Modeling the hysteretic response of mechanical connections for wood structures

Ricardo O. Foschi1 ABSTRACT Using basic material properties of the connector and the embedment characteristics of the surrounding wood medium, a general model is presented for the calculation of the hysteretic loops in mechanical connections. The approach considers the connector as an elasto-plastic beam in a nonlinear medium which only acts in compression, permitting the formation of gaps between the beam and the medium. The model automatically adapts to any input history, either for force or displacement, and develops pinching as gaps are formed. Examples are shown for different types of connections and input histories. The model can be implemented for a group of connectors, and a example is shown for the response of a connection to earthquake loading. INTRODUCTION Nonlinear structural response to time-varying excitation is influenced by the hysteretic relationship between the applied forces and the resulting displacements. This behaviour is characteristic of a connection where a nail or a pin is driven into wood and a load F is applied at the nail/pin head, Fig. 1. The relationship between the horizontal displacement at the head and the load F is typically of the form shown in Fig. 2, a hysteresis loop which represents the nonlinear response resulting from the elasto-plastic properties of the nail/pin, the nonlinear interaction between it and the surrounding wood medium, and the formation of gaps between them. The behaviour is also characteristic of a pin connecting several structural members, as shown in Figure 3, when one of the members is displaced with respect to the others. In all these examples, the hysteretic behaviour is a structural response controlled by underlying nonlinear characteristics: on one hand, the behaviour of wood when compressed and, on the other, the elasto-plastic characteristics of the nail or pin. In addition, the hysteresis loop shows pinching due to the formation of gaps between the structural element and the supporting medium, gaps which result from the absence of tensile stresses at the interface wood-nail/pin. Gaps result in structural looseness and must be accounted in the analysis, particularly for limit states associated with tolerable deformations or damage levels. Since the area enclosed by the loop is a measurement of the energy dissipated during the displacement history, hysteretic properties play a central role in the dynamic response of structures to, for example, earthquake ground motion. It is essential, therefore, to include a proper representation of hysteresis in the analysis. Empirical hysteresis models are commonly used in structural engineering and are constructed by specifying a set of rules for loading and unloading paths. These rules usually involve a set of parameters which are calibrated to an observed experimental response for a given load or displacement history. This approach uses from rather coarse models involving straight segments between changes in displacement direction, to more sophisticated and versatile techniques. Among the latter, the procedure developed by Baber, Noori and Wen (1981, 1985) and modified slightly by Foliente (1995), is particularly noted. In it, a first-order differential equation for the force is integrated as a function of the displacement, as it progresses over time. The differential equation contains 13 parameters which must be calibrated to tests, and this number of degrees of freedom provides sufficient flexibility to account for yielding, pinching, strength and stiffness degradation. In a simplified form, the Baber-Noori-Wen model has been implemented, for example, in describing the nonlinear response of contact springs in software like SAP2000. Loops represented by piecewise linear segments are part of the library of hysteretic responses implemented in dynamic analysis programs like DRAIN-2D. A discussion of empirical models used for wood connections is given by Deam et al. (1994) and by Blass (1994), in a RILEM state-of-the-art report for timber structures in seismic regions.

Professor, Civil Engineering Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Canada V6T 1Z4

P F
F

Figure 1. Pin Connector

Figure 2. Hysteresis Loop

2F

F F
Figure 3. Three Layer Pin Connection

While an empirical model can be adjusted quite accurately to a given experimental loop, the question remains as to whether the fitted set of parameters would provide a proper representation of loops for histories other than the one used in the calibration, given that the loop represents a structural response to the corresponding history and it is not a material or cross-sectional property. For example, if the experimental displacements were not sufficient to produce pinching or stiffness degradation, the parameter(s) controlling these characteristics cannot be properly calibrated. The resulting model cannot then be expected to account accurately for energy dissipation when the displacement history results in substantial pinching. Another, more reliable approach, presented in this paper, is to calculate the coordinates of the hysteresis loop at each time step, solving the nonlinear problem of the structural response to the imposed history. Calculating the true response involves a complex three-dimensional problem, but it can be estimated from basic stress/strain information on the structural member, and from a simple representation of the nonlinear behaviour of the medium surrounding that member. In general terms, the proposed formulation is based on the response of an elasto-plastic beam on a nonlinear foundation, with an interface which only acts in compression. A beam finite element formulation is then used for the member, using higher order interpolating shape functions to reduce the number of required elements. The main advantage of this approach is that, starting from basic material properties, it automatically adapts to any input displacement history. Instead of calibration parameters, to some of which it may be difficult to assign a physical meaning, the approach uses constants with which engineers are more familiar: moduli of elasticity, yield stress, etc. This simplified approach is already common in geotechnical engineering: it has been used to study the response of pile foundations, only not using finite elements and restricting the analysis to elastic piles, when the response of the soil is characterized by the so-called p-y curves (e.g, Gohl,

1991; Finn et al., 1992; Finn et al.1997). The model presented here was also the basis for the development of the program CYCPILE for monotonic and cyclic response of piles (Vazinkhoo et al., 1996). A hybrid approach has been described recently by Chui et al. (1998) for wood connections: a finite element analysis was used with basic information on the connector element, but at the same time a set of empirical set of rules were incorporated for the loading and unloading paths of the wood medium. These rules implicitly embodied the formation of gaps, which were not explicitly considered, and required the fitting of parameters as in a full empirical model. The prediction of the hysteretic response for a single connector permits its integration into the analysis of a system where many such members are present. For example, the prediction for a single nail can be integrated into the estimate of the hysteretic response of a wood shear wall with many nails, or of a frame with many pinned connections. It should be noted that, in comparison with the use of fitted loops, the more general procedure presented here is more computational intensive, since it requires the solution of a nonlinear problem at each time step. This shortcoming should not be considered serious, however, as it is balanced by the todays rapid pace of advancement in computer speed and power. On the other hand, the additional computational effort is amply compensated by an increased model reliability for dynamic analyses. THE MODEL Fig. 4 shows a beam member between two nodes, i and j. The x-axis is taken positive from i to j, while the y-axis is perpendicular to the member direction. The deformation of the member is expressed in terms of displacements for points O along the axis, assuming that plane sections remain plane after deformation. It is assumed that O is the centroid of the corresponding cross-section. Thus, if u is the axial displacement of O, and w is the corresponding lateral or bending displacement, the strain at a distance y from the axis is expressed as

u 2 w 1 w y 2 + = x 2 x x

[1]

in which the last nonlinear term will allow the consideration of deflection amplifications due to the effect of axial compressive loads (P- effects). The stress () in the member is assumed to obey an elasto-perfectly plastic constitutive relation, as shown in Fig. 5, in which E is the modulus of elasticity and y the yield stress. If the previous state is {o , o}, the stress () corresponding to a new strain can be calculated according to the following algorithm:

F ( ) = o + E ( o ) if if

F ( ) y ( ) = F ( ) F ( ) > y ( ) = y

[2]

F ( ) F ( )

which will generate the hysteresis loop shown in Fig. 5. A similar algorithm can be developed should strain hardening be taken into account. The resultant reaction p from the medium, per unit length, is assumed to be a function p(w) of the displacement w, as shown in Fig.6, and to be present only when p is a compressive force. Let us assume that, at a point along the member, the new displacement is w and the previous state is given by point P, for which the reaction is po and the displacement is wo. Given the initial slope K, let the displacement Do define the path P Do which will be followed if the new w implies a reversal from wo . Do is associated with point P(po , wo) according to

Do = w o p o

[3]

If, upon reversal, w is smaller than Do, p becomes p = 0. Upon re-loading, p remains p = 0 until w reaches Do, and then increases following the path Do P until w reaches wo. For displacements w beyond wo, the corresponding reaction p is obtained directly from the main curve p(w). Do thus represents the permanent deformation in the medium after it has been compressed an amount wo , and it is used to monitor the gap between member and medium. In order to account for gaps either to the left or the right of the member in Figure 3, two values of Do must be updated during the deformation: compression on the right, and

Do+ for

Do for compression on the left. In general, the values Do+ and Do are functions of x,

giving different gaps at different points along the member length. Knowing the previous state defined by the corresponding Do , the value p(w) for a new w is then obtained with the following algorithm,

if ( w > Do ) p = min of [ p1 = K (w D0 ) , p 2 = p( w)] if ( p = p 2 ) update Do : Do = w p / K if ( p = 0) or ( p = p1 ) Do unchanged

if ( w Do ) p = 0

[4]

x j u(x) w(x)

y 0
E

0
y
Figure 5. Steel Hysteresis

i
Figure 4. Finite Element

Using the corresponding Do, the algorithm is applied either to the right or to the left of the member, generating the corresponding response in compression. The sum ( Do corresponding location.
+

+ Do ) is, at any time, the total width of the gap developed at the

p(w)

p0

K D0

K w0

Figure 6. Embedment Response The principle of virtual work is then applied to formulate the equations required for the solution:
L w ( ) dv + p ( w ) w dx = Pu x = L + Fw x = L w V 0

[5]

where V is the total volume of the member, P is an axial external load applied at x = L, F is the external load applied at x = L in the y-direction, and w and are, respectively, the virtual displacement and corresponding virtual strain. The model presented here considers only lateral loads p due to compression and, for simplicity, ignores frictional forces in the x-direction between the member and the medium. Thus, the model cannot be applied in the form shown here when the displacements u(x) become substantial, as in a case of withdrawal of a short nail from wood or for piles under earthquake excitations along the x-direction. The model is intended to apply to sufficiently long members in problems where lateral deformations dominate. For consideration of friction forces, and their relative importance, see Allotey (1999). To formulate a numerical solution in terms of finite elements, the deformations u(x) and w(x) are represented, respectively, as cubic and fifth-order polynomials in , a local variable along the member axis between nodes i and j. If the corresponding vector a of degrees of freedom is

a T = (wi , wi' , wi" , u i , u i' , w j , w 'j , w "j , u j , u 'j )

where, for example, written as

[6]

2w w wi' = and wi" = 2 , the shape functions N0() and M0() allow u(x) and w(x) to be w x i i
u( x ) = N T a 0 w( x ) = M T a 0
[7] [8]

and, correspondingly,
T T u' ( x ) = N 1 a ; w' ( x ) = M 1 a ; w" ( x ) = M T a 2

[9]

The strain in equation (1), consistent with the shape functions N0() and M0() , can then be written as

1 T T = ( N 1 yM T )a + a T M 1 M 1 a 2 2
and the virtual strain is obtained from
T = a T (N 1 y M 2 ) + a T M 1 M 1 a

[10]

[11]

Introduction of the previous relations into equation (5) results in a vector =

T ( ) {N1 y M 2 + M 1 M 1 a}dv + T p M0 a 0 L

)M

M a

T 0 T 0

M 0 dx P N 0 ( x = L ) FM 0 ( x = L )

[12]

which, for the solution of the problem, must be = 0. This vector is obtained first for each element and then, following standard finite element techniques, is assembled into the corresponding global vector. The solution global vector a is obtained via the Newton-Raphson iterative procedure in which, starting from a vector

a * to which corresponds a vector

* , an upgraded a

is obtained by

a = a * + *

] ( )
1
*

[13]

where [ *] is the tangent stiffness matrix associated with the vectors * and this matrix is obtained from

a * . In general, the component i , j of

i , j =
[14] which gives, in general,

i a j

T [ ] = d (N 1 yM 2 + M 1M1T a)(N 1 yM 2 + M 1M1T a)T + ( ) M 1M 1 + dp M 0 M T [15] 0 d dw V V 0

This tangent stiffness matrix is obtained first for each element and then assembled into the global matrix using standard finite element procedures. The integrals are computed numerically, using a Gaussian grid in the axial x-direction and, over the cross-section, in the y-direction. The solution to Eq. [13] requires appropriate boundary conditions. It is useful to focus on the case in which a displacement history is specified and the corresponding forces are to be calculated. Two sub-cases must then be discussed: 1. The displacement w is specified at a some points (nodes) along the member. For example, the displacement at the head of a nail is given as a function of time discretized into a number of displacement steps. In this case, Eq. [13] is solved for each step enforcing the corresponding displacements at the specified nodes. The displacement is not known a-priori at any point of the member, but it is known for the free field or the medium. For example, in the case of a pin connecting three layers, the enforced displacement may be that of the central layer with respect to the neighbors. In this case, if the displacement of the central layer is , the virtual work done by the

2.

medium reactions must be modified taking into account that, while for the outside layers the reaction is calculated directly in terms of w, in the internal layer it is calculated in terms of - w. As in the previous case, is given as a function of time discretized into a number of steps. Eq. [13] is solved for each displacement step, using as the initial vector the one to which the procedure converged during the previous step. Convergence at each displacement step is achieved when both

ai +1 ai ai
where, in general,

Tol1

and

Tol2

[16]

ai

represents the Euclidean norm of the vector

a after the ith iteration step, with Tol1 and Tol2

being specified tolerances. INPUT DATA The model presented here requires only basic data for the member and for the medium. The data for the former is straightforward, including only the modulus of elasticity and the yield stress. The characterization of the p(w) response for the medium is more complicated and merits further discussion. Ideally, it represents the response w to a uniform compressive load p. A laboratory test for a wood connection could be planned, for example, in which a length of the connector is pushed directly against the wood foundation. However, this test would be quite misleading and probably of little value. The actual p(w) response must take into account the confinement of the member in the medium and, furthermore, it would be difficult to avoid bending of the member during the test, contaminating the intended pure compression objective. The p(w) response can be obtained instead by using the model in conjunction with the results of an arbitrary test where the force has been obtained for a monotonically increasing w. In a material characterization exercise, the parameters in the basic p(w) response are then obtained by linking the model with a nonlinear minimization and using, for example, the principle of least squares to fit the test results. This is presented in Foschi and Yao (2000). NUMERICAL EXAMPLES The model has been implemented in a program, HYST, developed at the Civil Engineering Department of the University of British Columbia. Three applications of this program will now be discussed: 1) a single pin or nail under cyclic loading, 2) the cyclic response of a pin connecting three layers of wood , and 3) the earthquake response of a pin connection. 1. Single Nail The behaviour of a single nail is required for the dynamic analysis of multiple-nail wood assemblies like shear walls. This example is an application of HYST and considers a single, mild steel nail driven into wood, with a length of 63.5mm, a diameter of 3.5mm, a modulus of elasticity E = 200,000 Mpa and a yield stress y = 250 Mpa. The basic response p(w) is represented with a relationship containing 7 parameters, of which only 6 are independent ( K, Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3, Dmax ). The form of this relationship allows for degradation in strength and stiffness beyond w = Dmax , for which the load is at the peak p = pmax . The relationship is expressed as

If w DMAX then : If w > DMAX then :

p( w) = (Q0 + Q1w)( 1.0 + exp{ Kw / Q0 })

p( w) = pMAX exp{Q4 ( w DMAX ) 2 }

where pMAX = (Q0 + Q1 DMAX )( 1.0 + exp{ KDMAX / Q0 }) and

Q4 = log{Q2 } / [ DMAX (Q3 1.0) ]2
and has the form shown in Fig. 7.

[17]

p(w)

Q1

A pmax Q0 Q2 Dmax K Dmax Q3 Dmax w

Figure 7. Embedment Response Representation K is the initial slope at w = 0 ; Q0 and Q1 are the intercept and the slope of the asymptote AB, and Q4 controls the decay in p past wmax . Q4 is determined by providing the parameters Q2 and Q3 . These, in turn, are defined so that the load is a fraction (Q2 pmax ) at a displacement (Q3 Dmax ). The six independent parameters are calibrated to a test with monotonically increasing w. In this example, Q0 = 0.25 kN/mm Q1 = 0.001 kN/mm2 Q2= 0.5 Q3 = 1.2 K = 0.15 kN/mm2 Dmax = 5.0 mm

[18]

The nail length was subdivided into 20 equal elements, 5 and 16 Gauss points were used, respectively, in the x-and ydirections, and the tolerance was 10-3 .. Fig. 8 shows the displacement applied at node 21, at the nail head, as well as the resulting hysteresis loop.

20.0

1.0

Force

0.0 0

t 700 -20.0

0.0 0.0

20.0

-20.0

-1.0

Figure 8. Displacement history and resulting hysteresis loop, single nail. 2. Single Pin Connecting Three Wood Layers In this example, a single mild steel pin with a total length of 150mm and a diameter of 9.525mm is used to connect three wood members, each with a thickness of 50mm. The embedment properties for all layers are Q0 = 0.50 kN/mm Q1 = 0.0015 kN/mm2 Q2= 0.5 Q3 = 1.2 K = 0.40 kN/mm2 Dmax = 7.5 mm

[19]

20.0

15.0

Force

t 0.0 0 450 -20.0 0.0 0.0

20.0

-20.0

-15.0

Figure 9. Displacement history and resulting hysteresis loop, 3-member connection

The cyclic history shown in Figure 9 is applied to the middle layer, and the same figure shows the corresponding hysteretic response. Due to the symmetry of the problem, only half of the pin is discretized with finite elements. All elements are of the same length, and 5 and 16 Gauss points were again used in, respectively, the x- and the y-directions. In this case, the input specifies the slip for the middle layer and, in general, it will not coincide with the displacement w at any of the member nodes. 3. Four pin connection under earthquake excitation Fig.10 shows a connection with four pins linking a Parallam member with two side steel plates. The top of the member has an overhanging mass with a weight of 13.35 kN. The properties of the pin connectors are given as in Eq.[19]. When solving the dynamic equations for the assembly, HYST can be used to obtain the forces in the pins corresponding to the slip demands from the earthquake, thus calculating the hysteresis for the connection at each step. Fig. 11 shows the calculated time history for the horizontal displacement of the mass M, when the assembly was subjected to the Landers, Joshua Tree station, California event of 1992. This earthquake motion was applied without amplification of the peak ground acceleration. Connections of this type have been recently tested in the University of British Columbias shake table, with the objective of validating HYST. Connections with either three or six pins were tested using either the Landers or the Kobe (Japan) earthquakes, with good agreement between measurements and predictions (Wong, 1999).

30.00

20.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 -10.00 -20.00 -30.00 -40.00 -50.00 10.00 20.00 30.00

t
40.00

aG

Figure 10. 4-pin connection, earthquake load.

Fig.11. 4-pin connection, displacement history CONCLUSION

This paper has presented a model for the calculation of hysteresis loops with application to mechanical connections in wood structures. Since it is based on basic properties it can accommodate any input displacement or force history, a feature which is a source of uncertainty when using empirical loops fitted to particular experimental input. Although there is still a need to empirically adjust coefficients for the basic response of the medium to monotonically increasing compression forces (embedment properties), the model does not require an a-priori set of empirical rules for loading and unloading. The approach has been illustrated with examples for connectors in single or multiple-layer wood connections. The predictions for a single connector can be implemented into a multiple-connector assembly, allowing a better estimate of the structural distribution of energy dissipation through ductility. This provides a useful tool to study the reliability of a structure under earthquake excitation, taking proper account of the ductility or nonlinear behavior.

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REFERENCES Allotey, N. 1999. A model for the response of single timber fasteners and piles under cyclic and dynamic loading. Masters Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Baber, T. and Wen, Y.K. 1981. Random Vibration of Hysteretic Degrading Systems. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 107(6): 1069-1089. Baber, T. and Noori, M.N. 1985. Random Vibration of Degrading, Pinching Systems. Journal ofEngineering Mechanics, ASCE, 111(8): 1010-1026. Blass, H. J. 1994. Behaviour of Timber Joints Under Cyclic Loading, in: Timber Structures in Seismic Regions: RILEM State-of-the-Art Report, Materials and Structures 27:157-184. Chui, Y.H., Ni, C. and Jiang, L. 1998. Finite Element Model for Nailed Wood Joints Under Reversed Cyclic Load. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 124(1): 96-103. Deam, B. and King, A. 1994. The Seismic Behaviour of Timber Structures. Proc. Pacific Timber Engineering Conference, Gold Coast, Australia, 215-221. Finn, W.L. and Gohl, W.B. 1992. Response of Model Pile Groups to Strong Shaking, in Piles Under Dynamic Loads, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No.34, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, N.Y, 27-55. Finn, W.L., Wu G. and Thavaraj, T. 1997. Soil Pile-Structure Interactions, in Seismic Analysis and Design for Soil-PileStructure Interactions, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No.70, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, N.Y, 1-22. Foliente, G. 1995. Hysteresis Modeling of Wood Joints and Structural Systems, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 121(6): 1013-1022. Foschi, R.O. and Yao, F. 2000. Determining embedment response parameters from connector tests. Proceedings, World Conference on Timber engineering, Whistler, B.C. Canada. Gohl, W.B. 1991. Response of Pile Foundations to Simulated Earthquake Loading: Experimental and Analytical Results, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Vazinkhoo, S., Byrne, P.M., Lee, M.K. and Foschi, R.O. (1996). CYCPILE A Computer Program for Analysis of Cyclic and Monotonic Lateral Loads on Single Piles. Proc.49th Can.Geotechnical Conference, St. Johns, Newfoundland. Wong, E. 1999. Verification of an analytical hysteresis model for dowel-type timber connections using shake table tests. Masters Thesis. Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

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