splendor of the Parthenon. Without their caches of high quality limestone and granite, the builders of the Egyptian Pyramids would have been unable to manifest those sacred resting places for the bodies of their departed pharaohs. And without the limestone and granite used to construct the Great Wall, the peoples of ancientChina would have been left defenseless in the face of multiple neighboring threats. Stone is the aggregration of solid matter composed of one or more of the minerals forming in the earths crust. Stone are commonly divided according to their origin, into three major classes that is igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. (1)

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3.0 OBSERVATION RESULT 3.1 TYPES OF STONE : Basically theres a three types stone in the world. That is: i. ii. iii. IGNEOUS STONE METAMORPHIC STONE SEDIMENTARY STONE

3.1.1 IGNEOUS STONE: These types of stone formed directly from magma and solidification from a molten state Example of the igneous stone is granite. This igneous rock are divided into three subdivisions according to their place of origin: 3.1.1.1 Plutonic stone These stone are formed by the full crystallisation of mobilized magmanin the earth crusts. The usually uniform, non directional and dense structure is dueto the gradual cooling. The naying mineral composition gives rise to rock types like granite , diorite, and gabbro. Almost all plutonic rocks are frost-resistant and are popular in building owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualities. Some igneous stone, e.g granite, can be exhibit above-average natural radioactivity in some circumstances. 3.1.1.2 Hypabbyssal stone These types of stone are perfomed when small amounts of magma solidify within the Earths crust in volcanic vents or fissures. Their structure is similar to plutonic stone but the faster cooling process results in non-uniform crystallization with phenocrysts of other material. This subdivision includes pegmatites, aplites and lamprophyes. 3.1.1.3Extrussive stone In contrast to plutonic stone, stone of this type, e.g diabase,,basalt or rhyolite, form at the transition between the upper mantle (crust) and the surface of earth. The relatively fast cooling process leaves the stone with a crystalline structure. Partial melting of neighbouring stone can lead to highly diverse appearences.

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3.1.2 SEDIMENTARY STONE Sediments are mainly formed by the weathering, erosion and deposition of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the form of debris, gravel or sand. These rocks frequently contain animal or plant fossils. The pressure of the overlying strata compresses the individual particles of the sediment to form a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.g quartz, calcite, clay) circulating in the remaining voids. This process of solidifications of sediments consists of the mechanically disintegrated parts of the original stone. Chemical sediments are precipitation from solutions as a result of chemical reactions or biological processes which subsequently solidify under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and travertine. The properties of sedimentary stone that are interesting for building purposes vary considerably and essentially depends on the conditions during their formation (temperature,pressure) and the respective binders. Chemical sediments (e.g onyx, petrographic name: calc-sinter) are particularly suitable for internal finishings owning to their diverses textures.

3.1.3 METAMORPHIC STONE Metamorphic stone are formed from existing stone are called orthorocks when formed from igneous rocks or pararocks when the original material is sedimentary stone. High pressures high temperatures or chemical influences transform the original stone or even completely new types. They are usually easily recognized by their dense structure free from virtually all voids, their distinct textures or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical composition appearance and uses in buildind vary considerably. Important metamorphic stone types are slate, marble and gneiss. (2)

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3.2 COMMON TYPES OF STONE USE IN BUILDING A selection of the most common types of stone used in buildings is given below: Granite Granite is probably the best known of the plutonic rocks. Its contituents are feldspar (which determinants the colour), quartz (responsible for the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather resistant, is regarded as the most resistant of stone , can be used almost without restriction in building work, and is unaffected by airbone pollution. Numerous colour are available in red, pink ,yellow ,white ,grey and blue-green. Basalt Basalt is the dark, usually dark grey to black, exrusive rock with a dense , non directional structure consisting mainly of feldspar and augite. It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely difficult to work, is weather resistant, and is ideal for external applications. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is formed by the chemical disintegration of the mineral constituents (e.g chlorite, serpentine) Sandstone Sandstone belongs to the group of clastic sedimentary stone and consists primarily of quartz grains cemented together by a binder. Sandstoneare found in many colours (red, yellow, brown and green) The type of binder (quartz, calcite, clay) determines primaliry strength, water absorption and frost resistance it is not suitable for heavily trafficked floors. Limestone This is a chemical sedimentary stone that was formed during various geological periods, originally in water- proved by the fossils found in limestone. It consists mainly of calcium carbonate and occurs in various colours, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or white. Limestone can be used almost universally. Only it use In areas that require frequent cleaning (e.g entrances, public buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its

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Marble Marble, a pararock, is formed by the metamorphosis of calcareous sedimentary stone. Pure marble is white, crystalline and free from fossils. The crystals surfaces shine in bright light. This stone is ideal for sculpted work with contours, but is also used in buildings as a floor finish or wall/faade cladding. (3)

3.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD BUILDING STONES. APPEARANCE & COLOUR: Have uniform and appearing colour, free from haw and clay holes. Have the ability to receive good polish. WEIGHT: Should be high as stones can resist greater force and more compact and less porosity ELECTRICAL RESISTANT: Must be non absorbent like slate HARDNESS AND TOUGHNESS: Must be adequately hard and tough resist wear and tear. STRENGTH: Have sufficient strength to be subjected to compression stress. DURABILITY: Compact and homogeneous stones are more durable. COST: Depends on availability of quarried out and method of dressing (shapping the stone) (4)

3.4 IMPORTANT OF STONES IN CONSTRUCTION Construction of residential and public buildings Construction of dam, harbours, bridges Facework of structure and forms of vencers for decorative front and interior of building As aggregate in concrete Building and decorative stone Industrial purposes (5)

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3.5 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Man first bult with what was at hand, the three basic materials availabale to him were wood, stone, and mud or clay. The history of architecture until as late as 1900 was largely the story of these materials as used in construction. Stone was the structural material, the exterior and interior finishing material, the floor material and in many case roofing material. It was also used for retaining walls, roads, walks, paths, steps, and all types of sculpture, statuary, and decorative and ornamental applications. Today stone is used almost entirely as a surface finishing material for both the exterior and interior of buildings. Basically there have a three steps of manufacturing process of stone (Quarrying, Flame Drilling, Mill operations) 3.5.1 QUARRYING Today stone is obtained from quarries in almost the same manner as in ancient times except that modern tools are used. In fact, some quarries used by the Greeks, Romans and Carthagians are still in operation. The method is first to create a channel or slot to a certain depth (floor) is exposed. The size of this floor area is controlled by the characteristic of the natural stone deposit or by operational limitations. To create a channel, holes are drilled close together horizontally to a certain established depth and the stone between the holes is removed. Then wedges are placed into narrow horizontal slot, and the entire of block of stone is broken free. These large blocks are then subdivided into smaller units either by drilling and wedging or by the wire saws now used by most stone producers. The wire saw cuts a smooth surface, thus reducing finishing in the mill, it can also subdivide large blocks of stone into size for finishing in the mill. In the quarry a new and deeper slot is made, and the entire quarrying sequence just described is repeated.

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3.5.2 FLAME DRILLING A relatively new means of cutting long, narrow horizontal slots in the quarries is the flame drill. This device feeds liquid oxygen and fuel oil through a nozzle to develop a temperature over 2760 celcius. When a stream of water is added to this flame, the combination Is disintegrates the stone into fragments which are automatically blown out of the cut. This method produces a horizontal slot 8 in. The noise develop is so loud that the operations is usually done only during the night. 3.5.3 MILL OPERATIONS From the quarry the blocks of stone are transported to the finishing mill, which may be located near the quarry or far removed. Here the stone is subdivided and shaped into finished materials. Cutting is done by circular saw , gang saw that move horizontally back and forth, and wire saws. All types of saw use abrasives with water as the cutting material. Stone that is not polished has its surface ground down, first with coarse abrasives and then with increasingly finer abrasives until the stage of final polish, which is done with a felt and a very fine polishing material. (6)

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4.0 CONCLUSION Stone has been used as a building material for thousands of years. It has long been recognised as a material of great durability and superior artistic quality, the foremost choice for buildings associated with status, power and religion. The pyramids in Giza, burial chambers in the UK and temples in Malta were all built from stone over 4000 years ago and are still standing. The use of stone in construction has declined over the last hundred years, but it remains an aristocrat of building materials. As a conclusion, after do a research, I can get know very well about types & manufacturing process of stone. Beside that, I also can get knows about the common stone that use in building, characteristic of good building stones and important of stones in construction. After this, I will applied what the types of stones that I already knows to my daily life and to my construction work.

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5.0 REFFERENCE (1) MATERIAL= PAGE 688 (2) CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL 2= (3) http://www.graniteworldnewengland.com/natural-stone.html,
http://www.granitepluskitchen.com/types-stone.html

(4) http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Building-Construction-3-3/Characteristics-OfBuilding-Stone-Part-2.html (5) http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mendips/aggregates/stone_resource/stoneuses.html (6) MATERIAL = PAGE 692-693

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6.0 APPENDICES Igneous stone (basalt)

Sedimentary stone (quartz)

Metamorphic stone (marble)

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