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ELECTEICITT.
AT THE

PARIS OF

EXPOSITION
*

1889.

BY

CARL

BERING.

Iff
rxn
OF

FORMING
THf-:

PORTION
r XI TED

VOLUME

IV

OF

THE

REPORTS
TO THE

OF

MATES

COMMISSIONERS

UNIVKKSAL

EXPOSITION
A T

0^1889

PARIS.

THE

W.
41

J.
PARK

JOHNSTON
Row

COMPANY,
YORK.

LTD.,

(TIMES BUILDING), NEW

1893.

PREFACE.

features of the Paris Universal report on the electrical official Exposition of 1889 is included among a large number of reports by United

THE

States Commissioners
the whole has

to the various departments

of the Exposition, and

been just

published collectivelyby the Government.

groups and tion classes comprised, the publicafor ready reference

Owing

to the very many

is not only cumbersome

in form, but inconvenient

and

use,

and

as

its circulation will probably be confined chiefly to will not be readily obtainable

the work public and other large libraries,

by those who desire copies. In offering this volume

the wishes of those to whom
to the public, the publishers endeavor to meet

the collection of official reports will not be portion

on

accessible,or

who

desire the complete

in electricity

convenient

form for reading and reference.

Although

ready for the press three years ago, this volume

could

not

be published until after the publication of the complete the matter,

however, is of
a

report; most

of

technical character not affected by the delay. report

The present volume

which
work

contains all that portion of the complete

refers to the department

including of Electricity,

an

account

of the

done by the International Congress of Electriciansheld at the time edition is limited to

a

of the Exposition.

small number

of copies.

_The
October, 1893.

REPORT

ON

ELECTRICITY

(CLASS

62),

BY

CARI,

HERINQ.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

Introduction General
Extent

Page.

9 and
...

relative importance

of the exhibits from

different countries.

10

Progress.

Classification Description of the exhibits

15 16 17

Jury
Congress

18
remarks

Concluding

20

I. Electro-dynamics.
Dynamos
:

General

21
description dynamos dynamos
,

Detailed

28
28
,
.

Continuous-current
Alternating-current Dynamo accessories

44
47

Transformers
Arc Lamps

49 53 description
Lamps 55

Detailed
Incandescent Detailed

62

description and

64
Distribution
67
69

Systems

of Transmission Detailed description

Electric Railways

73
,

Installations
Lighting Lighting
of the Exhibition of Paris

74 76 77 78

Statistics
Accessories
:

Regulators Lightning
Automatic
arresters

78
80 and
fuzes
;

safety cut-outs
for wires

82
83

Switches Couplings
.

86

posts Miscellaneous accessories Applications Miscellaneous of Electrical Energy

Binding

87 88
:

Electric Welding. Applications

Magnetic of Power
,

90 93
95

Separators
Fountains
5

Illuminated

98

6
II. Telegraphy

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.
Page.

and Telephony. : Telegraphy

General

Single-transmission systems telegraphy Automatic

Diplex Duplex
systems
systems

100

106

Quadruplex systems
Multiplex Multiple
systems

stations on one line telegraphy Submarine-cable

Accessories

114
115

H6

Telephony

General
Receivers

119
122

Transmitters
Accessories

123 126

Systems of transmission Miscellaneous

127
129

III. Annunciators,
Applications

Alarms,

Bells, Clocks, Gas-lighting, etc. , and Miscellaneous of Electricity.

and alarms 132

Annunciators Bells

134
135

Electric clocks Gas-lighting

Domestic apparatus Miscellaneous applications

136
137 137 137

Gas engines with electrical ignition Mine blasting

Electric organ Melograph and
Automatic

141
142

Melotrope
machine

144 145 146 147

........

weighing
for weighing

Machine Knitting
Loom

yarn

machine

arrester

148
149

Tricycle Machine
for voting Electric lock

149
149 apparatus 149

Recording

and

indicating

IV.

Electro-chemistry.
Electroplating General Detailed description Miscellaneous
:

and

Galvanoplastics

150 150

electrically Reproducing engravings Electrical production of sulphate Bleaching

of liquors Electro-metallurgy

Coloring

153 153 of copper 154

154

Treatment

155 156

Primary

batteries

General
Bichromate cells and cells for large outputs
of potash

156

modifications

157

Other

167

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

7
Page.

IV.

Electro-chemistry Primary

"

Continued.
"

batteries

Continued. 170 173 175 175

type Cells of the Leclanche Other cells for small currents Chemically pure zinc Miscellaneous Accumulators
:

General Cells of the Plante type Cells of the Faure type

V. types of cells Instruments Electrical Measuring
'

175
179

182

Other

188
and

Scientific Apparatus.
189 190 201
202

General Galvanometers
Electro-dynamometers
Electrometers Resistance Amperemeters

boxes
and Voltmeters

204
207

Meters
Watt Ampere Time
hour meters hour meters

216 217 221 224

meters

Miscellaneous
VI.

measuring

instruments

and

apparatus

224 229

Thermo-generators Cables, and

VII. Wires,

Conduits.
230
231 236

General
Bare wires Insulated wires Cables Miscellaneous
:

238
wires of Paris

Underground
French

239 240
240

cables submarine Cable-making machine Galvanized wire for the French

Testing,

Government

240 241 241

splices, couplings

Conduits
VIII. Applications Miscellaneous of Electricity in Medicine

and

Surgery

243

IX.

exhibits. 245 246 246 246

Lightning rods Steel magnets Magnetic nickel alloy Non-magnetic watches

X.

General

supplies. Carbons

247 249
249

rubber Porcelain
Fixtures

Hard

250

;TY

REPORT

ON ELECTRICITY.

By

CARL

HERING.

to give a genreport the writer has endeavored eral important by description of the more exhibits, accompanied opinions, histories of their development, summaries comparisons,

In the following

as of the progress shown, statistics,and in general such information of this class at the exhibition, will indicate the extent and importance by this exhibithe present state of the art as represented tion. and

exhibition held since the practical beginning of the development of this great industry, it was of interest to notice the place it took among other industries, structiv the exhibition attractive and inand the part it played in making
This being the
to the absence of exhibits from a number ferent of difnot as international countries, the exhibition in this class was have been desired, though the number might of foreign exhibits

first universal

international

Owing

as
was

the exhibits cannot be said in such branches in to represent the true state of the art, except The however, industry the Frencli excel. was, very which well far as France it was as was comvery plete. represented, and, concerned,
by
no means

small.

For this

reason

In general it was quite large, very interesting, and instructive. It was to be regretted, for several reasons, that this industry, largest of the country, in the United States ranks among the which in the grouping did not receive the prominent of the exhibits place

that it demands.
as

in the

commenced demands it may

classification was adopted be said to have hardly it may 1878, when exhibition of its development. The present importance try of this indus-

In grouping

it,the

same

that it should be made a separate group, in order that It receive the attention and prominence which it deserves. the old classification of a group instead of
9

is strongly urged that in future exhibitions the rank should be altered, giving this subject
a

class.

10
EXTENT AND

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

RELATIVE

IMPORTANCE

OF

THE

EXHIBITS

FROM

DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES.

idea of the compilations will give an approximate a^.d extent of the exhibits from the United relative importance States in this class, as compared with those from other countries. follows : as The number of exhibitors in this class were The

following

France, about United States Great Britain Belgium Switzerland Russia Portugal Austria Mexico Italy

360 28 19 13 8 5 4 3 3 2

Chile Uruguay Germany Japan Luxemburg Norway Finland Argentine

Total

2 2 1 1 1 1 1

Confederation

455

total of 455, France had 360, leaving 95 foreign exhibitors. Of these the United States had 28, which is therefore about one-third comes next, having one-fifth. of all the foreign exhibits. England
In
a

France

had 79 per cent of the total number States, 6.2; Great Britain, 4.2; Belgium,

of exhibitors ; United 2.8; Switzerland, 1.8;

It is to be regretted Russia, 1, and the rest together, 5 per cent. was that Germany very much practically not represented in this class at the exhibition Of the fifteen members had 10 ; of the electrical jury, France
.

United

States, 2; Great

Britain,

1;

Switzerland,

1;

Belgium,

1.

Besides this, there

5 supplemental : were jurors France had 3, Great Britain and Belgium, each 1. The floor space occupied by our 967.25 electrical exhibits was square meters, or, in round meters. numbers, about 1,000 square

cluding section was of the French about 2,000 square meters, not inten stations distributed about the grounds for the eight or lighting. The floor space occupied by the other foreign countries
can

That

not be determined
were

with

accuracy,
numerous

owing

to the fact that the exhibits

were

very much From it apan estimate, however, pears scattered about the grounds. Switzerland comes that next, with 210 square meters, then Belgium then Great Britain, with 60 square meters, the others and

together

with

others, and

being

quite small.
greater

somewhat

However,

States was space occupied by the United than that of all the other foreign countries combined. the importance of an exhibit is by no means proportional
it occupies. the importance

The

to the space

Neither
an

represent

merely

approximate compared with that from other countries. A better comparison of the real values give

an

of idea of the extent of

will the number These exhibit.

our

of exhibitors figures
as

exhibits

be had
the

from

the number eliminates

jury,as that

of the exhibits may perhaps the awards made by and nature of entirely the space occupied, and in a

ELECTRICITY.

11
awards Grand

measure

made

also the number by the jury were as

The of insignificant exhibitors. follows, in order of their value:

mention. prize, gold medal, silver medal, bronze medal, and honorable to the different Now, the mere total number of awards given by no means represent the value or importance of countries would

the exhibits from

It is absolutely necessary, if any those countries. is to be made, to give the different awards some at all summation mine Such a relative scale is difficultto deterdefinite relative values.

Different upon, as it is almost entirely a matter of opinion. it, depending on have entirely different views regarding persons did not receive, as well as on the award what award they received or It is certain, however, that an arithmetic which their neighbor received. scale of relative values of 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 does not express the relative The importance of the higher awards values of the different awards. A geometric more increases much scale would give much rapidly. here truer values, and therefore the following scale will be assumed fair average a as value: Grand prize, 20; gold, 10; representing ber silver.5; bronze, 2; honorable mention, 1. By multiplying the numof the awards by their respective values on this basis, the totals obtained can then be assumed to give their relative values. The awards made to electricalexhibitors in the different countries,

and their relative values

on

this basis,

were

as

follows:

It will be seen also from the above that the United States has onefifth as much France, twice as much as as England, and about two It has four as Switzerland and a half times as much and Belgium. times as many grand prizes as any other foreign country, more gold

12

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

It received one-third of silver as any other. medals and as many 12 per cent of all the gold medals. all the grand prizes, and about As far as awards are concerned, there were nineteen exhibits from the United States. Eighteen awarded of these, or 95 per cent, were
as

in the above

table, 21 per cent received

grand

prizes, 32 per cent

gold medals, and 21 per cent silver medals. The awards were as follows (in alphabetical

: order)

Grand
Thomson,

prize: American Elisha Gray. American

Bell Telephone

Company, Company,

Edison,

Elihu

Gold medals: Wire Company,

Sprague

Graphophone
and Motor

Cobb
Western

Vulcanite Electric

Heisler Electric Light Company,

Okonite Company,

Electric Railway

Company,

Company.
Silver medals: Commercial and Electrical Subway Company,
Bronze

graph TeleConsolidated Cable Company, Elektron Manufacturing Company, Electric Company. Sperry Solar Carbon Company. medals: Electrical Supply Company,
mention:
as

Honorable Lighting

American

Nickel Works

(Wharton), Munson

Conductor
idea

Company.

of the electrical exhibits, in comparison the other exhibits from the United States, may be had with in the other classes. from the number prizes awarded of grand in all fifty-three grand prizes awarded to United States There were

Some

to the importance

for electrical exhibits. exhibits; four of these, or 7.6 per cent, were four; one two One class received nine; classes, class, three; five But this is not a fair comparison, classes, two; twenty-three classes, one. for public the grand prizes were as twenty-seven (overhalf) of

institutions and these, there government exhibits. Eliminating ventors. and inremain twenty-six grand prizes to companies, manufacturers, four, Out of these, electricity was the only class receiving Four other classes received two each and fourteen 15.4 per cent. or classes Among

each. the great successful inventions in the practical application phone, of electricity, the United States may claim the telegraph, the teleincandescent light, and unquestionably the the microphone* tery ring; Italy, the batalso; France, the accumulator and the Gramme many, Gerand the Pacinotti ring; England, the self-exciting dynamo; Russia, the commercial lamp. the drum armature; arc
PROGRESS.

one

One

of the

of objects

the progress
*

made

a report of this kind is to give a summary of in this industry and science since the last inter-

Hughes he had lived the greater part the invention in England, made in the United States and had obtained his whole education here, which of his life led him to the invention. Although

ELECTRICITY.

13

sented national exhibition, taking as the present state of the art that repreIn this particular class, however, by the present exhibition. If reasons. this would be difficultand unsatisfactory for numerous in 1884 is the International Electrical Exhibition at Philadelphia
last exhibition prior to this, it would not give a basis for the progress made in Europe, as this exhibition was international If in name scarcely half a dozen foreign exhibits. only; there were taken
as

the

the electrical exhibition at Vienna America, as that exhibition

The development

clude in 1883 be taken it would not inwas almost exclusively European.

of the greater part of this great industry has been Exhibition is to go so recent that to go back farther than the Vienna The last universal exhibition of 1878, in back to the beginning.

Paris, which
branch;

which should be taken report, is too early for such a comparative the state of the industry at that time maybe
is really the
one

in such

comparative

report in this ited said to be lim-

mos. batteries, bells, electroplating, and a few dynaIt may therefore be said that by far the greater part of the present large industry has developed since that exhibition.
to telegraphy,

Just about that time, however, and within a few years later, the the arc light, the incandescent light, the telephone, the microphone, practical systems of distribution of light, the accumulator, and other inventions, forming the present industry, began to come fundamental into use; this date may therefore be taken as representing about the
A summary time of the birth of the present large industry. of the is therefore simply a record of progress made since that exhibition by this exhibition, as almost the present state of the art as shown

all that has been done has been done since that date, excepting the few m subjectsentioned above, which comprised the whole industry There are few, if any, industries of the extent of the at that date.
present electrical industries that have made such wonderful in so short a time, not much ten years. over As this class includes so many different branches, it was

progress

thought

in connection preferable to give short histories of their development with the descriptive reports of each branch, rather than to attempt to summarize them here. The

much

present state of the art cannot be said to have been fully represented Italy, and Austria, where this exhibition. Germany, at has been and is being done in this field, were very poorly represented,

in fact

from
progress branches

England,

made
were

hibits practically not represented at all. The exdid not represent the great though very good, important From States too, some there. United
were

kept away In France

Political not represented. unfortunately prejudices i teresting exhibits from Germany. many chiefly
"

great progress has been made in the former, because there are no

in telephony

and

raphy; telegto

fundamental

patents

hinder progress, in the latter because

it is under

Government

con-

14
trol.

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

In electric lighting, however, progress has been very much In Paris the city hindered, in Paris at least, by the Government. for the supply has granted to a syndicate a monopoly government
of gas; it receives in return one-half of the profits above 5 per cent. to the city last year was This income stated to be 12,000,000 francs to the interest of the This makes it very much (about $2.400,000).

electric light. As city to keep out as much as possible the competing keep it out altogether, it has it can not, in the interests of justice, duction enacted laws, which, though not prohibitory, at least hinder its introtax on a ton of coal in Paris The municipal very greatly.
purposes commercial and 7.50 francs Electric lighting companies, however, have for private use. ($1.45) If they to pay the latter tax and not that for commercial purposes. place the stations outside of Paris and lead the current into the city,

is 1.20 francs

(24 cents)for

the energy is measured and taxed in proportion to the equivalent in must pay 5 per coal. An authority states that his electric company to cent of their receipts (notprofits) the city for a station in the city,

and 7 per cent when it is outside of the city. The charges of one of from 21 to 29 cents per kilowatt hour, which is the companies are about 16 to 21 cents per horse power of current; in Philadelphia, for hour. The cost of gas in instance, it is 7 cents per horse-power Paris is 30 centimes per cubic meter for the citizens and 15 for public lighting; this is equal to $1.64 and 82 cents per thousand feet. The latter is also the average cost in the provinces.
to include in this report statistics regarding the the industry; but in general this had to be abanpresent extent of doned found impossible to obtain this information for the as it was foreign countries; a few statisticsregarding the extent of the electric light industry are, however, given in connection with that

It

was

intended

subject.

The following general figures may be of interest here. The Proceedings of the Electric Light Association gives the following figures for the United
cent States for the beginning of 1890 : 2,700,000 incandeslamps, 500,000 horse power used for lighting; arc 600 miles of electrical railroads completed over and in construction; 750,000 miles of telegraph lines; over 120,000 miles of telephone lines.

lamps, 230,000

The

following

for the beginning

of 1890

is taken

from

the Electric

World:
in the United States and Canada of electric lighting companies 450. This number had increased central stations at the beginning of 1886 was the beginning 1887 to 750, at the beginning of 1889 to nearly 1.200, and at of 25 in Mexico at the beginning of 1890 to 1,277, including and Central America. Meantime 266 gas companies in electric lighting, so that the total numhad engaged ber The

number

operating

in electric lighting at present (1890) 1,543 is The number incandescent light plants at the beginning arc private of and 1887 was Now there are 3,925 private plants in the United States, about 1,000 each. 175 in Canada, and 200 in Mexico 4,300 in all. The and Central America, making

of companies of isolated

engaged

or

ELECTRICITY.

15

doubled each year for 6,000. This number of arc lamps in use in 1882 was number 235,000 arc lamps in four years, and has since grown rapidly until there are now 525,000 in November, incandescent lights has increased from The number use. of The number in operation in now 1886, to 3,000,000 at present. of electric motors from 15 to 50 horse power. There of them the country is estimated at 15,000, many
are

nearly

operation

in over 200 electric railways 1,884 cars on or under contract

125

towns and cities, and 1,260 miles of track.

these

have

in

CLASSIFICATION.

tional exhibits included in this class are of such a nature that a rain a report of this nature becomes very difficult. classification in other reports were Numerous systems of classification adopted for one reason found unsatisfactory or another. considered, but all were

The

the one proposed by M. Hospiof the best of these was in talier,in 1'Electrician (May 25, 1889), which he divides the subject transmission, ments, instruinto : production, transformation, measuring

One

and the various applications, thermic, chemical, mechanical, But although rational in so far that there is no and miscellaneous. like doubt as to where an exhibit belongs, it brings together

subjects

electric railroads and telephony which are really widely different, thermore though both are "mechanical applications" of electricity. It furand both from elecseparates batteries from accumulators trochemist The writer has, therefore, adopted a new tion, classifica" one, which brings together natural into each one of several sections those exhibits which almost always not well be separated from one anaccompany each other and can other is to say, those which would naturally be included in the that scope of a specialist in any one broad field. It has been found that

which

might

be termed

"

"

the exhibits can be examined and described much more readily when divided into such natural sections. It is suggested by the writer that the classificationmight perhaps be the most rational subdivision

bitions exhiof the broad class "electricity" to be used at subsequent for examination, scriptiv both for grouping as well as for a deand Such a classification divides report and for cataloguing. the whole class into five principal sections and a few smaller ones

do not belong to any one of the others, or else belong equally The first,largest, and most important includes well to several of them. lighting, power, dynamos, for want of a etc., which electric
which better
forms
name
a

will here be called department in dynamical

"

electrodynamics engineering.

,"

as

The

it naturally second one in

is telegraphy andtelephony. The third, annunorder of importance ciators, bells, and miscellaneous have applications, might perhaps been included with the second, but as it forms a distinctly separate

industry

best to make a separate section of it. The fourth is electrochemistry, and the fifth,measuring strument inand scientific The remaining in no special order of importance ones
it was

thought

16
9 re:

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

and be found of these sections will

DESCRIPTION

thermogenerators; (6) (9) miscellaneous,

(7)wires

and

conduits;

(8)medical
The

tricity; elec-

(10) general

supplies. in the index.

subdivision

OF

THE

EXHIBITS.

In the description of the exhibits, which forms the greater part of this report, the writer has endeavored to give only brief descriptions, or of such are necessary with details, except where not burdened
importance, novelty,
or

interest.

Current

literature in this branch

be assumed that specialthat it may is so good and so widespread ists have already read descriptions better detailed than it would be possible to do in a report of this nature covering such a wide ground.
writer has therefore limited himself chiefly to giving a general for the sake of of the chief features of the exhibits, more summary sented comparison and as a record of the present state of the art as repre-

The

at this exhibition.
are

Under

given

short summaries

summary descriptions in standard periodicals were to known good thought preferable to refer to them, and give here the writer it was port only short summaries of the articles,rather than to burden this redescriptions, which are readily accessible with copies of existing apparatus, Whenever

and

a number of the special headings history or progress of that class of of the of the latest developments exhibited.

in any good library. Descriptions, opinions, and comparisons have been given from the standpoint of an American, acquainted in general with American on methods and systems, a general knowledge of which is assumed

the part of the reader. ventors, It was to do justice all exhibitors and also to into endeavored by always giving the names, the latter could l"e whenever

was ceive enough to renot important It may be that the exhibitor was award. not entitled to that the particor receive awards, being represented on the jury, ular described was but a part of a collective exhibit for which exhibit the award was given. an

Also to state whenever obtained. given the exhibit. However, when does not necessarily mean that it

which was possible the award no such award is mentioned, it

It was
as

intended

novel exhibits. In descriptions or references were not promised in others none be obtained at all. In some the cases received; could installed too late to be catalogued, and of these some exhibits were may, therefore, have escaped the writer's notice; others were fied classipossible of the more however, some cases,
or

to make this description as important, interesting,

complete

summary

was,

in other classes, to which they more properly therefore, difficult to find them. In numerous

belonged,
cases

and it the exhibitor

feared

piracy, and

therefore hesitated and

even

sometimes

ELECTRICITY.

17
"

in some scription cases even declined to give detailed information when dea refhad been published and all that was asked for was erence the exhibits were In most cases to the publication. not
,

which could attendants, and all the information accompanied from inspection, from circulars, or correbe obtained was therefore spondence, descriptions in journals,eferences to which were, or r by
The difficulty of making a description to obtain. uifficult forbidden by the exhibition fact that it was increased by the was notes or sketches; these were confiscated when authorities to make however,
found. attendant There

Much
or were
a

in cases, Avas of the apparatus description or a reference to the

numerous

without
same.

either

an

which, however, belong included in the scope of specialists in those classes and not necare essarily in the scope of the specialist in electricity. These have
been

exhibits in which electricity was applied, to other classes,because they more properly

referred by the writer either entirely these classes are railroads classes. Among engineering, of war, metallurgy, implements

or

in part to the other

surgery,

(signals), meteorology,
clocks, medicine, It requires etc.

physical and physiological apparatus, specialists in those classes and not in electricity to properly appreciate and describe such applications of electricity. In reducing prices to dollars the value of the franc was assumed 19.3 cents and of the pound $4.84. The word "here," as sterling frequently used in this report, refers to the United States and not
to France.
JURY.

for the class 62, electricity,consisted of fifteen who were active members not entitled and five associate members, The names to vote. are as follows: President: Professor Mascart (France),ember m of the Institute; The

jury of

awards

Professor of the College of France; in 1878. Vice-President: the Royal William

member

of the

juryof

sition the Expo-

H. Preece (Great Britain),ember m of Electrician of the State Telegraph DepartSociety; Chief ment.

Reporter: High

Prof.

A.

Potier

(France), professor (Switzerland).

Marcel Deprez,

of the National

School of Mines. Secretary: Colonel Turettini

Members
from

France:

Messrs.

Hippolyte

taine, Fon-

Fribourg.
Trotin.

Huet, Postel-Vinay,

Gaston

Sclama,

Col. Se*bert,

Belgium:

sels: of the University of Brusof the jury at the Exposition of 1881. member United States: B. Abdank, Carl Hering.
H. Ex. 410"
VOL
iv

Prof. E. Rousseau,

Professor

18
Associate

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Jousselin, Rau, Sautter, from France; Leon from Great Britain. J. Aylmer, Gody, from five (or33 per eign Of the fifteen active members, cent)were from forthe only one having countries, of which the United States was to the two members (or13.3 per of the whole jury. Owing
members: Belgium;

cent)

large number

subdivided instruments

of exhibits and the wide range of this class, the jury formers, itself into the following sections: (1)Machines, trans"

Fribourg,

Hering,

Potier, Sclama,
"

Turettini;

Aylmer, Jousselin, signals, cables, wires Huet, Postel-Vinay, Preece, Trotin; (3) lighting and accessories Rau, Rousseau, Sautter; (4)electro-chemistry, batteries, accumulators,

(2)telegraphy,

telephony,

"

chiefly by the individual sections, the visits were cases but in many made by the whole jury together, individually. Awards were by as recommended also by members discussed and voted upon by the whole jury, were the sections and made
at which

bells, miscellaneous cart, Se*bert. The examinations were

"

Abdank,

Fontaine,

Gody,

Hering,

Mas-

meeting

all but

The
two

examinations

made

of the members by this juryextended

one

were (Deprez)
over
a

present.

period of about

months. Officialtests of many were of the dynamos made by the members Those of accumulators, cables, a few batteries, and arc of the jury. for and under the auspices of the jury by the lamps were made Labratoire Central d'Electricite*. Besides these, many individual
tests and examinations were made and witnessed by the members. to aid them in their work, and the results are in genThe tests were eral for publication. not

For

comparative

list of the awards

page
11.

in this class in the different

countries and classes, see

CONGRESS.

Organization.
was

An officialInternational Congress of Electricians held in Paris from August 24 to 31, 1889. The committee of
"

organization consisted of Prof. Mascart, president ; Messrs. LippFontaine, and Gariel, vice-presidents; three secretaries; a mann, treasurer, and twenty from France, were all of whom -two members, by the French administration in July, 1888. At appointed arid were

the opening, the following officerswere elected: President, Mascart; honorary Thomson (Great Britain); president, Sir William viceFerraris (Italy), Kareis (Austria), Potier (France),reece P presidents,
Rousseau Weber (Great Britain), (Belgium),Stoletow (Russia), Joubert (France); director, Carpentier (Switzerland); reporter, The work of the Congress was divided into four sections, (France). as follows: (1) units and measures; (2) industrial applications; (3) telegraphy, telephony, and signals; (4) electrophysiology.

ELECTRICITY.

19
and thirty members the United States; there gium, and societies, from Bel-

Membership.
who
were

"

There

were

about

five hundred

from were took part, eleven of whom from foreign governments delegates Islands, Greece, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Chile, Spain, Sandwich

and United States. to A few papers had been prepared by appointment Proceedings. as introduce the jects subjects, also a listof suggestions of various subEach section held from four be discussed and acted upon. to Mexico,
"

of the proceedings was by the administration and may be found in public published officially libraries, it is not considered necessary to repeat it here. Most will be found very interesting. A complete set of of this summary
to six meetings.

As

very

good

summary

the papers

ministra read, and the discussions, has been published by the adSome of the papers may be found in the various technical journals those dates. of
"

Units adopted.
unanimous

The

adoption definitions: units and

Joule.
"

most at the

important work accomplished was the final general session of the following

The

units of work. an through ohm. A watt Watt. The practical unit of power is the watt. The It is equal to 107 C. G. S. units of power. per second.
"

is the joule. A jouleis equal to 107 C.G.S. practical unit of work during a second by an ampere It is equal to the heat disengaged
is the power of a joule Congress expresses the

as well as electrical, be that in practice the power of all machines, mechanical in kilowatts* (=1,000 watts) in place of horse-power. expressed For measuring the intensity of a light in candles, the practical Decimal candle. national unit is to be a twentieth part of the absolute standard of light defined by the Inter-

wish

"

Electrical Congress

Quadrant.
"

The

quadrant The period Period.

"

of 1884; it is to be called the decimal practical unit of the coefficient of induction is equal to 109 centimeters. The
of
an

candle.\
is the quadrant.

alternating
an

current

is the duration

of

one

complete

oscillation. Frequence.
second. Mean

"

The

frequenceof
"

alternating current
an

is the number

of periods per

intensity.

The

mean

intensity of

alternating

current

is defined by the

formula:

c_=

cat

intensity. Effective
root of the
mean

"

The

E.M.F. Effective the square

square The
"

of an alternating current intensity of the current. of the

intensity effective

is the square is

electromotive force of effective square of the electromotive

root of the

mean

an alternating force.

current

*One

kilowatt equals

1,000 watts

(as its name

2 per

(or very

within power nearly four-thirds, within one-half of 1 per cent). One metric horse0.73575 kilowatt (ornearly three-fourths);one (English) horse-power equals equals .74594 kilowatt (orvery nearly three-fourths). f This decimal candle is very nearly equal to the English standard candle and to a tenth part of a carcel.

(orabout four-thirds,

powers or indicates), 1.3592 metric horseor 1.3406 (English) horse-powers cent);

20
Apparent

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

The apparent resistance is the factor by which the effective resistance. intensity must be multiplied to give the effective electromotive force. the term positive plate is to indicate Accumulator accumulator plates. In an
" "

that

one which is connected to the positive pole of a circuit during that which forms the positive pole during discharge.*

the charge

and

to determine the degree of as a means Congress recommends, incandescence of a lamp, the method proposed by Mr. Crova and

The

adopted by the second section. is The metallic circuit (doublewire circuit) adopted for municipal telephone circuits and for lines connecting cities (interurban). The term interurban is to apply to all telephonic communications between two subscribers or public stations forming parts of different
groups. The following

adopted
is fixed
A

by the section, but was recommended not too adminby the Congress, on the grounds that it was of istrative telephonic conversation a character: The unit of interurban
was

as

three minutes.
from

communication
was

the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers

presented through their delegates to the Congress, Messrs. that the next International Hering, Tesla, and Wetzler proposing Electrical Congress meet in the United States on the occasion of the coming International Exhibition in 1892.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS.

In concluding these introductory remarks the writer can not urge that the very rapid growth too much of electrical engineering and importance the various industries, as shown its present great amon^
that it should hereafter receive a more by this exhibition, demand place in the classificationand grouping of the exhibits at prominent It should, without question, be made a separate future exhibitions.

divided into at least two or three classes, in order that it may its importance mands. debe given the prominence and attention which It is to be regretted very much that this was not done at the present exhibition, instead of retaining the old classification of 1878, at which time the application of electricity in the arts and industries was practically limited to telegraphy, batteries, and bells.
group,

In conclusion, the writer desires to express his full appreciation to Prof. Potier, of Paris, for his kind and valuable and his thanks assistance in furnishing the writer with much valuable information, French exhibits; also to Mr. B. Abdaiikparticularly regarding the Prof. Mascart, of Paris; Mr. William Abakanowicz; H. Preece, of Dr. Palaz, of Losanne, and to the secretary of the National Telephone Company information for important of London and London; assistance in obtaining the French Telephone Company,
*

same.

To

Mr.

August

and

to Mr.

William
or

of the J. Hammer, of
plate.

Reeb,

Or, in the usual lead accumulator,

the brown

peroxide

ELECTRICITY.

21

the Edison

the writer is indebted for detailed information Mr. J. Carpentier, of Paris, regarding their respective exhibits. don, Bros., and Messrs. Woodhouse Messrs. Elliott of Lonand Rawson,

Company,

kindly

furnish

the cuts which

accompany

the description of

their exhibits. the kindness and courtesy The writer desires also to acknowledge French administration of the Exhibition. of the I." ELECTRODYNAMICS.
DYNAMOS.

GENERAL.

Historical.

"

The

been developed

entirely within Although the general principles were the past 12 or 15 years. inventions had been made a number known, of and the underlying for dynamos before, yet as there was practically no great demand years begun they received little attention until electric lighting was
a

dynamo may present commercial from experimental machines almost

be said to have

on

commercial
was

attention to hinder into

a

scale, when given them.

the demand
As

became
no

so

great that much

there

were
soon

fundamental

progress,

keen

competition

developed

patents dynamo the

very good and efficientmachine. Progress. Since this rapid development

"

; it has slow but not unimportant finding the most advantageous proportions, rather than to find radically forms. While the latter has been, and is, repeatedly new for the well-studied and attempted, yet most of them are abandoned veloping Improvements have therefore been mainly in dewell-tried forms.

the progress has been been mainly in the direction of

The

the best proportions and disposition of parts, and in details. best machines at present are stillin principle those of the original Pacinotti, or drum Gramme, types, though armature very

in their proportions materially changed geous advantaand in the more disposition of parts. As is generally the case of such complex with the development in all the different proportions, tried were mechanisms, extremes

said to have reached a high state of perfection, so that any radical improvement will have to be in developing a totally different type, rather than in greatly improving
until at present the dynamo
may

be

the present

form.

number transformer

was of years ago the dynamo already the most efficient of power in use, being far superior in efficiency of conversion to the much steam engine, boiler, turbine, or any of its older

to 100 per cent that improvements class. It has long been so near to increase this efficiency are necessarily of only small importance. The chief directions for improvements have therefore been to dimin-

22

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

ish their weight, cost, and attendance and to prevent the detrimental

fixed brushes, (self -regulation, tions In all these direcsparking. shown at the exhibition. The

etc.),
dynamo
highly

important

improvements

were

in its present

form

is

well-studied, well-developed, and

Series lighting, so very largely used in in France, and, the United States, appears to be almost unknown judgingfrom the exhibits from others countries, in Belgium and Switzerland also. The present system of running Jablochkoff lamps
High
"

efficientmachine. and loio tension.

High-tension, constant-current is the only exception of importance. therefore conspicuous by their almost total absence machines were in the French, Belgian, and Swiss sections. There were several lish States section, one in the Eng(Steinlen). (Crompton), and one in the German With the exception of a few moderately high-tension serieswound on the contifor the transmission of power, the dynamos nent machines or are wound, for constant potential compound mainly shunt in derivation circuits of 60 or 110 volts, arc lights being usually run high-tension machines
in the United

with incandescent. development. Direction

of

"

The tendency

in France,

as

well

as

in

to be to prefer to drive the other countries on the continent, seems directly from the engine by coupling the shafts, the larger dynamos This belt being, to a great extent, confined to smaller machines.
tures and, consequently, to armanaturally leads to slow-speed dynamos, large diameter, which in turn, together with other considerations, of Many leads to making the field multipolar. the larger of In were therefore multipolar and with large armatures. machines
was

the usual disposition of parts formed the outside the Gramme armature completely reversed ; being inclosed by the the multiple field magnets of the dynamo, This type is used in a number armature. of the large central stations
one

prominent

case

dynamo) (Siemens

in Berlin.
dynamos. Alternating-current dynamos were -current of exhibited only by two or three exhibitors, the most important Company those of the Thomson-Houston and that of which were Ferranti. Alternating
"

Field magnets. With the exception of the tendency to make the but few important field multipolar for large machines, there were
"

modifications shown. The most radical change

was

the whole-field magnets are in diminishing the weight and gaining other advantages. feature of interest in several machines Another used chiefly as beyond the main pole a small pair of auxiliary poles just motors was pieces, to fix sharply the position of the neutral line, in order to
enable the brushes to remain fixed in position for all loads. to give very satisfactory results. It appears

in the Rechniewski machine, in which laminated like the armature, resulting

ELECTRICITY.

23

In the multipolar frames, a form much used is one having radial as in the magnets with a yoke piece encircling them all in common, It necessarily makes described below. a rather Oerlikon machine large and heavy frame and has the disadvantage that, as the coils are
sions, generally slipped on from the inside, there are no pole-piece extenlarge amount there is necessarily a comparatively of dead and wire on the armature. for bipolar The so-called "type supe'rieur" is also very common

like the Edison but with simple U-snaPed magnet its name, the armature at the top instead of at the bottom, whence has no significance in the sense the word "superiority" in of which This form has the disadvantage that there is a very conEnglish. siderable
frames.

It is

downward
of the magnetic

pull

on

pull and

due to the combined the armature two the weight of the armature,

action forces

which act against each other in the Edison form. In the proportions of the magnets the tendency is to make them frames do not appear to be comIronclad magnet ing short and thick. into use to any great extent.
Armatures.
"

In

armatures

there

were

number

of features of

interest. in the Desrosiers dynamo, which is only radical change was interesting features, but of the disk type, without iron. It has some departure from the it is doubtful whether it will prove an important regular forms. The

of multipolar armatures, necessitated by slow speed of revolution, have given rise to an interesting development, though not novel, of an adaptation of the drum winding to cores of The core regreat diameter, without loss of dead wire at the ends. sembles The
that of
a

large diameters

large Gramme

A the outside surface. the detailed description of the Thury dynamo. In general, for large machines, makers have

ring, but has the windings only further description will be found below diminished

on

in

the number

up to the usual 110 volts, of layers to a single one, for machines in some higher volts, as in the 600- volt Oerlikon cases even and This feature of a single layer has developed the so-called machine. "built-up" armature, In a number of which there were exhibited.

these the armature placed in position,

as
a

wires

or

bars

are

made

separately and

are

then

one next to the other, and afterwards connected together, in distinction to being wound in form of a wire. This, on

perfectly regular, symmetrical winding of very having other advantages. The use of teeth or neat appearance, and lugs on the armature, between the wires, seems to be meeting with favor. As it gives rise to injurious more Foucault currents in the pole pieces, it necessitates in the Rechniewski dynamo
of other forms This is accomplished modifications. by laminating the field,and in a number by magnetically shunting, as it were, the iron of the
some

rule, makes

24
core,

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

of iron 011 the outside of the wires, small amount the teeth meet 011 the outside, or coverfor instance, by making as, ing If the small loss a thin shield of iron. the whole armature with thereby accomplishes the object sought, as it caused of magnetism loss. appears to, it is a well-applied Brushes made of a fine copper gauze appear to be comBrushes. ing

by having

"

into

use

Carbon rapidly. Some improvements

brushes

are

in brush

also being used holders also were

a

more

quently. fre-

shown,

chiefly to prevent their heating. Bearings and oiling. Bearings

"

as

eter rule made large in diamIn the larger machines they are often supported well as in length. The oil-cup feed is being replaced very on spherical pivots.
are as

rapidly by the ring feeder; so much so that the former method now In these ring feeders there is a reservoir of forms the exception. volving oil cast in the bearing below the shaft, and a very loosely fitting rethe shaft carries the oil from the reservoir over ring rolling
to the top surface of the shaft. The exhibits of dynamos Exhibits by countries. divided among all of the principal countries who
"

pretty well exhibited largely

were

in the class of electricity. In numbers only, France excelled; but in fully equal, especially importance and interest other countries were Switzerland and United States.

Kilowatt.
the term
or
"

"

kilo watt"

suggestion that it be adopted also by mechanical engineers to replace the arbitrary unit "horse power." It is a true unit of power, and is equal to 1,000 watts, as its name

power Electrical Congress

detailed description of dynamos In the accompanying be used exclusively in referring to the output will by the This term was or motor. a dynamo of adopted of 1889 with
a

indicates; also to 1.3592 metric horse English or 1.3406 within 2 per

powers

cent),

horse

(or about four-thirds (orvery nearly powers

four-thirds within 0.73575 kilowatts

per cent; 1 metric horse power equals (or nearly three-fourths; 1 English horsepower

one-half

of the deductions of various important constants used in calculatpractical ing designing dynamos, but this had to be abandoned, as it was and too difficult obtain the desired information to and to make the required
"

equals 0.74594 kilowatts (orvery nearly three-fourths). intended to give here a number data. It was Comparative

measurements,

making obtained from exhibitors it was that it should not be published.

notes

or

the exhibition administration forbid taking the information sketches, and whenever could be
as

figures and constants The writer is therefore limited here and useful deductions made. to a few very general deductions from such information as made be obtained from published or public statements of the makers. could The deductions are therefore necessarily crude, but will serve in a

valuable

generally with the understanding This is to be regretted, as many could thereby have been deduced

ELECTRICITY.

25

as well as for their absolute values. general way for comparison the relative are The only useful deductions that could be made units. weights and the relative prices, both reduced to common to the number The first is reduced Watts per pound. of watts
"

it be will be complete, from which of dynamo obtained per pound in the following table that this does not vary materially with seen be made that the power can the size, so that in general the statement

of

dynamo

increases in proportion lie between 4 and 7 watts per

machines

machine in the table

ures of the figpound; in a few of the heavier they are as low as 2.2 while in the very light Rechniewski mos it is as high as 11.5. With a very few exceptions the dynato its weight.
are

Most

In one high potenall low potential machines. tial is as high as (Cronipton)the output arc-light series machine if the data are exact. These figures naturally 18.5 watts per pound, depend greatly on the speed, which is therefore also given here. As

the output and

be proportional to the speed, a better in general would independent figure of technical interest, showing the relamore tive be the watts per the different constructions, would values of divided
by

the linear velocity of the moving wire of the due credit to thereby eliminating the speed and giving armature, but this requires the size of the armature, the larger armatures; pound which could not always be obtained. Price per kilowatt. The other deduction, the cost of the dynamo per unit of power, has been reduced to the cost price in dollars per kilowatt This, naturally, varies with the size of the of power. but it will be noticed also that it varies very greatly with machine;
"

the manufacturers, size, about and that in general it is,for the same for the European; twice as great for the American as as machines be taken as fair prices here, it shows the very great the former may
cost

of

dynamos

in

the
a

United

States

as

Even abroad. import dynamos

with from

duty it would Europe. In cheapening

to learn
are

high

with those compared to be more economical

therefore much we list prices, most of which from the United States.

have

subject

the cost of dynamos from abroad. The prices are all to a discount, especially those

26

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION
LIGHT

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

INCANDESCENT

AND

POWER

DYNAMOS.

ELECTRICITY.
LIGHT
AND

27
DYNAMOS" Continued.

INCANDESCENT

POWER

ARC

LIGHT

DYNAMOS

(FOR

SERIES

DISTRIBUTION).

ALTERNATING

CURRENT

DYNAMOS

(EXCITER

NOT

INCLUDED).

Ju ry tests. The electrical jury of awards tested quite a number dynamos for efficiency and indirectly also for some tures, of the other feabut the results obtained were for their use as jurors and not for publication. The efficiency tests were by the usual electrical made
"

the losses in the field,in the armature, method of measuring Foucault currents, and in stray power (friction, etc.).The dynamo as a motor run was at its true speed, with separately excited field,
and

the electrical powers

more

measured.
accurate

simpler and probably

This test, which than a dynamometer

is decidedly
test, serves

28
also to check obtained were true value.

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

some

The results of the data furnished by the makers. probably within one-tenth to one-twentieth of their
DETAILED

DESCRIPTIONS.

As the number than the number

to give
a

exhibited is greater of different forms of dynamos of their exhibitors, no attempt has been made here it thought necessary to was description of them all; nor

give

scribed complete description of any, as most of them have been deand illustrated in the technical journals. The following descriptions are therefore limited to a short general interesting though not always the more of of some summary
a

except novel features. No attempt has been made at any classification, into continuous and alternating current dynamos. The awards mentioned were not always for the dynamo Awards. In a number cases. of alone, and are therefore omitted in some
"

the makers were represented therefore not entitled to awards.

cases

on

the

juryand

the exhibits

were

CONTINUOUS-CURRENT

DYNAMOS.

Oerlikon. One of the best exhibits of large and massive dynamos the that of the Oerlikon Co. (Swiss was section, Grand Prize), dynamos by Mr. C. E. L. Brown. They were the only exhibbeing designed itors the highest award, grand prize, chiefly for their who received dynamos. The only other two exhibitors of dynamos who received Thomson, Edison, in the United States this high award were and section, who, however, received it largely for their electricalwork
"

and researches in general. in the Oerlikon exThere were three distinct types of dynamos hibit: The first, very large, massive, four-pole machine, for transmission a of power; the second, for incandescent lighting; the third, a machine, small, compact chiefly for ship lighting. All three were engine. coupled directly to their own Large Oerlikon. The large one is shown in the tration illus"

adjoining

of a large, massive, rigid good example namos It was one machine of simple construction. of the two largest dyat the Exhibition, the other being the large Edison dynamo of the same output, 150 kilowatts. It is a series-wound machine for the transmission of power, the magnets being wound with bands of copper 1 millimeter (0.04 inch)thick and as wide as the coil is long,

(Fig. and 1)

is

about

12 inches, insulated by

means

of bands

of paper

of the

same

width.
amperes.

It is for about
armature

250 horse power,

at 600 volts and

about 250

Gramme ring, about 40 neatly wound This gives a speed of 500 revolutions. a velocity of the moving 86 feet per second, which is very wire of high, being almost double the usual velocity.
a

The

is

very

inches in diameter, having

ELECTRICITY.

2tf

The fieldis very intense, being 51,000 effective lines of force per inch, which is almost double the usual intensity. This is square force generated, the velocity of the calculated from the electromotive of turns of wire on the armature, and therefore wire, and the number includes only the actual effective lines of force. This great velocity and intense field give the exceedingly high induction of 6.3 volts per
foot of active wire, which is almost four times that in the usual machines, is therefore probably the best obtained in a commercial and

FIG. I.
"

The

Oerlikon

Co.'s large dynamo.

is about 78,500 The magnetic density in the armature core machine. lines per square inch, which is not very high. As the area of the as the cross pole pieces is the same section of the cores of the field leakage, the magnetic density in these cores, no magnets, assuming

would be 51,000 lines per square inch. From these figures it follows that there are 86 effective lines of force generated per ampere foot in the fieldmagnet coils. The volts from which some are and amperes of these deductions are made too high, and, therefore also, the deductions which a little probably
are

based

on

the volts and amperes,

but the difference is probably

not very great. The loss in the field is said to be 1,750 watts, from which it follows that there are about 20,300 effective lines of force generated per watt

30

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

in the field,which This high usual.

is also very high, being considerably higher than efficiency of the field is due partially to the very to the iron, the low relative resistance of the coils,their nearness are partially of iron, and the fact that the magnets great mass

ironclad.
is 38,000 pounds, and the complete weight of the machine namo. 4 watts per pound of dyoutput being 150 kilowatts, gives about figure for the Edison machine The same exhibited, having is 4.8 watts per the same output, but less speed, 450 revolutions, is heavier even that the Oerlikon machine at a pound, showing

The

greater

speed.

selling price is stated to be 18,000 francs, or $348^.making These machines are $23.2 per kilowatt. used for the transmission but slightly smaller. of power, the single motor being similar Oerlikon." The second type of machine exhibited by the Medium The armature to its armature. Oerlikon Co. is of interest owing The the outside surface of the armature wires, instead of passing over lengthwise core, just pass through circular holes through the core to the pole beneath the surface ; the core, therefore, extends almost
pieces. The wires consist of straight copper rods inserted into these holes and soldered at their projecting ends to the bars which It is in effect an armature lead back through the inside of the ring. the wire on the outside, the wire being with teeth which close over

thereby The

inclosed entirely in iron. is comparatively 360 revolutions speed

"
"

velocity being only 38 feet per second, and as intense the induction is therefore only 1.75 volts per foot. The the output 110 volts and being 13,500 pounds, and 370 weight
or 40.7 kilowatts, the relative output is only 3 watts per .amperes, It istherefore not a light machine, but that is due chiefly to pound. It is used chiefly for lighting in multiits having such low speed. ple arc.

low, the conductor the field is not very

Oerlikon. The small machines, used chiefly for ship-lighting, direct to a small engine, has a peculiar field,though its coupled It has only two field coils,but has four poles, and form is not new. closing the field is nearly ironclad. The frame is a low, flat,rectangle, inSmall
"

two

the coils and armature. poles, and the ends of the

The
cores

middle through

of the long sides act as the horizontal coils act

as the other two. The be more so.

It is very compact and rigid ; in fact, could hardly mass of iron in the field is comparatively great. One

interesting improvements, of the most and in the Rechniewski the most valuable of all those shown, was probably dynamo, exhibited in the Russian section by the inventor (gold

Rechniewski.

"

darnel) and in the French trique (gold medal).

The
improvement

section

by

the

Societe PEclairage

Elec-

consists simply

in making

the field as well

as

ELECTRICITY.

31

iron, and having teeth on the armature of thin sheets of wrought The principle involved is that, for the same the armatures. output, in general be made dynamo a may smaller and all parts of
intense. Now. lighter if the field is made more the intensity of is dependent on the so-called very much magnetism generated " * that is,the distance between the iron of the armature entref er
'
"

that of the pole pieces, as this part of the magnetic circuit by far the greatest resistance. This magnetic resistance of offers and the
entrefer is very
a

the armature, pole pieces,

materially lessened by having teeth or lugs on the wires to nearly meet the extending out between fact which was in the early Pacinotti appreciated even

machines.

But

such

teeth

on

the

armature

and rapid periodic variation in the magnetism Foucault currents in the pole pieces, great and injurious been abandoned. that they have in most machines Numerous devices have been

produce a very great and thereby develop

so

much

so

suggested and introduced to avoid less effect ; Weston, for instance, cast his pole this with more or pieces with a few slots in them with the intention to diminish the Foucault currents ; he also made the extremities of the pole pieces inclined,
Brown
to avoid as Oerlikon (see
so

too

sudden

wire ; Picou

French (see

machine),made Edison machine),made

connects

changes of the magnetism ; the teeth meet outside of the them

so

that they

almost meet ; Dobrowolsky bands, thereby losing some

the two but

pole pieces by thin iron

overcoming apparently do practically the same the effect of their heating ; other makers by covering thing the outside of the armature with iron wire, The latter devices appear a magnetic making shield, as it were.
an

magnetism

to be effectual ; they

shunt

similar in effect to avoiding a spark in opening circuit, by having a relatively high resistance as a electric to the spark, thus avoiding to a great extent the injurious
are

current. effects of the spark at a cost of some Rechniewski, however, is more radical, and practically avoids the Foucault by making the entire fieldof very currents entirely thin sheets of iron, just as in armatures. He thereby has additional

best and softest qual: the iron used is of the very advantages ity therefore is better magnetically ; the shape of the pieces is and such that both armature and field disks are punched out of the same piece so as to have very littleloss ; furthermore, the whole field disk is in one piece so as to have no magnetic joints as all parts are ;
or shaping of the field ; all that is to bolt the plates all together, through punched remains holes, and to secure them to a base plate. The operation of punching is said to be quite cheap after the dies are once so much made, namo, so that the whole for the same cost of manufacture, output of dy-

punched

there is

no

further boring

to be done

is said to be considerably cheaper or cast iron fields. with solid wrought

than that of the usual forms

32
There
is
no

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

that the machines exhibited are very small and light for their output, which shows that the iron and copper are more feature of a dynamo Any which used. enables a advantageously to be used in one is a gain in a less quantity or cost of materials part greater

doubt

For instance, increasin proportion than that of the weight saved. saves the magnetic not permeability of the iron of a core in the cross-section of iron but also in the copper of the coil, only and thereby in the length of the core, etc.

in the ordinary are machines made smaller Rechniewski Edison, but with the armature horseshoe type of frame, like the are made multipolar. at the top ; the large ones The
sions and the dimencan of both copper and iron parts being small, the dynamos fessor be built with a very high efficiency. A formula suggested by ProPotier (see his paper read before the Electrical Congress, There
being

practically

no

Foucault

currents,

to 1889),

determine

the

the frames of dynamos is far superior, magnetically, to any that the frame of this dynamo the figures could be obtained, the of those exhibited for which being the better) being 7.4 as comfigures obtained (thelower ones pared
from 12 to 33 for other well-known values varying But this figure is of interest chiefly from a theoretical machines. that the worst figure is that obtained point of view, as it happens with from machine cheapest of those selling for about
a

relative values or the relative economy of considered by themselves as a magnet, shows

which

was

apparently

among

the

lightest and

The

following

18 watts per pound, and exhibited, giving over kilowatt of output. $24 per data of one of the Rechniewski be may machines

14.3 kilowatts; amperes; weight, 1,240 pounds ; speed, 960 revolutions ; linear velocity 31.5 feet per second ; thickness of iron plates, 0.024 inch ; 122 watts per pound of copper ;

of interest: 110 volts; 130

per pound of dynamo; electrical efficiency, 95 per cent; 92 per cent ; total lines of force, 3,700,000; in armature commercial, 135,000, in magnets 97,000, and in field 40,000, lines per square core
11.5 watts

It will be noticed from these that the dynamo is very triple the number of watts per pound giving double and even is relatively very high. that the intensity of the magnetism inch.
test made leakage showed

light,
; also

cent

did

machines, about double this. It was could be used as suggested that this machine that it was as it is, but it appears motor just
for
some reason.

not being

the writer to measure the amount of magnetic that, of the magnetism generated, only about 14 per the usual loss, in other the armature, go through
an

by

ing-current alternat-

not satisfactory,

For

further description
see

La

Lumiere

of the Rechniewski Electrique, February

dynamo,

trations, with illusSee also 16, 1889.

ELECTRICITY.

33
des Electriciens, June, exhibited by Breguet
1890,

Bulletin
No.
69.

Internationale de la Socie'te' The Desroziers dynamo

Desroziers.

"

(French

to its section, gold medal) attracted considerable attention, owing being totally different from the usual types. having no iron in the It belongs to the class of disk machines,

In principle it resembles the Pacinotti disk dynamo of devised by Edison a number the disk dynamo 1875, and also of years phia in the Electrical Exhibition 1884 in Philadelof ago and exhibited
armature.
as a

has

some

historical model. It is therefore not novel features in its details.

new

in principle, but

is necessarily very complicated, of the armature it will compete very favorably with the whether and as the few much simpler, ordinary, well-built dynamos, advantages hardly worth the extra complication; the cost of windseem gained ing be quite great. In general appearthe armature must necessarily ance

The

construction it is a question

it resembles somewhat the old form Thompson alternating-current machines,

of Siemens or the Ferrantiin which the armature is in

the form

thin, vertical disk revolving between the poles of horizontal to the shaft and arranged in a circle near the magnets parallel there are six circumference of the disk. In the Desroziers machine
of
a

each having wide pole pieces. such magnets, The armature is in principle somewhat like that in the well-known Ferranti-Thompson alternating-current machine, in so far -that each wire passes out radially in the fieldbetween two opposite poles and returns field of opposite polarity, thence out the next radially through
between

the next, and so on ; the currents induced in a wire are therefore in the same direction. Or it may be described as follows: Supposing

the dynamo

to have

two

the armature would, as far as to a drum armature winding into a flat disk perpendicular

instead of six, sets of field magnets the winding is concerned, be equivalent in which the cylindrical surface was veloped de-

to the axis, the active straight the wire being then radial instead of parallel to the axis. portions of In one respect it differs, however, from multipolar machines; generally

in a pair of fields the sets of wires moving in multiple arc with all the other sets, but in this winding the are in series, which has the adcoils in the different pairs of fields are vantage

in such machines

that should the fields be slightly different they will not induce different electromotive forces in coils which discharge their in multiple arc. current
Another

device of interest, which is too complicated scribed to be dehere, is the method of so bending the wires outside of the field that they do not cross each other at right angles, but remain

approximately

parallel to each other in the

VOL iv

same

sense

that the strands

H. Ex. 410"

34
of
a

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

they parallel, though slightly twisted cable are approximately however, brings This arrangement, change their relative positions. a very large mass of dead wire at the outside and the inside ends of the active wires. illustrations, will be found A detailed description, with numerous for 1888. in 1'Electricieii The Thury dynamos Thury.
"

(Swisssection,
from

surround frame, each side of which of a in each of the six magnets and is almost tangential to the armature; to are the magnets corners joined pole pieces. It is therefore a very but the composite construcform for such a large armature, compact tion
form

diameter;

gold medal), The the usual types. the six flat field magnets

exhibited by Cue*nod, Sautter et Cie have a peculiar frame and armature fering difarmature

hexagonal

is of relatively large in the this armature hexagon is one of the

itself, and it adds greatly to the however, very well built, and are, belong to the better class of the large machines exhibited. The armature is of a peculiar type, which appears to be meeting with

of the frame does not commend labor in constructing them. They

favor and which has undoubted advantages, as it enables the ordinary drum windings to be used on armatures creasing of large diameter without in-

the dead wire on the ends; it thereby enables great linear The the field multipolar. speed to be obtained and permits making general principle is that each armature coil is in the form of a rectangle, laid on the cylindrical surface of the core, nearly tangential instead tween the distance beof diametrical, as in the usual drum armature; the long sides being equal to the distance between the center of the pole pieces, and each coil being two coil spaces in advance of the It is, in effect,an ordinary drum winding, preceding one, as usual. if the two north pole pieces, for instance, on the two sides of a south pole piece are considered as the equivalent of the one diametrically The core of such an armature is a ringopposite in the usual form. like that for a Gramme but it has no windings on the inside armature,
surface, and the windings all cross each other on Edison. The Edison dynamos too well known are here. The one large machine exhibited was
"

ends. scriptio to require dethe largest of

the two

size made

lamp

and is their unit for central station lighting. It is a 2,500In machine, for about 150 kilowatts; speed, 450 revolutions.

their present standard type the old form of multiple magnets have been replaced entirely by a single pair; their length has been reduced the diameter increased; the length of the armatures has and been reduced and the diameter increased. All the fifteen different
sizes of this type of their machines appear to have the dimensions. The outputs are said to be very nearly
same
as

relative the third

These machines power of the dimensions. probably rank among the best of the large machines the exhibition, and are at amples good exof a rigid, massive dynamo of simple construction.

ELECTRICITY.

35

the first to appreciate claims to have been, and doubtless was, in dynamos, large and powerful magnets the importance of very He has built mafeature which has since been universally adopted. chines 6 tons, but 27 tons, the armature alone weighing weighing Edison
were now, soon

these

abandoned.

The

one

exhibited

is the largest size

and gives 140 volts 1,075 amperes, weighing 31,000 pounds 4.8 watts per pound, the net; this is equal to 150 kilowatts, making chine. speed being 450 revolutions; it is therefore a relatively heavy maThe selling price is at the rate of $69 per kilowatt, which is made exceeding
high, being about

double

that of other European

mos. dyna-

of 1,200 exhibited also a small high potential machine bu-t with a field magnet ing windgeneral appearance, volts, of the same No satisfactory explanation of it could be obtained. in sections. It is for the municipal system of incandescent lamps in series.

There

was

French

Edison
a

Company's

dynamos.

"

The

French

Edison

pany Com-

upon the purpose of different types, depending number The ordinary type for lighting is in for which they are to be used. They Edison Company. still general like that of the American

build

times construct them with multiple parallel magnets, and somein the middle, in the armature two sets of magnets and with forms the magnets are very short. The cores consequently which iron with cast-iron pole pieces. They make are generally wrought sometimes

dynamos

age type, but prefer the other. The leakalso of the Manchester found to be 33 per type was of lines of force in this Manchester in the ordinary Edison form. cent, as compared with 20 to 25 per cent The Manchester
type

of frame

is probably

one

of the poorest

forms

motors from 2 to 8 horse a new power, to be used in constant potential circuits, they make and interesting form devised by Mr. R. V. Picou. The frame is a circular the inside, terminating on yoke-piece having four radial magnets
"

for economy of the magnetism French Edison Company's

generated. For motors.

of these are large and two small; the two large ones diametrically opposite to each other, are of opposite are are the two small ones polarity, and are shunt wound; series wound, are the same as the large one and each of polarity preceding them in The the direction of rotation of the motor. objectis to keep the neutral line in the same position for all different loads, in order that
at the armature.

Two

the brushes

when

portant ima very may remain fixed in position for all loads feature for motors whose loads vary continually, especially they are in inaccessible places. This regulation of the neutral
"

line is accomplished by these small series magnets by their drawing the neutral line forward as much the increased current as in the armature draws it backward, thereby keeping it in the same

place.

36
The

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

that is, as a the short shunt as are large magnets wound to the whole the machine, and not of shunt to the armature, object the potential at the that is, current is that for increased load which falls,whereby the field becomes weaker and consequently shunt magnets the speed of the motor tends to become greater, which
"

"

"

balances any tendency of the speed to fall with increased load. is about at the rate of $22.50 per kilowatt, The price of these motors which is very cheap.

French
they make

Edison
a

Company's

small motors.

Gramme

ring armature

are outside wires of the armature being entirely iron. The coils the armature the outside surface of into cylindrical longitudinal holes through the armaare ture wound The wire is wound into these their outside surface. near rings holes by being passed through a narrow slot cut through from the being just wide enough to allow outside to these holes, these slots one

very small motors of peculiar form, in which the almost entirely encircled by iron,
"

For

wire to be passed through. The whole is in effect equivalent

are so

armature, much which that they almost meet. roots the iron of the armature

the their outer end than at their wider at The advantage is that the space between
or on

to having

teeth

lugs

and

that of the magnets

is exceedingly

small.
watts per pound by this arrangement. claim to obtain more An 8-ampere motor at 110 volts weighs 75 kilograms, which makes They 5.3 watts are per pound said to require much of motor. forms. than other more compounding

They

Crompton

series dynamos.

"

The
were

dynamos
the only

of Crompton
ones

"

Co.

(British section, gold medal) exhibited British section. Their arc-light machines are the probably among in Great Britain, and are too well known best known to require description here. They the very few series-wound were among dynamos for high-tension constant currents. exhibited
The

in the

a practically chief claim is for lightness and for maintaining constant current, which is not materially affected by slight changes of

speed and load. This latter is accomplished by increasing considerably the cross-section of the iron of the armature as compared to that the magnets, the proportion being 1.0 to 0.98, while that in the usual of
constant magnets, is not. A slight increase in current, due to while the armature diminution of external resistance or to slight augmentation of speed, will, therefore, not affect the magnets materially, but will increase

is said to be 1.0 to 1.4 and 1.8. The potential machines being series-wound, are therefore normally supersaturated,

the counter-magnetism of the armature, which will shift its neutral line in the direction of rotation and thereby diminish the electromotive force of the machine, thus effecting an approximate tion regulaof the constant current.

ELECTRICITY.

37

In the characteristic of such a series machine, giving the relation between the volts and the amperes, the point of normal current, 25 be slightly beyond the point of maximum potential ; amperes, would beyond the beginning of descent of such curve. that is,it would be just
maker Brush and
which

The

of this nature, namely, the claims that in other machines is also saturated, the armature the Thomson-Houston, creases therefore diminishes the efficiency of the machines and in-

their weight volts and

given
as

and cost.
or

870 watts, giving an electhat in the magnets trical efficiency is stated of 97 per cent, while the commercial efficiency is 1,760 pounds, makThe weight of the machine to be 94 per cent. ing,

25 amperes, 850 watts and

of his machines, giving 1,300 is 32.5 kilowatts, the loss in the armature

In

one

therefore, 18.5 watts per pound of machine. The selling price is $770, making about $24 per kilowatt. In its construction it differs from almost all other machines
in that the magnets
are

ited exhib-

tion with wire of square cross-secinstead of round, as usual, whereby the volume and weight He claims to have been the first who diminished. are of the coils adopted a radial depth of one-fifth of the diameter for the cross-

wound

important an ring, and which, he claims, was section of the Gramme have since adopted. improvement which all other makers An illustration of these machines, by though not accompanied description, will be found
2, 1889.

in the Electrical Engineer

gust (London),Au-

dynamos. The same compound also claims to maker have been the firstto develop and adopt the compound winding for in 1882. constant potential machines

Crompton

"

is that, instead novel device used in his heavy-current machines four bars of square crossof using solid bars of copper, there are half section, which are twisted through a about at the middle,
A
-turn

of object which is to prevent the generation of Foucalt currents in the bar itself, which are apt to exist when the bars are very thick. In the large Edison machines a similar principle is adopted, probably

the

for the

purpose. The dynamo Belfort.

"

same

known
Edison

as

the Belfort dynamo,

exhibited by

the Socie'teAlsacienne gold

de Constructions
an

Mecaniques turned

(Frenchsection,

medal),

is like

machine

The strong at the top. the armature, which is the great objection to be overcome by extending the iron cores to the extreme end of the instead of tapering them off as usual, but it is probably pole pieces
armature
are only a partial remedy for this evil. The cores of round wrought iron, while the yoke and pole pieces are cast and fitted to this round core, thus facilitating the winding sary. of this coil if necesand removal

being

upside down, the downward magnetic pull 011 to this form, is claimed

An

accessory

of interest is

brass

spun

cap

secured to the pole

38

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

to the commutator. the end of the armature pieces and covering This adds greatly to the appearance and protects that end of the from the metallic dust of the commutator. armature

is made feature is that the commutator of steel bars secured being the armature end, the inside of the commutator only at between the strips being air. It can be quite open and the insulation lasts much longer than one made of readily cleaned and probably Another
copper
as

company exhibited by the same and is interesting on account of the very odd the Siemens dynamo called form, though it is very doubtful whether the few advantages gained

Siemens.

usual. Another
"

dynamo

the justify increase

6 or 7 feet in It consists of an ring about diameter and supported at one end, leaving both the inside and outside there are free from obstructions; the radial magnets, of which

in the complication. Gramme enormous

the inside only; the windings on the outside of the Gramme of bars of bare copper, which at the same ring are made as many on time constitute the commutator, sets of brushes which
a

number,

are

on

therefore resembles a huge outside appearance is in fact merely a copper fly-wheel on which the brushes slide. It the inside instead on machine with the magnets multipolar Gramme itself constituting of the outside, the windings on the outside of the ring
or collector. is that great circumferential speed is thereby The chief advantage of copper required attained at slow speed of revolution. The great amount the ring and the great speed at the brushes are attending on

slide The

as

there

are

magnet

poles. of the machine

the commutator

link, gear, and lever mechis also the complicated anism for holding the numerous sets of brushes and for enabling together and lifted off simultaneously^ them to be moved This is the type of machine made by Siemens in Berlin and is used

disadvantages,

as

largely in

of the central stations at present being erected in large that they must so are that city. In the latter the dynamos The be built, to a great extent, in place in the stations themselves.
some

armature

coupled Thomson-Houston

in these acts directly.

as

the fly wheel

of the engine,

to which

it is

arc

dynamo."

The

Thomson-Houston

(United

the same as it has is apparently States section) arc-light machine a very It appears to be commercially been for a number of years. conin spite of the apparently [irrational struction good arc-light machine,

of the field. Thomson-Houston power motor work is of the same

dynamo.
type
as

"

Their

the Edison,

armature at the top instead placed side by side with one

of at the of the older forms

for power and only that it has the bottom. One of these was

dynamo

of the

same

output,

ELECTRICITY.

39
newer

showing

the great improvement appearance.

in favor of the dynamo.

form

in size,

construction, and Thomson-Houston

miniature

"

a miniature was built. The to study the selfwas the smallest ever probably object Its armature was about exciting property for a small shunt machine. 8,000 revolutions and 1 inch long, making 1 inch in diameter and

Prof. Thomson

dynamo

In the personal exhibit of interest, as it is of some

giving

4 and

which corresponds to 3.4 watts per pound; the two largest machines at the exhibition the Oerlikon and the Edison, each for 150 kilowatts, gave 4.8 watts per pound, respectively; the output of this little
is therefore

2% volts and

3 amperes;

its weight

was

2.2 pounds,

that of large ones. as Small nearly the same it excites itself as a shunt machine, is said to be it was as which It is said to have been built with as nearly as quite remarkable. for as their largest machine relative proportions possible the same the transmission of power.

dynamo

distinctive feature of the Miot dynamo exhibited by Bazan (French section, silver " Me*gy, Echeverria medal),is that the poles pieces, it being greater is considerable space between there
Miot.
"

The

than
on

that part of the armature covered by the pole pieces ; the coils the Gramme armature, which are thereby rendered inactive, are

short circuited by two brushes connected of the usual single brush for each pole.

together, taking

the

sparking coils

is reduced,
as

because
as

It is claimed the current is not reversed

is
one

the place that thereby

in the
causes

separate

abruptly

usual, which

of the chief

of sparking. It was This idea is not new, however. It is a question whether the increased

used

here many

amount the whole machine this advantage. justify size of feature which appears to be meeting Another with favor is that, besides the usual field-magnet poles, there is a small series-wound magnet

years ago. creased of wire and the in-

its pole pieces being an resembling additional field magnet, distance beyond those of the large magnets ing placed a short and havto these. The intention is that the neutral opposite polarity point

the armature should thereby be fixed very definitely in its position for all different loads, so that the brushes do not need to be the load changes. moved when
on

This machine
cranes

Deprez.

"

one eling of those used to operate one of the two travin Machinery Hall. used The Deprez dynamo exhibited by the Societe Anonyme
was

de la Force par I'Electricite* pour la Transmission (French section), is characterized by its having two Gramme the same on armatures The shaft, with the pulley in the middle, between the two magnets. field magnets are composed of two horizontal magnets parallel to the shaft, each one terminating at each end in a pole piece ; or it

40

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

was put in that part of the might be said that the second armature field which is usually a yoke piece. By this arrangement each line of force is cut four times by the It is claimed that thereby armature wires, instead of twice, as usual. is a question, however, a greater whether the output is obtained ; it

additional

There is complication is worth this possible slight gain. be more readily obtained another claim made that -a higher potential may in series than by one, on the by two armatures account of
in cylinder be the case This would danger in these is not between in Gramme, as the but not armatures, Unless the two but between the wires and the frame. the wires, insulated from each other this claim were frames of the armatures It has the great disadvantage is hardly substantiated. of a very long shaft and that the belt can not be removed without cutting it.
current

breaking

through.

'

dynamos exhibited chief features of the Gramme the Companie Electrique are their simby the Societe*Gramme plicity and The frames are all of the "type superieur," by and rigidity. Gramme.
"

The

like the Edison, is meant a magnet simple horseshoe which top instead of at the bottom. They having the armature at the neatly made and exceedingly simple in construction. One

but
are

of the most interesting portions of the exhibit of the Socie'te' dynamos, showing the historical exhibit of the Gramme Gramme was have been built, from some the different forms which of the very

of the present form. earliest, and representing the development The dynamos Sautter-Lemonnier. exhibited by Sautter-Lemonnier type with Gramme are (French chiefly of the Manchester
"

section)

house ring, for use principally with their search-light projectors and lightlights, for which they have a world-wide reputation. They exhibited also a very small dynamo bine coupled directly to a tursteam-engine

The

very exceedingly small and the comparatively smoothly great consumption of for to be meeting steam, they appear with favor for special cases, they have undoubted which advantages, as they are portable and The following figures of these foundation. no require practically
; notwithstanding

whole

engine

of exceedingly and dynamo

high speed, for

are

use

chiefly on
run

ships.

be of interest. There are eight sizes built ; for No. 2, next to may the smallest, some of the figures are as follows : 70 volts 30 amperes, 2.1 kilowatts ; 8, 500 re volutions; linear speed, 138 feet per second ; or induction, 0.85 volts per foot of total length of wire, which may be equal to about 1.5 volts per foot of active wire ; this is not particularly high, considering the exceedingly high linear velocity, which
is about three times the usual velocity in small dynamos. The total weight of engine and dynamo together is only 550 pounds, the exceedingly high figure of 3.8 watts per pound of engine giving

and dynamo

together, which

alone without

is better than that obtained in some The electricalefficiency is given engine.

namos dyas

88

ELECTRICITY.

41

60 per cent. It is stated to require 180 per cent and the commercial horse-power ; for the larger to '200 pounds per electrical of steam Size No. 8 is made for 400 amhalf this consumption. sizes about peres 80 volts, the linear velocity in which is almost 250 feet per and

almost 3 miles a minute! The firm of Breguet (French section) Breguet. exhibited quite a designed for different dynamos, of different varieties of number With the exception of the purposes, chiefly for ship lighting. second,
or
"

have apparently Desroziers machine, described above, their dynamos They use features differing materially from the usual forms. no frames the Gramme of various well-known with ring armature,
types.

form of their types is the old original Gramme of frame, but it appears that this is used only for small outputs. One

One

to be small vertical high-speed engines of their specialties seems oi form, coupled directly with the dynamo, compact chiefly for ship lighting, and adopted by the French naval department.

P leper.
armature

"

Gramme
is wound.

In the Pieper dynamo (Belgiansection, gold medal) the is made of iron wire instead of plates, as in the older core rings. It is ru-sted and then coated with shellac before it The form of core is like that of a Gramme ring, but the

tem, syswindings are only on the outside surface and are on the drum having four radial poles. the machine The armature wire is made of bare copper bars of rectangular section, insulation, which acts also as a ventilator, as the core with air

in those made of disks. These as their ends by copper are strips bent somewhat connected at is connected to the the middle of which like a bracket, thus : , These pieces are all the same size and shape, and cross commutator.
in this
case
can

not be ventilated
^"

bars

"

one

another

in such
"

way

as

to make

and symmetrical the winding and makes it almost is The the winding or connections. objection that these end pieces difficulties,as presents must all be soldered to the bars, which
''"crosses" are

heads"

to the

short and quite regular It greatly simplifies armature. impossible to make in an error

very

apt to

occur

at these points, which

burn

out the armature.

Zurich.

"

The

Zurich

machine

exhibited

by the Socie'te' des Telephones

de Zurich

(Swiss section, illustration (Fig. was, 2),

on as

silver medal),and shown besides the Lahmeyer,

"

in the adjoining the only

dynamo
have

constructed been invented,

almost simultaneously ing, and Lahmeyer, in Sweden,

In this form

principle, which appears to to bipolar machines, a few years ago applied by three different inventors, Wenstrom, Her-

the "ironclad

United States, and

Germany,

respectively.

the relative position of the coil and its iron core are the iron surrounding the coil ; this is really the most rareversed, tional form for a magnet, the lines of force have a complete as all

42

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

circuit of iron, instead of partly of air, which resisting body for lines of force. There is
no

is almost

the highest they

or
"

in such machines, for this reason especially applicable for places such as is very tram cars, where such external magnetism

external

magnetism

and
on

are

ships

on

in objectionable

the former on account of the compass and in the latter 011 account of the effect on the watches of passengers. heavy, but have the advantage They are at best, however, of being very compact and solid. from the illustration, Their external appearance, as will be seen is that of an iron box, nothing being visible except the ends of the
The armature bearings and the commutator. is therefore well protected the samt, *ime readily accessible. and at

FIG. 2." The

Zurich

dynamo.

Jaspar.
changed is a

(Belgiansection, gold medal) has machine ture Its characteristic feathe original type. very littlefrom to its diamlength as compared eter, Gramme armature of great
"

The

Jaspar

It is probably resembling in its proportions a drum armature. There is the only Gramme armature made with such proportions. of coils is comparaonly one layer on the armature, tively and the number
great.

The
an

he

uses

magnets, whose A characteristic feature is

For greater outputs chief claim for it is cheapness. four radial having frame in one piece, octagonal form the pole pieces. ends
set of three large, bare, copper rings, the brushes and concentric with the armature.
a

fixed to the frame near These serve as universal connectors

with which

all connections

be-

ELECTRICITY.

43
and the machine

tweeii the four magnets, terminals are made.

the eight pairs of brushes,

Dulait.

"

The

Dulait dynamo,

Electricity et Hydraulique almost identical with

exhibited by the Societe Anonyme is in appear(Belgian section, gold ance

medal),
or

the

Victoria-Brush

the Schuckert-

The It has four poles and is compound Mordey wound. machine. is the great diameter of the of this type of machines advantage great inductor speed with relatively armature, and the consequent It has the disadvantage of this type that slow speed of revolution.
it is very to it.

difficultto take out the armature

The

should

anything

happen

Henrion.

"

Henrion

dynamo
type.

shown adjoining Schuckert the well known of

in the

illustration

(French section, gold medal), (Fig. is a slight modification 3),

The four horizontal magnets,

FIG. 3." Henrion

dynamo.

instead of being in a vertical plane, as in the Schuckert form, are in inclined plane, so as to enable the armature an with its shaft to be lifted out quite readily, the inability to do this being the chief fault
of the This dynamo Schuckert form. was for high-tension constant exhibited current
one the only French for arc lamps in series. (United States section, silver

Sperry.

"

In

the

Sperry

dynamo

is held at one of its ends, leaving the inside free for additional pole pieces. The pole pieces are split somewhat like a tuning fork, in the slot of which moves, the armature so that almost the whole length of the armature wire passes through the field,instead of only the outside portion as is usual. By this
armature
means

medal) the Gramme

it is claimed
extent, A
as

that the induction

is increased.

to

some

diminished.

the resistance of the magnetic good illustration of the machine

This may be so circuit is thereby will be found in

the Electrical World,

June

15, 1889.

44
Ferret.
"

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

In the Ferret motor for very small powers (United States the horseshoe type were the field magnets of section, silver medal), iron, jointed links of punched together by pins, so wrought made of The chief two jointst the end of the yoke piece. as to form a object be straightened out this appears to be that the whole magnet may of to form

coils on
work
cores.

straight bar, which to it. It would seem,

a

of winding The drum

the coils

on

be put into the lathe to wind however, that this saves merely then slipped over are spools, which
can

the the

the

coils,and wound winding. Postel-Vinay.

magnets
are
"

armatures, of only 2 inches in diameter, having 11 for 110 volts, are exceedingly neat examples of armature

"

In the Postel-Vinay

dynamo

the (French section)

claimed Gerard.
owing

made of cast steel in preference to cast iron, as it is that the former has better magnetic qualities than the latter.
"

The Gerard

machine

is (Frenchsection) of

some

interest,

to its great simplicity and cheapness. like many others, but the armature

It has four radial magnets consists simply of four

at only smaller, and joined the shaft forming a sort similar magnets, double Siemens H armature the alternating current produced is ; of They are chiefly for small the four-part commutator. redressed at
outputs.

Contades.

"

In the

Gramme

armature

of the

Contades

dynamo

(French section, honorable

links which on Gramme ring
are

mention) the

but

afterwards secured its application was

coils are wound separately by pins, forming the round limited to quite small machines.
DYNAMOS.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT

were exhibits of alternating-current dynamos very few of interest. Most of few, and of these there were a very only It is to be retypes. the older well-known those exhibited were of gretted

General.

"

The

that there
more

were

importance

than
"

few exhibits, would appear from

so

Thomson-Houston. branch
were some

Among

the most

is the subject of much the few exhibits. interesting features in this

as

of the
or

novel

points
as

in the

Thomson-Houston

(UnitedStates section) alternating-current

is compound to maintain
are

wound
a

"composite,"

adjoining
which

constant cut, Fig. 4.

potential. The machine

The

One of these machines. term it, in order the makers in the are shown connections
ten

has

with a coarse and a flat on the cylindrical surface of the armature. coils are wound The fineto the shunt coils of an ordiwire fieldcoils,corresponding nary as are compound-wound machine, excited by a separate machine wound
in the main circuit as connected by the following device : One end series coils. This is accomplished of the armature coils is connected directly to line by the sliding col; the coarse-wire

radial field magnets, fine winding. The armature

shown

coils

are

ELECTRICITY.

45

lector as shown having numerous connected

passes,
as

leads to a commutator or redresser bars, the alternate ones insulated are of which the alternating current is redressed, together, whereby
; the other end

shown,

around
where

this commutator,

the magnets, and back to the other brush of into an alternatingit is again commuted

the other collecting current, and thence it passes to the line through the current is redressed in that portion of its ring ; by this means circuit only which passes around the field magnets.
A

shunt coil of German to the redressing

nected self-induction, is consilver,having some brushes as shown ; by ad jlisting this the

46

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

proportion of the series excitation, and therefore the characteristic, may be varied for each particular installation. This coil also acts to diminish the sparking. the great An interesting feature of this is that notwithstanding
is redressed there is almost absolutely no sparking at This is partly due to the fact that the the redressing commutator. difference of potential at this redresser is very small. In another
current

which

this same machine The current

armature

self redresser is used to make the machine -exciting. from a few separate and independent coils on the is thus redressed and is used to excite the field.
"

terest motors of inexperimental on account of their radical difference from all others in their in action. They have been described in the journals connection with his other recent researches, and are therefore probably well known
to those particularly interested. The principle is briefly as follows
:

alternating -current motors. Prof. Elihu Thomson some were shown

Thomson

In the personal

exhibit of

When

running

is short-circuited and has no connection armature the current in the armature coils is generated by the induction

normally the with the circuit; from

the field coils as in a transformer, but owing to the retarding effect of this induction the repulsions between the armature and the field coils, or secordary and primary as they may be called in this case,
greater than the attractions, and there istherefore a continual repulsion between the two, which rotates the armature. In order to arrive at the conditions for producing this induction the motor must firstbe started. This is done by at the right moment
are
an

auxiliary commutator is first connected as an

and brushes, by

means

of which

the motor

even continuous-current motor, though the current is alternating. As soon as the proper speed is is determined by the unison of the two musical notes reached, which

ordinary

heard, or by an automatic is disconnected governor, the armature from the main circuit and is short-circuited. This motor is only an experimental in the present form it one;
is could not be used in practice. One great and fatal objection that if the speed is reduced even by overloading there will only slightly longer be the required synchronism no and the motor will stop completely. Ferraiiti machine exhibited by the Socie'te' 1'Eclairage Electrique, but it presents few points of novelty except in details. One of its features was that half of the machine could be slid off to one side to enable it to be cleaned readily and dusted the internal parts. This cleaning had to be done once around every day. The oiling was by means from an elevated continuous of pipes the drains were The reservoir into which pumped continuously. for 175 horse power, giving 2,400 was 500 machine volts and making
was a
.

Ferranti."

There

revolutions.
was

There

were

20 poles, and

the

mean

ture radius of the arma-

about

43 inches.

ELECTRICITY.

47
alternating-current that the field magnets

Heissler.
machine

"

The

peculiarities of the Heissler

section, gold

States (United

medal)

are

alternating-current machine, and the rotate like in the Gramme in which current is induced are fixed and are connected in series coils coils alternate. By this alternation and groups whose division into two groups it is claimed that better induction is obtained together as one. These two if they were than all connected feed two different and independent circuits. groups in two
magneto exhibited by alternating-current interesting as an oddity, as it has was Louis Maiche (Frenchsection) It is not the only one brushes, collector, nor wire. moving neither

Maiclie.

"

The

small

dynamo these features, as the Kleuienko (Russian) exhibited Exhibition in 1883 was in Vienna a commercial as machine of a different. the construction was similar nature, though The coil in which the current is induced is fixed to the field magnets; a piece of iron having the revolving armature consists of prohaving
on

jections

its surface which come close to the field-magnet poles and These lines of force pass. are into which the projections so spaced that the lines are drawn alternately into one and then into the other, ducing and in thus changing their position they cut the the coil,thereby inThe relative output is probably quite small. a current.

The brushes for an alternating-current machine present so few objection that itdoes not seem advisable to get rid of them at the cost of greatly increasing the size of the machine.
DYNAMO

ACCESSORIES.

of the dynamos ited exhibin place of the usual the brushes used were made of wire gauze foil. They appear to be very satisfactory and are coming into use very largely. They are made of a very finely woven-wire netting

Gauze

brushes.

"

In

very large proportion

like that used in paper-making. gauze of soft copper, somewhat They consist of a number one of layers of this gauze over another or covering bound together by a wrapping the same of and material.
or

"scream" soft and pliable, and do not "singr or hard, elastic foil brushes. They can very readily be made himself. current capacity by the attendant of a dynamo

They

are

like the
for any None of

dynamos. them were noticed 011 any American Carbon bruslies. Another into style of brush which is coming largely, but which was use for cars in noticed only on the motors the United States section, is simply a slab of carbon, held so as to be almost or quite perpendicular to the surface of the comutator. The chief their application in this case was of probably that
"

object

turn in any the motor can direction, and that any wear will not to The change their position, as in the tangential brush. objection them appears to be that they are apt to "scream" "cry," but it or is claimed that if the commutator is quite smooth they will move

48

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

the commutator unevenly, so as to cause quietly and will not wear to have but it does not appear The idea is not new, "screaming." into use until quite recently. come In one of the dynamos the copper brushes were Brush accessories. for the clamping bolt. split at the holder end, so as to leave room The well-known This device greatly simplifies the brush-holders.
"

device of shunting the brush holder, by the brush clamp and to the pin on which The of makers. used by quite a number
out of the holder,"
or,

flexible wire attached to the holder turns, is being

"

is object to

take the heat

in other words, to reduce the resistance, which becomes very high, at the sliding contact of the pin on sometimes diverts the current so which the holder turns, and which sometimes ing the springs, thereby heating them and drawthat it passes through is being adopted Another their temper. old device, which

the exact largely, is a fixed guide attached to the holder to mark from length to which the brushes should their holder.

Another
two

device for the

same

project though not as object,

diametrically opposite points on before starting. brushes are adjusted In the Alioth dynamo Brush-holders.
"

good, is to mark by which the the commutator,

there
was
a

brush-holder

and rational construction. it has the advantage entirely of avoiding and cheapness, at the pivot, which contact is so often the cause all sliding contact It consists of a straight flat spring, composed of a large of trouble. the ordinary of thin sheets of spring copper, resembling number
of simple foil brushes.

very ingenious Besides its simplicity

end of this is securely clamped to the usual rod holds the the rocker; the other end is soldered to a clamp which on There is therefore no loose or sliding contact in any brush proper. time the brush is held with all necessary part, while at the same The brush itself is almost to this flat perpendicular elasticity. the pressure is being being that when at spring, the object adjusted the fixed end of the spring the end of the brush remains in the same Similar brush-holders, differing only position on the commutator. in detail, were Driving

One

dynamos. the Belfort and on the Henrion the Gramme of machines exhibited were -gear. driven by friction pulleys of paper disks clamped There together.
noticed Some
"

on

was

each end of the shaft, and they rolled directly on the The pulleys had a 9-inch surface of two large cast-iron pulleys. face, and each transmitted horse power at a surface speed about 8 45 feet per second. They were of only slightly warm after running.
one on

for connecting the shaft of exhibited a Eaffard coupling direct to that of the engine the dynamo for direct driving. It is flexible and elastic, the transmission taking place through the medium

Breguet

of rubber bands. Another coupling for direct driving Briquet et Cie (Swiss the

was

exhibited
which
was

by

Weibel,

of section), object

to double

the

ELECTRICITY.

49

driven. by This was was accomplished speed of the shaft which in the coupmeans contained ling, of a pecular link and crank movement be found in "Engineer," London, a description of which will July 19, 1889, p. 48. Some of the dynamos Dynamometer. and motors of Deprez were
"

consuming. and record the work which they were arranged to measure balanced so as to be able The field magnets are supported and

to turn

easily through a small angle around the shaft as a center, force at the surface of the arthe turning force being the magnetic mature. to move friction roller a This deflection is made small disk pera revolving from the center toward the circumference of pendicular
to it.

shaft and drives the friction roller with a greater or less velocity, according the cena greater or less distance from as the latter has been moved ter is proportional to the deflection of the that displacement as ; the number of revolutions of this roller recorded on a magnets,
counter

This

disk is revolved

by the dynamo

of revowill be proportional to the product of the number lutions the force at the periphery of the armathe dynamo ture, and of the work. therefore measure and will
"

References.For
"accessories."

regulators

and

other accessories to systems,

see

TRANSFORMERS.

of distributing electricityby means of hightension alternating currents, and converting these into quantity currents by induction in transformers, was suggested and even patented

General.

"

The system

number of years ago, but it was not developed into a practical and system until within the last few years, and it successful commercial therefore be classed among the more in the may recent developments
a

distribution of electricity. It was exhibited the first time at the Vienna Electrical Exhibition in 1883, by Gaulard " Gibbs, but it attracted much attention there the system does not seem although
to have

when

given very satisfactory results until a number of years later, developed independently in Austria, the United States, it was

and England,

be successful commercial system, and itmay now important of the recent developments. the most The classed among transforming currents, though allied system of continuous older, does not appear to have developed into an important system. Exhibits. There were so few exhibits of transformers that it may be said that in this branch the exhibition did not represent the
a
"

into

tribution multiple arc disthe only and the Jablochkoff candle series distribution were two commercial It is to be regretsystems exhibited in operation. ted that this should have been the case, as it would have added
present

state of the art.

The

Thomson-Houston

greatly to the interests of the exhibition

more

to have

had

this

new

tem sys-

widely represented. H. Ex. 410" VOL 4 iv

50
Mr. Louis

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

exhibitor in the French section, claims that sion the principle of this system of transmitting electricity of high teninto low tension at it by means of transformers and converting Maiche,
an

was the place of consumption, patented by him as 15, 1880, and that his patent was sustained by United States patent office.

ber early as Septemdecision in the a

by

The

Thomson
is not

compensating

system,

exhibited
similar
system,

the Thomson-

Houston
apparatus,

Company,

although
a

described under

another

properly heading.

somewhat transformer

in its

and

objectand is therefore

(See"Systems

of transmission

and distribution.") developed systems, it was As usual with newly not possible to obtain from the exhibitors figures and data regarding transformers. The following detailed descriptions must therefore be limited to a
mere

mention Alternating

of the exhibits.
"

pile iron plates having retangular holes for the coil and an opening of sheet introduced; this opening then through which the coil was was fitting wedge-shaped There closed by a tightly plug, also laminated.

had

current transformer. The in daily use. few transformers

Thomson-Houston

pany Comof
a

They

were

made

two styles of plates exhibited, one formed like the letter H and to the other like the letter "" In the firstthe coil must be wound on
were

The the pile of plates and can not be removed without unwinding. In the second form the plugs are introduced at the top and bottom. coil is wound separately and then placed into the pile of plates from
the side.

This is the

new

form

coil can readily be removed forms the magnetic circuit is completely force traverses two joints the iron. No in weights,
or

seems which for inspection

to be preferred.
or

The

In both repairing. of iron, and each line of sions, data regarding the dimen-

forms of The same capacities could be obtained. coils in plates were used for their self-induction or compensating their compensating see (See system, which under that heading.

"Systems").
Constant alternating current was of Prof. Thomson shown the secondary circuit would
constant
"

transformer. In
"

an

interesting

the personal exhibit in which transformer of for

quantity variable resistances in the external circuit, the primary circuit being to the usual constant Usually the connected potential mains. has a constant potential instead of a constant cursecondary current rent The principle of this transformer is that a portion strength.
"

that

an generate alternating current is, of a fixed number of amperes

of the magnetic
resistance.

circuit is an air space, which This gives the transformer

acts
a

as

great

magnetic
curve a

for volts and amperes in the secondary, straight line between certain limits, between

which

characteristic is practically
the current

therefore, not vary

very- much

which will, for different external resistances. It

ELECTRICITY.

51

"was

shown

of about
-a

in operation with, a constant alternating current arc lamp being connected to 50 volts in the secondary, the primary
arc

1,000- volt multiple

circuit.
"

Jablochkoff candle transformers. In

used at present for the Jablochkoff with each lamp containing a number lamp are all in multiare ple all in series. The several candles in each the secondary circuit of a transformer, but their resistance on arc which itself out by melting a then increases sufficiently to light
on

system of distribution candles, there is a transformer These transformers of candles.

the

not lit is when through the one

so

very

high

practically all the current is burning ; when this is consumed fuse ; the potential in the secondary
that
one

passes it cuts circuit

so

of the remaining

ones,

and

until all Continuous

are

consumed.
current

Popp

Company

transformers.The apparatus exhibited by the (French section, silver medal), called an "onduleur"
"

ordinary transformer to be used. on a mutator, series circuit. It consists essentially of a comcontinuous-current the high-tension continuous reverses which rapidly
is (undulator), for

enabling

an

curi^nd;.,

alternating current, which then passes through an^l transformer, where it is converted into one of low tension. convenient The main feature is that the current is changed in direction very The actual commutation "undulator." gradually; hence the name
making
it
an

takes

is short-circuited. the apparatus when place at the moment by a rapidly revolving cylindrical commutator, This is accomplished the following series of connections: The line current makes which

the transformer passes through and a resistance in multiple arc with it; this resistance is arranged in a succession of steps, in series, each the commutator, in reconnected by brushes to this commutator; volving, after the other of these resistances into circuit, and finally opens that branch, when the whole current goes through it then puts them into circuit again and reduces the transformer; their number, step by step, until this resistance, and therefore also brings
one

the transformer,
reverses

are

short-circuited, at which

moment

the commutator

the current.

This series of connections is repeated in very rapid succession. It is thereby made to vary be seen that the alternating current will There is very greatly reduced. are gradually and the sparking always
two

such commutators,

commutators revolving in opposite phases. The this is that the two of object balance each other, so as not to affect the primary waves of current The commutator, the rest of the main line or the dynamo. which

the two

with their transformers, being connected to the same

at

one

station,

shaft, but

must

turned by a small compressed-ai rapidly, was from the compressed-air motor, mains of this supplied laid by them for general power distribution in are company, which parts of the city of Paris. The economy of transof this system necessarily revolve
very

52
formers
can

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

not be very

ited. great, and its application is necessarily lim-

The

transformer Company exhibited a continuous-current in the form of a dynamo ture, with a double winding on its armafor driving it as a motor from the highone which was part of

Gramme

the generator for the low-tension tension current and the other was It was current. said to be exhibited only as a historical model, the device being comparatively old and littleused.
ARC LAMPS.

Historical. Hall,
as
a

delphia, of 1876, held in Philathe exhibits from France, in Machinery there were among They were few arc lamps run from dynamos. exhibited not
"

In the Centennial

Exhibition

This was system of lighting. curiosity, but as a commercial large international lamp at a arc the firstexhibit of the commercial it was the firstintroduction into America probably exhibition, and vidual indithe arc light as a means of subdivided light. Although of
were

been
The

lights may have existed here before that time, yet they in the nature of experiments, and can not be said to havemore lamps. commercial
arc

arc

lamp

had

been

introduced

1874 and

to have been for single large lights for light-houses and similar purposes, which use is said to date back fifteen years prior to that. This French exhibit at the Centennial
use

1875 in permanent Prior to this the only

in the winter of tories. installations for lighting shops and facseems

in France

as

to have been a seed sown on at Philadelphia seems good soil, ton, HousThomson, or two later several inventors, like Brush, year

others, began electric arc lighting on a commercial scale. This was followed by great developments and very rapid progress, tries until at the present time arc lighting forms one of the large indusof the United States. After the very rapid developments of

and

the firstfew years, progress in the arc lamp The chief developments not unimportant.

distribution rather than in the lamps At the electrical exhibitions of Vienna in 1883 and in Philadelphia in 1884 arc lamps were already well developed, and but little improvement has been made from the beginning of since. It was
its general introduction, and is stillat this time, probably the most means efficient of converting energy into light, though not necessarily

itselfhad been slow, but in the systems were of themselves.

the cheapest.
of oil and

Notwithstanding
to burn

coal gas

that it is a great waste of the energy it for lighting, yet these are still important economical
arc

competitors features.

of

the

more

light, in several

In general, the direction of development of the arc lamps as shown by the exhibition is different in the Continental countries from that in the United States. In these countries the usual method of dis-

ELECTRICITY.

53

tribution of arc lamps is in multiple arc on constant potential circuits, the series distribution being quite rare; in the United States, the former system being a the other hand, it is quite the reverse, on ment This has led to a different direction of developgreat exception.
wider Series lamps. of of the mechanism brightness. range of
"

arc

lamps

abroad,
as

as

also to

much

In

States, the current

series system, such is constant throughout

is used the whole

in the United

circuit are of about the furthermore, as one and the same same current flows candle power; lamps more less dependent on it makes or through them all, all the
a

potential of all arc lamps is nearly the same, to advantage, it follows that all the lamps in

and

can

circuit; as the not be varied

could open the circuit would be fatal to which Such a circuit is not easily broken while running, such a system. total destruction of the parts where the break occurs, and without great fire risk on account of the persistence of the arc "onsequent
each
one.

lamp

forms at the break. which These conditions led to constructions of lamps in which such including safety devices and automatic cutoccur, things can outs not to prevent accidents, devices which are scarcely to be found in foreign
as arc

lamps.

In

series system

the carbons burn away, of effecting the regulation. one; the series coil,being traversed by
be, and in many lamps. Multiple arc these the

it is the potential which varies and which is therefore used as a means The shunt coil is therefore the important
a

constant

current, may

fore there-

conditions

are

potential which the carbons as vary one most important

is, replaced by a spring or weight. distribution many In the multiple arc of different. In such a system it is or reversed is constant and it is the current which will
"

lamps

burn

away.

The

for effecting the The coil could theoretically be replaced by a spring or weight. lamps are independent of one another; no persistent arc will form if the circuit is opened; therefore no safety devices and cut-outs are
As the current for each lamp is not necessarily the same, required. to the development it has led of arc lamps of small as well as very the same on great candle power circuits, requiring as littleas two
to
as

series coil is therefore the regulation, while the shunt

many

as

fifty amperes,

also has incandescent ordinary which dynamo

making the advantage that

more much lamps arc

can

flexible system, be put on the

the special independent system without in the series system. required It appears, however, that in practice arc lamps can not be run directly in multiple arc; such a distribution is found to require

dead resistance to be placed in series with each lamp; this resistance but a constant represents not only an additional piece of apparatus in general is about 20 per and considerable waste of power, which high as 30 per cases as cent of the total power used, and in many

54
cent.

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

This exis therefore very faulty in this respect. ternal the to be used not only to prevent dead resistance appears but great rush of current should the carbons touch, as at starting, to effect a regulation, it appears to be essential in some systems is effected by a shunt coil, lamps this regulation because in some force, a constant which would be useless, because it would represent it not for this dead resistance. The were regulation is in such dependent lamps the variation of the loss of potential in this on

The

system

dead resistance caused by variations of the current in the arc, for if there would be no change of potential zero this dead resistance were if the current in the arc varied very at the poles of the lamp even be considerable in greatly. This external resistance must therefore

order to enable
Feeding

the regulation to be effected by virtue of its resistance.

"

feature which a Another multiple arc carbons. to develop is that the feeding of the carbons must distribution seems be a very gradual one and the regulation must be very sensitive, as a very able slight change* of the length of the arc makes a very appreciThe in the current, and therefore in the candle power. change

of the

foreign lamps

are

therefore

essentially different from

ours

in that

the more the regulation is a much sensitive one, and consequently in light is very much steadier. Hissing and flickering, so common " " drop lamps, is the exception with these. The our principle, which in which the carbon drops is the one almost universally used here,

be suddenly during certain stages of the regulation, would At the same time the foreignalmost fatal to a multiple arc system. far simpler in their construction, even, lamps are in many cases

down

though

This is to some better one. the regulation is a much extent by the series due to the several safety devices which are necessitated system and which are not necessary in the multiple arc. In the usual in constant arc either directly in multiple tems potential systems of 70 volts, or two in series in sys110 volts. In the former the loss in the dead resistance isof about 25 volts and in the latter about 20 volts. One of the most frequently adopted principles of regulation of these lamps is that the carbon, in descending, by its own weight
system

the

arc

lamps

are

turns

ment escapemultiplying system of gearing, the rapidly moving is operated by the of which is controlled by a brake which The descent of the carbon may magnet, usually series wound.
a

Another therefore be made very gradual principle and regular. frequently used is to force the carbon down, so as to make the action independent of any weights or friction. Make-and-break movements small electric motors were holds Jablochkoff candle still
and

also used in

diminishing
very

a prominent It stillremains few alternating-current lamps.

The number of lamps. but apparently of place, of the leading of the

importance.

one

ELECTKICITY.

55
from

the usual arc lamps importance none are of exhibited attempted continually, there were Pieper lamp, which, being really an incandescent except the new lamp, is described under that heading.
Xew

forms.
"

Although

new

departures

almost universally used for for the lower. This also the upper or positive pole and plain ones the lamps burn more is one of the reasons steadily. They are why " than the plain. (See Carbons," expensive only very little more " General under

Cored

carbons.

"

Cored

carbons

are

supplies.")
One

of the interesting features of arc lighting exhibited introduction of lamps of comparathe more was tively extended littleas three and even two as small candle power, requiring be used to advantage to replace the large inThey may candesce amperes.

Small

lights.
"

lamps.

Diffusion. In
"

number

arc,

position, which enables very in diameter to be used globes small milk-white for small lights. This diffuses the light in such a way that the from
6 to 8 inches

therefore, remaining

of lamps in the same

both

carbons

are

moved,

the

effect is a much more kind may be placed

objectionable,

A lamp of that satisfactory and agreeable one. a small room, ing a table, or in even over without beit does not hurt the eye to look directly at it. and

In another system the position of the carbons is reversed, so as to throw the light up against a reflector in order to diffuse it. It is pil claimed that when so diffused less light is required, because the puof the eye shadows. Exhibits

does not contract

"

so

much,

nor

are

there such black

by countries. Though mostly from

good
one

ones

England,

merous. very nuexhibits of arc lamps were from France, there were and very many United States, Belgium, Switzerland, and

The

from

Germany.
The
average cost of
a

Cost.
about

"

good

arc

lamp

abroad

appears

to be

$40.
DETAILED

DESCRIPTION.

of totally different construction there were as exhibitors of lamps, an arc lamp being one of those tinct pieces of apparatus of which it is very easy to invent a new and disIt would, therefore, be quite useless and unintermechanism. esting

There

were

about

as

many

lamps

to give a detailed description here of more than one or two the better ones, interesting of with a short summary of the more For complete descriptions the reader points of some of the others. is referred to the journals most of them have and books in which

been described. The Cance. lamp Cance exhibited d'Appareillage et d'Eclairage Electrique lamp, is of interest though not a new
"

by

the

Socie'te Anonyme
of its steadiness

(Frenchsection,gold medal),
011

account

56

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

The general principle of the and its wide range of candle power. in the is shown lamp mechanism cut, Fig. 5. adjoining It consists, in general, of a long square V with very threaded-screw great pitch, turning easily. The nut A is attached capable of
to the upper

carbon

will descend slowly when is kept from turnto turn : the screw ing by the second nut in the piece BD, which nut can turn only when the friction

holder, which is althis screw lowed

of the pressure on it, exerted by the piece BD, is released; this is done by the iron
the current F in the solenoids ; when cores in these solenoids decreases, the iron cores descend and relieve the upper nut, which
-

B Bni"n3B

I\ HIB

gfflBg

'

then turn and thereby allow the screw ^" turn and the nut A to descend, feeding
can

The two the carbons. being suspended move,

one

carbon holders both by means mon of a comso that as the upper over cord pulleys down, the lower one moves moves up fast, thereby keeping the light in bons place. The force for bringing the carby a weight, is produced together
as

half
one

which
new

is pulled up by the act of putting As it is a mulcarbons into the lamp. tiple

arc

lamp,

the coils are

in series with

the The

arc,

and no shunt coils are necessary. for a number ferent lamps are of difmade The currents, from 3 to 50 amperes.

As the arc relight is particularly steady. mains in the same a very small white place,

globe, only 6 to 8 inches in diameter (see be used, lamp below), can cut of Bardon
appearance and a The very very pleasant diffused light. important lamps of 3 amperes are an small addition to arc lamps, as it enables such

which

gives

very

neat

lamps
FIG. 5." The Cance
arc

lamp.

to be used in many cases where the large arc lamps would be usual able. objection-

Bardon.
shown

"

The

lamps

of Bardon
cut

in the following

(French section, is (Fig.6), interesting on

silver

medal),

great simplicity. It is one of the simplest arc lamps simply of a brake actuated by a core in a solenoid, and pressing lightly against the circumference of the large wheel seen at the top,

account of its It conin use. sists

ELECTRICITY.

57

carries a small pulley on its shaft, over which passes the cord the weight of the carbons on which the carbons are suspended; do so only when the brake has tends to turn this wheel and it can been released by a diminution of the current in the

which

This regulation is said to be so sensitive and gradual that the wheel is turning slowly all the in circuit is said to remain time; and an amperemeter feeding of the carbons can not be quite steady ; the noticed by it. The lamp is, as usual, for multiple

solenoid.

distribution, and has no shunt coil. The two other lamps, both carbon holders are, as in many cord over movable, being suspended by a common
arc

pulleys
moves

them is started by the whole wheel being raised by the brake, lifting up the upper carbon with it. The leads to the carbon holders are made with flexible cords and
"

down the upper moves the lower up through half the distance. This enables The arc to use very small globes, as shown.
so

that

as

there

are

no

sliding parts which

need

attention

and. cleaning. Pieper. In one of the Pieper lamps

sec(Belgian tion

; gold medal) the upper carbon is pushed down by a make and break vibrator actuated by a shunt The spark produced at the make and break magnet. is scarcely visible. In another of these lamps there to the clockwork is a very ingenious escapement

which permits the revolving escapement mechanism fan (and thereby the slowly, only ; carbon)to move fan has attached to it a small weight the escapement which wheel flies out and strikes against a stop when the turns too fast : this makes the feeding very
"

regular and gradual. The Maquaire Maquaire. (Frenchsection ; lamp is interesting on account silver medal for lamp

alone)

of itsvery sensitive regulation and consequent steadiness. It is entirely independent of weights, clockwork, in any position. It is adopted run etc., and will

The upand used by the French Edison Company. is actuated by a rack and pinion driven er carbon rod by a small electric motor. The lamp current passes
through
Fig. 6." Bardon's arc the magnets ; the armature current is conlamp. tween becontrolled by a contact piece resting normally two contacts by the combined and opposing action of a spring in shunt to the arc ; when a magnet the arc is too short the and

spring predominates turns the motor in

and
one

closes one of these contacts and thereby direction; when is too long, the the arc

58
magnet

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

and closes the other contact which turns the predominates the distance between these motor in the other direction. By making two contacts very short, the regulation becomes very sensitive. It
is made for multiple
arc

distribution The principle appears cause to actuate the lamp by a shunt coil, beit is not quite rational this shunt coil should exert a constant pull or action, no matter by a constant potential what current is in the lamp, as it is controlled In order to enable a shunt coil to be dependent on the circuit. the mains and the lamp, be a resistance between there must arc,

for series distribution. good, except that for multiple-arc

or

In other words, such a system requires as a necessary part of it a dead resistance in which energy is wasted. Among the other claims are that the lamp is very short. They two in series on allO-volt circuit,requiring 8 amperes are usually run at 8 amperes gives and 45 volts, leaving a waste of 20 volts, which
which
means a

waste.

160 watts

per two lamps, or almost as much lamps ; this feature is, however, common

as

3 ordinary incandescent to the multiple-arc

system and not to this lamp only, except that in this lamp it is essential is cored, and is fiveThe upper for the regulation. carbon

eighths of

an

inch in diameter

seven-sixteenths of an The average eight hours. Breguet.

"

inches long ; the lower is plain, and 7-J inch in diameter and 6 inches long ; they burn price of the lamp lamp "dynamo" is $40. is (French section)
perhaps It

The

Breguet

the simplest in its principle though

not in its construction.

motor, with a small pinion on consists merely of a small Gramme This constitutes the the rack of the upper carbon rod. which gears whole lamp; the weight of the rod tends to turn the motor and its

turning
turn

force is balanced

distribution.

in the opposite The motor

to exactly by the tendency of the motor direction. The lamp is only for multiple-arc

shunt winding, prevent too rapid Aboilard.

"

the
a

object

is seriesbut has also wound, is said to be merely of which

an
a

auxiliary damper to

motion. In the Aboilard

lamp

the (French section)

upper

carbon

the nut of which is turned by a make rod is a long screw, and break movement, is fed downward. It is therefore whereby the rod independent of any weights or position, and the regulation is by

exceedingly
"

small steps.
ampere

one-tenth of an Brown. The

Brown

current is said not to vary while it is regulating. lamp exhibited by the Oerlikon

The

more

than

Company

is It consists, (Swisssection) also one of very simple construction. like a number of others, essentially of a brake which is applied to a

large escapement wheel driven by the weight of the upper carbon. This brake is in the form of a wedge which is controlled by being inside of a very large coil of the full diameter of the lamp case. This large coil is intended to act by virtue of its self-induction to
prevent
too sudden

changes

in the current,

and

is therefore

to

re-

ELECTRICITY.

59

is almost universal with place the usual external resistance which, lamps when in multiple arc, and which represents a great waste arc As there is a loss of 3 volts in this large coil,it has considerable of energy. besides its self-induction. A good illustration resistance
in 1'Electricien, June 22, and a description of the lamp will be found 188". The Henrion lamp (French section; gold medal)is one Henrion. in series. are usually run of the very few lamps exhibited which
"

slight modification only of the so-called and Both his series and his multiple-arc lamps Pilsen lamp. well-known are (both being differential) except that said to be exactly the same the former have a cut-out which switches equivalent resistances in the multiple-arc lamps there were circuit if the lamp fails. Among some of which he claims to obtain six to of as low as two amperes, The lamp
itself is
a

It appeared to burn quite nicely. the horse power. lamp (English The Crompton Crompton. section ; gold medal) is It is for series another lamp of exceedingly simple construction. It consists simply distribution and often of as high as 25 amperes.
"

solenoid, and acting by rack and pinion driven by the simple wheel escapement They are used very largely in weight of the upper carbon holder. England. lamp (United States Tfwmson-Houston. The Thomson-Houston
of
on
a

brake controlled by

differentially wound
run

"

differs from section)

:

carbons

others in that the carbons are at firstseparated brings the the current is first started the mechanism when The together and separates them again to form the arc.
most

series coil is replaced by a spring, as the lamp only, in which, therefore, the series coil as its action is constant.

is for series distribution be used to regcan not ulate, there

was

Thomson.
an shown The upper

exhibited. rack descends by its weight and drives a ; the escapement mechanism clockwork of this is stopped or released by a lever having a massive copper disk situated between the two rod having
a

In the personal exhibit of Elihu Thomson alternating-current lamp, one of the very few
"

This copper magnet. poles of a shunt-wound alternating-current disk is repelled by currents induced in it ; when the current in the increases by the arc becoming long this repulsion too shunt magnet the escapement the carbons to descend slowly. releases and allows It was connected to a peculiar transformer a constant which maintained
current

in the secondary
"

circuit

on

being connected

to

constant

transformers). potential primary circuit (see The Jablochkoff candle (French Jdblochkoff.
arc

was section)

the

only other alternating-current of the exhibited and Formerly these very few foreign arc lamps for series distribution. lamps, consisting each of five candles, were run wires, with as many so burnt down the current was that as each series of candles was
one

lamp

60
switched
on

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

to another series until all five were

burnt down.

These

and multiple wires were objectionable costly. Now they are run as lamp-post is a series transformer follows : In the bottom of each the constant through current circuit passes. of the whole which is connected to all the five The secondary circuit of the transformer

candles in multiple arc through small lead fuses at the bottom of At the top of each candle the two carbons are connected with each. a carbon at first passes of high resistance; the current cement through which
were;

all of these in multiple arc and burns out the weakest one lights that particular candle, the others remaining as they the others continually, and passing through As soon is therefore wasted, is insignificantly small. as that
the
current

which

candle has burnt down to its holder, the heat of the arc melts the fuse at this point, which cuts out that lamp ; the current must then the others, lighting the one of lowest resistance, and pass through so on until all have been consumed.

Sautter, Lemonnier "

"

Co.

"

The

arc

lamps

of Sautter, Lemonnier

Co.

(Frenchsection), used

moved
screw,

for their well-known search-light projectors hand are regulators, the carbon holders being all usually by being secured to two nuts on a common simultaneously

thread and the other a part of which has a right-hand left-hand one of double the pitch. The carbons in these are not directly opposite, as usual, but are slightly out of line so as to form
one

the crater of the arc on one side of the positive carbon, in order that the full light of this crater shines directly onto the reflector without The arc for their large 60 centimeters reflector is any obstructions. said to be of 60,000 candles without the reflector. They find that the

light is given with 55 to 60 volts; higher voltage gives maximum less light. For the smaller 30,000-candle light it is found to even be 50 volts.
is in as reflector for these projectors, is well known, the rear of the arc and is composed of a lens, the rear side of which is a reflector. The light is therefore refracted twice and reflected
a resmaller lens to be used than if it was fracted -thereby enabling All the light from the arc passes back to this once. only The flashes for sigreflector ; there is no direct light from the arc. naling by means for of these projectors, instance by Morse character, are by a small hinged iron screen, is placed produced which between the arc and the reflector, thereby completely cutting off the light. The following figures these regarding may be of projectors interest: There are 4 sizes, 30, 60, 90, ter and 150 centimeters in diame59 inches, (12, The power of these is 23|,35^,and respectively). as the squares their diameters, the third being therefore of about twice the second, and the fourth being seven times the second. about Although the rays from the s projectorhould be quite parallel, they do make diverging angle, the size a is one degree small of which once,

The

Mangin

ELECTRICITY.

61
the
arc

'and

appreciable point. spherical aberration, the The composite reflector being the equivalent of a parabolic mirror. for calculating the candle power of the beam of light at formula different distances is
a

half; this is due

is not
a mere

to the

fact that

has

an

size and

There

is no

"

A!
X2

in which x is the distance and A is a fractional constant depending A is equal the atmosphere; for an absolutely clear atmosphere on to 1. For a moderately that around as such misty atmosphere, Paris, A
a

is about 0.8.

distant place, as be squared; must

For calculating the apparent illumination of by the operator at the this seen projector, formulae is doubled, it therefore becomes as the distance
"

A2* ~tf

With in which the symbols the quantities. stand for the same the operator can see on small 30-centimeter projector objects a clear The arc of the 60-centimeter distant (3,280 feet). night 1,000 meters
has projector

candle power of 60,000 candles without the reflector; with the reflection it is increased 1,100 times, or equivalent to 66,The 150-centimeter in opera000,000 candles. tion which was
a

projector,

continually Tower, is about hurts

during
seven

the eyes even figures were obtained from

the exhibition, from the top of the Eiffel times as powerful; the direct light from it from a distance of several miles. The above

Mer itens.
"

the makers. In the exhibit of Meritens"

the well-known

medal),who
lights,
were

are

for light-houses, which are made of a section tied together to form of rods of square cross They claim that these composite carbons burn more one. evenly for such large sizes.
amperes and large number

some shown 45-volt lamps

(Frenchsection, gold in electrical light-house pioneers inches in diameter for 600 carbons 2--J-

Co.

Lie Blon.

"

The

arc

without any the form of two pivoted levers like

was of Le Blon (French section) cally practiIt consisted of two carbon holders in mechanism.

lamp

having

a pair of scissors held vertically, fastened perpendicularly at their lower points. The carbons carbons rest against each other at their extremities and glow at this It should be point ; their weight feeds them as they are consumed. In another form the carbons are used with an alternating current.

curved and are forced together by a weight on a string over pulleys It is a question, however, whether true arc is the holders. a on likely, it is more formed, or whether, as is more of an incandescent
light. They
were

not

running,

and

were

probably

experimental
was section)

only. Puvillard. somewhat

of Puvillard Freres (French two curved carbons fed by similar, having

"

The

lamp

clockwork,

62

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

the escapement The clockwork in two planes.

magnet. controlled by a shunt-wound of which was The two curved carbons were had to be wound up. different inclined planes, touching at the intersection of these

It

used as a Arnould.

very table lamp.

"

was

short

lamp,

with

the

arc

at the top, to be

In the Arnould
two

lamp

the (French section)

arc

cylinders of glass, the outer one concentric is The closed at the bottom. object to make the air for the lamp heated before it between the two cylinders and become pass down it is claimed greater efficiency is obtained. passes by the arc, whereby In the lamp of Dulait (Belgian Dulait. section, gold medal) the by
"

is surrounded being

the postive or bright one being position of the carbons is reversed, the lower, so as to throw the light up against a conical reflector. a The principle is that if a light is diffused over great surface the do not contract as they would if the pupils of the eyes of persons light were small point, and that, therefore, less light all from one

illumination as far will be necessary to produce practically the same illuminates to greater adIt furthermore the eye is concerned. as vantage, dark definite shadows. He claims that the it casts no as diffusion of the light is greater than the loss attending gain in this
the

of such lamps is reflection, and as a result a smaller number required in replacing the usual lamps by these. is teen The Alioth lamp (Swiss Alioth. section) claimed to burn fourthey are only about 8 hours with one set of carbons, although has a cross The upper one than twice inches long. section more
"

The upper one is always cored. It is not stated that of the lower. long life of the carbons is due, but it is presumably to what this owing to its being a small current lamp.

References. For
"

For "illuminated supplies." carbons see "General fountains "Miscellaneous see applications of electrical energy." For "systems distribution" see under that heading. of
"

INCANDESCENT

LAMPS.

lamp as a of the incandescent be said to have beg^un between ten and twelve may commercial it was known years ago, although and had been used a number of to that, yet it had not been developed sufficiently to come years prior
"

Development.

The

introduction

lamp

into general use. One of the most

steps in its development, made at that to make time, was the incandescent carbon long and slender instead thick; this was doubt that which it a of short and without made This step is claimed to lamp. as a practical success commercial have been made by Edison. After the very rapid development of

important

the firstfew years

of its introduction,

but

littleprogress

has

been

ELECTRICITY.

63

in details of construction and the manufacture of any which naturally accompany manufacture, such a great scale. The potential almost universally article on adopted is about 100 volts. The efficiency has been increased but

made

other than

minor

improvements

six years; it is at present as a rule between 3 cases as and 3.5 watts per candle for the usual lamps, and in some low as 2 watts for large lamps with thick filaments. cient; As a converter of electrical energy into light, it is stillvery ineffilittlein the last five
or

will give from five to ten times as much light per It is claimed to have been found that only watt as the incandescent. a very small fraction of the electrical energy of an incandescent lamp into heat. is converted into light, almost all of it being converted
an

arc

lamp

If this is the
to produce
great
waste

likely, it is a great waste of energy and it seems lamps, in the same light with incandescent way as it is a
case,

to

use

for driving
improvement

being

much lamps, which will probably be in its incandescent of ments replaced by a radically different lamp, rather than in improvein this direction was Some development of the present form.
by the small arc lamps of low candle power, requiring as little But although the latter have such a very much amperes. do not compare to the incandescent lamp efficiency, yet they
in favor

steam

or gas for illuminating purposes, There is therefore very engines.

even

to

use room

coal for

shown as two

higher

The latter feature is of such great value in convenience. being of the incandescent lamps, that the arc lamps are even
to
some

replaced
2,000 candles.

extent by large incandescent

lamps

of 1,000

and

is in the radically differdirection of development ent shown lamp exhibited by Pieper, which belongs to the soincandescent lamps, though it is truly an incandescent called semi-incandescent Another

and

not

an

arc

lamp.

This lamp

Among the incandescent candle. insky lamps of 150 to 200 volts and of the usual candle power. If these are in all other respects as good as the usual 100- volt lamp it is an important advance, as it cheapens the distribution very greatly.

is said to require only 1 watt per lamps exhibited were Khotsome

lamps is at the present time manufacture of incandescent the largest branches of the whole electrical industry; one of already in France alone claim to be making lamps at the rate several makers
In Germany, as the of 2,000 and 1,000 per day. also in England, quantity is doubtless still greater, while in the United States there are as in all the other countries probably as many made combined. Exhibits ~by countries.
"

The

There

were

who manufacture Thomson-Houston,

the rest of
some
were were

the lamps and

altogether about eleven exhibitors themselves. Of these, three (Edison,

from

were Heissler)

the United

States,

almost exclusively from from other countries.

France,

though

the inventors

64

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

DETAILED

DESCRIPTION.

kept are As the processes of manufacture and wisely, too usually detailed description is limited to a mere mention secret, the following the data of the respective lamps: some of of In the Edison exhibit (United States section, grand prize Edison. a well-arranged there was for whole shown and complete
" " "

exhibit)

in the manufacture exhibit of the various steps There finished lamps. crude material to the

of the lamps, from th.3 were stated to be twelve

hundred

three hundred are of which useful. varieties of bamboos, A particular one of these found in a certain hilly district of Japan, found to be the best and seasoning, was after a certain age of growth The inner pithy fibers and the hard, and is the one at present used. planed off, leaving the inside, from which the siliceous outside are terminals, are straight filaments, with their widened size. These are then bent, carbonized, and connected in wires by electrically deposited copper.
cut to an exact to the leading-

of 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 24, 32, 50, 100, 150, 250 made circuits of about 110 volts. The lamp candle power, all for the same has become a very large part of their industry. Some manufacture idea of the extent of this may be had from the fact that at the close

Lamps

are

of the year 1888 they had almost alone, which was Besides these there were

installed in isolated plants the preceding year, 230,674. that of 675,660 lamps in central stations and 15,550
434,181

lamps

double

1,125,000. in municipal plants, making a total of about lamps. the next largest lamp Probably French Edison-Swan
"

Ge'ne'rale des of those exhibiting is the Compagnie manufacturers Incandescentes Lampes (French section, gold medal),who manufacture in France. Edison and Swan the combined patents under day, employing 200 hands Their capacity is 2,500 lamps per and
using 250 horse power. with a plain horseshoe

make chiefly two styles of lamps, one filament like the Edison, and one with the lamp. filament in the characteristic loop form of the Swan Their
They

usual lamps are made introduced larger also

for 10, 16, 32, and

ones

50

candles;

they

have

of 100, 200, 500, and 1,000 candles. They are made of various voltages from 2 to 200 volts, at an efficiency of from 2 to 4 watts per candle ; the types generally used consume 3.5
watts

per candle, while the larger ones require only 3 watts; the life is said to be 1,000 hours. For special cases in which greater economy is desired at the expense is reduced to 2 of life,the consumption
watts per candle, with a life of 500 to 600 hours. The large lamps of 1,000 candles are introduced to replace the arc lamps, which are in The cost of such a objectionable many cases. lamp is $6.75, and assuming to a life of 800 hours, this corresponds
0.85 cent per hour

of carbon

for the cost of the lamp; the cost of the consumption in an lamp they give as about 2 cents per arc alone

ELECTRICITY.

65

hour, showing considerable saving in favor of the incandescent lamp. Besides this there is the cost of the arc lamp and the cost of attendance, On the other hand, the conis by no means sumption small. which for arc lamps is considerably less, being only of power cent. one-half watt per candle, as against 3 watts for the incandesabout
Besides this the cost of the circuit and of the transmission of rope the same amount of power for arc lamps in series is less,but in Eulamps on the usual multiple arc circuits^ arc they usually run this factor does not enter there. They also make focus lamps so that
to be used with reflectors,for search lights for instance, in which the filament is in the form of a closely wound spiral, so as to have

the light as nearly as possible condensed in one point. Gabriel. Another large exhibition of lamps was that of F. GabrieL dle (French section, honorable mention.) He claims 3.5 watts per can800 to down to 2.5 for the larger ones, for the usual sizes and at
"

The base is of made of gun cotton. a black glass or enamel, with a bayonet posed clamp or holder and two exflat contact surfaces on the bottom, making a very simple and of other makers.. practical lamp base, which is used also by a number
1,000 hours.

The

filaments

are

Lodyguine.

"

Lodyguine,

earliest worker Russian section (gold medal), lamps. with which he had made
raw

who has in this field,

of the earliest, if not the historical exhibit in thea small showing chiefly the various substances
was
one

weed, appears to be couch grass or material used now palm The joint of the carbon with the leading-in wires is weed grass. side made of a carbon cylinder having the wire twisted around the outthe filament inserted through the center. and The Societe Anonyme Cruto. (French pour le Travail des Metaux

flax, silks,broom leaves.

The

these were lime-tree wood, fiber from

Among

caen

cloth, the dwarf

"

section, silver medal) exhibited the Cruto lamp, which is made of a fine platinum wire, on which the carbon is deposited by heating it in An interesting novelty was a glass bulb for thea hydrocarbon gas.

ridges, small corrugated, or formed with numerous depressions, in such a way that the light from the and projections, broken up into a large number filament was of bright points and
larnps, which
was

in the usual ground glass or milky bulbs, but without suffering any loss, as the glass was quite transparent. d'Electricitd (French section, Anonyme Gerard. The Socie'te' lamp, in which the filament is exhibited the Gerard gold
was

thereby

diffused

as

"

medal)

together at their upper of two straight carbon rods cemented The rods are made from a paste like arc-light carbons. They ends. from 6 to 33 volts, and up to are mostly for low voltages varying Their efficiency is stated to be 3 watts 100 for the very large lamps. made
per candle. Khotinslty.
"

Khotinsky.

This
"

Daniel Auge* (French exhibited the lamps of section) for as is made is the only lamp exhibited which
VOL
iv
o

H. Ex. 410

66

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

high, as 150 and even 200 volts, and as small a current as 0.16 amperes for small candle powers down to 5 candles, with the usual efficiency If these lamps are as good in life and of 3" to 3| watts per candle. strength as those usually made, it is a very important mechanical
the size of the conductors as it reduces and valuable improvement, to one-half and one-fourth of that required by the usual 100- volt lamps. They 2,000 lamps 300 per day, employing claim to make hands.

Sunbeam.

"

The

"Sunbeam"

lamp,

(Frenchsection,
candles, with for which use
an

silver

is medal), a

exhibited by A. Janssens large lamp for from 150 to 2,000

efficiency of from 2 to 2.5 watts per candle, the chief For 800 candles and less is to replace the arc lamp. it has one filament, and for greater candle powers there are two filaments in derivation in the same bulb. Pieper lamp.
"

One of the
was

most

interesting lamps, lamp

on

account

simplicity and novelty,

consists
one

the Pieper

(Belgiansection).

of its It

essentially of two copper rods about like lead pencils, secured to the other like the two carbons of an arc lamp, opposite
are

only that they

horizontal.

space of about an eighth of an them; their other ends are supported by springs so as to allow for a One of these is connected to slight upward motion of the free ends, the positive and one to the negative pole of a circuit. Over the
an arc small space separating the ends of these rods, where would otherwise form, rests a vertical carbon rod which touches both of these ends and forms a bridge over them; the current therefore

Their ends are separated by a small between inch, as if to form an arc

this space through the end of the carbon rod, thereby passes over keeping it at a white heat; as the carbon burns away it feeds itself by its own There is, therefore, weight, it being held in a vertical tube.
no regulation of any kind necessary, and the whole mechanism is reduced to an exceedingly cheap and simple device. Should the carbon rod break off, or refuse to feed down, the ends of the two up until they touch a metallic bridge piece copper rods will move

which

short-circuits the lamp to prevent its interfering with others in series with it. The carbon rods are of special construction, two thin rods united together on one side, quite similar resembling thereby
to
a

candle, only that they are entirely of carbon. The following figures were given by the exhibitor and are said to have been taken from an expert test: With 10 volts and 20 amperes to an efficiency of 1 watt per it gave 200 candles, which corresponds candle, hour,
there
or

Jablochkoff

from

two

and

half to three times

as

good

as

an

incandescent

lamp.
one

was,

at the rate of 2 inches per carbon is consumed It appears to be quite new, and carbon lasting eight hours. It therefore, no opportunity to discover any weak points.

The

is

question

conduct

will stand the heat; it is supposed to to prevent the copper points the heat off rapidly enough how the copper

ELECTRICITY.

t"7
see

from

being

injured. For
13, 1889.
"

an

illustration of the lamp, of distribution,

AND
see

Industries,

September

References.For
SYSTEMS
OF

systems

under

that heading.

TRANSMISSION

DISTRIBUTION.

the exhibits in the United States section was there was of novelty or very little at this exhibition which distribution of elecin systems transmission importance tricity. of and different and In the United States section there were more distinct systems exhibited thaii in all the other sections together. G-eneral.
"

Apart

from

strange to see how littleattention was given if the exhibition can be said to represent the to this abroad, subject in use the only system there for the art there. Almost state of

To

an

American

it

was

lighting

which

in its original simthe multiple-arc system plicity. Series systems, or the more systems, or those in complex limited to a very few isolated exthere is a conversion, were hibits
seems

to be

This may be partially due to the fact of less importance. to high-tension on averse that they are account currents of their danger to life,and that they hesitate to introduce any improved tem sysit has been well developed and introduced by the less 'conservative until England to be an Americans. exception. alone appears of the characteristic features of the United States exhibits was developed in all details with all necessary accessories that they were to make the system complete and practical. In complete systems of

One

transmission

to teach than it had more and distribution, America had to learn at this exhibition. lamp distribution. Aside from the United States Incandescent exhibited in operation exhibits described below, the only systems
"

were

the simple

multiple-arc

and an unimportant incandescent lamps

as

distribution, the three-wire system, In one case converter system. several small in series on multiple-arc mains, but run were
not regulating device of any kind, it can Series distribution of incandescent lamps, of
or

there

was

no

cut

-out

be called a system. to be almost unthree American known which there were exhibits, seem in France. Even the simple three-wire system does not appear to be used very much, and the alternating converter system, though used, was not exhibited in operation outside of the United States section. For some introductory notes see "Transformers." system distribution. Arc lamp In the European
"

regarding

the latter

exhibits,

arc

lamps

the on almost universally run the incandescent lamps ; in those cases

were

same

multiple-arc circuits as lamp on a 75there was one

case

volt circuit
was

or

two in series

on

100- volt circuit ; in either

there

20 to always a dead resistance in circuit, in which 30 per cent of the power is wasted. The advantages claimed for such a distribution are that the arc lamps may be on the same mains

almost

from

68

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

is therefore as low and' with the incandescent, and that the potential The great advantage lamps. which safe as that for incandescent it, besides the economy distribution has over our of usual series is the considerable saving of wire, not only in size but also in power, the series circuit is single, while the multicases length, as in many ple-arc

The multiple-arc system has circuit must always be double. on that the lights are less dependent the advantage each other, but here in any good series system, as installed by the better companies
in the United

States, there

along the circuit, due to one For a further comparison of these two systems on series lamps and multiple-arc lamps, under lamps."
one or

is very seldom bad lamp.

complete
see

failure all

the paragraphs "Arc the heading

With
two

the exception less important from

from

were

limited to two
one

of the Jablochkoff candle system and the series arc-light systems exhibits, the United States (Thomson-Houston and

nothing of in any of these, and their description has therefore been novelty The almost total absence of this cheap and convenient omitted. the European very noticeable to an exhibits was system among American. Power

Sperry)and

England

(Crompton).

There

was

transmission
in the

exhibits

scarcely a single pendent of a complete system of distribution of indeexhibit of importance There were quite a number motors. of of transmissions but they consisted of a single generator by means of motors, power
a

United

distribution. motor and States section, there was

"

Apart

from

the

not be called a system of single motor, and therefore can both seriesdistribution. The generators and motors were generally the motor being started by means of an auxiliary machines, wound

driving

resistance
motor

known

was cut out as theseries with it, which gradually " In one of these systems," the wellreached its proper speed. here, some be mentioned name of which sistance of this reneed not had to be kept in circuit the generator was at station and

in

all the time. In the distribution

by the Thomson-Houston exhibited from, the usual multiple-arc circuits. Company the motors were run The motors were shunt wound, and were started by a switch which in series with a first put the field into circuit, then the armature
system

resistance, and then gradually cut out this resistance as the speed The reverse increased to itsnormal value. operation stops the motor. astrous As the results from opening the field circuit first might be very disto the motor, system. Railroad

this switch The

forms

an

essential part of such

were

systems.
ones

"

two

very good

from
with

electric-railroad exhibits the United States and one

limited to
Belgium.

from

When

compared

the large number

of electric railroads in the

ELECTRICITY.

69

States, those in Europe are so few in number that this branch hardly be called an important industry can -of electrical engineering

United

"there.
DETAILED

DESCRIPTIONS.

Edison
shown
.system.

In the exhibit of the Edison Company were system. many of the details of their regular multiple-arc three-wire As this has been so fully described in the technical journals
"

here in the United States, it is not necesand is so well known be mentioned here that the balto describe it. It might ance ,sary of very large resistances of of the lines is effected by means in the form iron wire at the station, which are of spiral coils, so ing and connected to the multiple-contact switch that by movgrouped lever to successive contacts the same the switch coils are variously in multiple-arc or series, according as the current is grouped
greater
or

By
.steps. .space great.
are

less, the total successive resistances varying in regular this means of always using all the-"coils much^wire and

under Five-wire
states

be very sometimes capacity must saved, as the current Some of the special instruments used will be found described "Instruments." that
A system. lamps "any
"

descriptive

note

other branch in the center

branch of one being to equalize the load, the controlling apparatus done was this was not, however, station." The way
was
"

of his five-wire system thrown upon any maybe

described,
Municipal

nor

of incandescent lighting in series is for streets, parks, public squares, etc., in which namo The dythe number constant. of lamps burning is approximately has 1,000 to 1,200 volts. The circuits from it are in several
system

the system exhibited. The Edison municipal system.

each, and are kept constant. multiple-arc branches, of 3 amperes Machines are made for four, eight, and twelve circuits. In each of in series. Each lamp has an autoare these circuits all the lamps matic in its base, which the lamp in case of short-circuits cut-out
meter, station each circuit has its ampereif current increases, due to the cutting an alarm which rings The attendant then switches a lamp into that circuit out of a lamp. The lamps on the same at the station to restore the balance. circuit be of different candle power, be rated at may of course and may

breakage

or

failure.

At

the

about

1 volt

of .Some wire. TJiomson

per candle, making about 1,000 candles per circuit. these circuits are 10 miles in length; they are of No. 12

series

incandescent

system.

"

The

Thomson-Houston
lamps

"Company
a

lamp

on series circuits. exhibited a system of incandescent The only special peculiarities are that the act of screwing in opens a switch in its base which otherwise short circuits it.

In order

to cut

out

]anip which

fails while

burning, there is in

70
each base
a

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

by a thin piece of spring contact which is insulated only fail,the potential developed at its poles, that paper ; should the lamp is, at this contact, would momentarily rise so high as to pierce the contact and short circuiting the lamp. paper, thereby making Heissler. In the Heissler system (UnitedStates section, gold has two independent the alternating current machine circuits
"

These are kept at a constant current each. of 5 amperes incandescent lamps In each of these there are 5-ampere strength. in series and of different voltages depending upon the candle power. They are all supposed to be kept burning at one time, though a few

medal)

be turned if the number

may A

off in each
same

branch

independently,

or

any

desired

number

by two regulator run into and in each circuit, switches a resistance one series magnets, pendently, two main circuits to regulate the currents indeout of each of the that is, 1;o balance them ; it also regulates the exciting in when both circuits are to be adjusted the current of the dynamo is, therefore, used only when direction. The dead resistance same both vary inequality in the two branches ; whenever there is an both The regulator performs the exciter is regulated. the same, double

is cut out in each branch. by a small belt, and operated

Each lamp has a small cut out of these operations automatically. its base, which consists merely of a small electromagnet, which in will short circuit the lamp if it should burn out or be broken ; it

before the operates equally well if the lamp is broken or removed fail. in which some current is started, a case other systems diameter, but vary in The filaments of the lamps are all the same The filaments being much length, depending on the candle power.
thicker

be

run

from

than usual with 100 volt lamps, they are less frail and can at a higher temperature and therefore at better economy, The chief application is for long 2.5 to 2 watts per candle. transmission of lamps

and for buildings and places in which the Its advantages burning is not varied very much. number its simplicity, the great saving of wire for long distances, and are the greater efficiency of the lamps. The Thomson-Houston Multiple series system. Company ited exhibin which the incandescent incandescent a system, multiple series
distance
"

lamps being

are

run

lamps.

a cut-out alent and a resistance equivto that of the lamp. Should the lamp fail,the cut-out will automatically switch this resistance in the circuit to replace that of The resistance is ingeniously arranged on small pieces of the lamp.

in series on Each lamp

in groups of several in multiple arc, the groups the usual series distribution system, with arc

has in its base

to take up as little as possible in the base of the lamp, room time to cool off as freely as possible. and at the same Accumulator. The Socie*te* Anonyme pour la Transmission de la

mica

so

as

"

Force par Electricite' exhibited a system in operation in which the for direct lighting in the evenings were dynamos used in the day-

ELECTRICITY.

71
was

for charging in the evening or time

accumulators, whose current at any time during the day.

then available in The cells were

were connected in multiple arc. several series groups, which groups The last twelve cells of the series were connected separately to a twelve contact switch board, by means of which one after the other There was keep the potential constant. could be added or cut out to arc circuits leading off such a switch board for each of the multiple twelve from the accumulators, but all were connected to the same

regulating

cells.
"

Company exhibited The transformers transformer system. their alternating current formers in multiple arc on the primary, having 1,000 volts. The transwere The system itself did not differ reduced this to 50 volts. therefore needs no description materially from the usual one, and ing. see here. For a description of their transformers under that headfor long distances the Ziperuse The French Edison Company

Transformersystem.

The

Thomson-Houston

transformers. of alternating current system nowski-Deri-Blathy The primary has 1,000, 2,000, or 3,000 volts, and the secondaries 100, 75, or 50. The system was not exhibited in operation. The only system of distribution Compensating Thomson system. the ingenious one quite novel in principle was exhibited which was "compensating" Company tem. syscalled the of the Thomson-Houston distribution of incandescent lamps by It is for the general to be turned off at will. The alternating currents, permitting any to the centers is to reduce the cost of wire from the dynamo
"

object

of distribution. The general is shown in the

arrangement

ing adjoin-

an

cut, Fig. 7. The self-induction coil C is like ordinary transformer, but with

wires only a single coil. Branch lead off from the ends and from three points in the coil, as shown, which three-wire systems distribution for 75-volt of This coil is placed at the lamps.
of distribution of that set Of lamps, and is in multiple arc Z A. ork~ V1 the 300with others like it, across from the dynamo. The volt mains
center
.,,
.,

form

two

FIG?."

Diagram

of the Thomson compensating system of distribution.

four sections of this coil each for the lamps in multiple arc with it. Each act as a compensator section will keep the potential of its lamps constant, no matter how are turned off, and it will furthermore be independent of any many of the other sections. is said to be proportional to the number The power consumed of lamps burning, as the apparent loss of current in the coil is not a There must be some loss,however, when real loss of energy. all

72
the lamps
are

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

the writer could not asceroff, but how much tain. 95 per cent, but this is It was that the efficiency was stated probably when the full load of lamps is running. for supplying the current was interesting on account The dynamo turned
a

of its being

the alternating current in which alternating current was redressed, passed through the series coils and redressed again (seedynamos). This system permits therefore of running 75- volt independent lamps with a 300- volt current of onecompound

wound

the strength in amperes, quarter the feeding leads to one-sixteenth multiple

arc

distribution.
as

Such

the weight of reducing of what it would be in the simple is, however, a direct comparison

thereby

be chosen differently if the would to be used, thereby reducing this apparently ordinary system were but nevertheless leaving a great very great difference somewhat, misleading,
in favor of this compensating margin system. Long-distance transmission. ingenious Another
"

the disposition

to

exsystem was hibited for transmitting current Company distant center in operation for transmitting of distribution. It was and distributing power and light to the American agricultural

by the Thomson-Houston

exhibits, situated several thousand feet from the generator. the only exhibit in operation of a true system of distribution distance of light and power at a distant center ; the only other exhibit of longtransmission was in which merely a simple series system It
was

the motor

was fore, used to drive a line of shafting, there being, theredistribution other than that by shafting. no This Thomson-Houston system consisted of a 220- volt generator, a

of distribution, this two-wire and a special redistribution which changed circuit into a three-wire one of two branches of 110 volts each, from which lights or motors were This redistributor consisted of run as usual.

long-distance

two-wire

transmission

to the center

a on

having two single motor-dynamo its armature ; these two armature

windings

and two
were

commutators

run with each other, the double motor 220-volt circuit, the single fieldbeing in shunt. was connected to the poles of this motor, the neutral wire being This divided the connected to the junction of the two armatures.

circuits being then

in series as usual from the The three-wire circuit

connected

220- volt circuit into two branches

"by virtue of its action, both as a circuits balanced and at a constant Low
many

of 110 volts each ; the double motor, keeps the two or a dynamo, motor

and

equal

potential,

no

matter

lamps

are

Oerlikon power
of power

off. transmission. In the system

"

turned

for the transmission

is being introduced which extensively, especially in Switzerland, there is one erator genboth are series wound one motor, and and are connected in The largest machines from 250 to 300 horse are simple circuit. used the ones exhibited. (See Dynamos.) For greater power, which were

exhibited

by

the Oerlikon

Company,

ELECTRICITY.

73
of number and the same the principle of the three or

power
motors,
more

they

use

two

or

more

generators
on

the transmission

being then

wire system. The system is said to be self-regulating for variable load without being series wound. The any additional regulator, both machines to be in starting the motor, which must be done only difficultyseems

slowly

They always and carefully. the two stations for this reason.

have

telephone

connection

ween bet-

The

by opening the circuit at the motor or As there can be but the generator. of

is readily stopped motor by short-circuiting the field one motor in such a system,

tribution it is limited to power transmission, as distinguished from power disFor a report of a test made of such a system in operation, La Lumiero Electrique, 1888. see

ELECTRIC

RAILWAY

SYSTEMS.

There
from

son-Houston three systems of electric railways exhibited, the Thomand the Sprague from the United States, and the Julien Belgium.
were
"

Thomson-Houston.

Company

included

for the transmission.

exhibited by the Thomson-Houston full-size truck and all details and accessories The system was one with a single overhead
one

The

of overhead one conductors, with its crossings, switches, trolley, etc. There was for each of the two shafts ; the fields were in sections ; motor wound the controlling switch included a series of resistances made of plates of iron closely clamped together, which served to start the current At the end of this switch where the current was broken gradually. ingenious device, consisting of a magnet, there was an which acted to "blow" being on the magnet out the spark produced opening, itself put into circuit by the switch. The reversing switch was arate. septheir shafts, and at the other end were secured by rubber cushions, allowing for a slight play. The brushes were of carbon, quite radial and fixed in position. There was intermediate shaft and a train of four gear wheels. an
motors
were

being used as a return. wire and trolley, the ground was quite complete in all details, including the systems

The

exhibit

The

pivoted

on

Those

of

an

split to facilitate removal ; the pinions disks of steel and rawhide were made of alternate one-fourth inch thick. The bearings were by a hollow box, surrounded
on

the main

shaft

were

gear was constantly full of oil. The whole motor protected from dust by a casing of sheet zinc. The poles are 100 to 125 feet apart ; the trolley wire is reenforced as a conductor by a feeding The cars are all in multiwire connected to it at numerous places. ple

which

was

arc

on

a
"

500- volt circuit.

Sprague.

system, likewise for overexhibit of the Sprague head trolley-wire distribution, included the truck and the switch.

The

74
There
were

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

for each, shaft, suspended on the shaft intermediary There was one at one end and on springs at the other. pinions were of vulcanite, to avoid noise. The shaft. The motor 011 split,and those on the others were gears on the main shaft were
two motors,
one

the

to facilitate their removal. The brushes were of carbon, partly tangential, fixed in position, and in sections. The controlling wound with spring feed. The fieldswere for starting and reversing was or commutator of special switch

ends projecting

of their shafts

so

as

consisting of a succession of contacts on the surface of the sections of the field,the armature, a cylinder, representing and this cylinder the current was the line; by turning switched to the

construction,

field sections grouped as to start the motors

tallow.

in various

ways from multiple arc to series, so The oiling was done with fat or gradually.
was

with accumulators. truck. The front end It consisted of a complete car and a separate of the car rested on the pivoted driving truck having four wheels; the rear end rested on two fixed wheels, as usual. The truck had one
"

Julien system.

The Julien system

for

use

motor series wound teeth; this wooden

whose
was
on

geared

fixed and were made of copper foil. The battery consisted of 120 Julien cells under done by one the seats. The starting and reversing was switch, and The latter was by the changing of speed by another. accomplished
were

with chain gearing 3.5 effective horse power.

pinion geared with an annular wheel with the same shaft with two pinions which to the two velops truck shafts. The motor deThe brushes

different groupings of the cells, in multiple arc, multiple series, or that the electromotive force could be simple series, in such a manner varied without losses in dead resistances and that the cells should discharge
section, exhibited a small for shifting the boxes of accumulators model of a very complete system into the car. It consisted essentially of a roadbed out of and of rollers,on which the boxes could be moved readily, parallel to the
"

equally. Van Accessory.

Vloten,

in the Belgian

car,

thence

into the

car or

by

means

which
car.

could be raised

lowered

of turntables and slightly to the exact

short truck, height of the

INSTALLATIONS.

having

to be mentioned there were many

there remains here merely the installations, as such. Although of these, they were almost all so small and simple that there is nothing left to describe. A few of them were more of the nature of a central station; but as it can hardly be expected that central stations in all their details be erected for the short period of the Exhibition, it would
not be

All the parts, including systems, which been described under their proper

compose headings,

an

installation

fair to

judge these

as

model

central

ELECTRICITY.

75

stations, for, as such, most of them could not be criticisedfavorably in many point of view. of their features, at least from an American With the exception of the accessories of central stations, exhibited in the American and English section, the chief installations were The best and most complete exhibit in operation was all French.

Company that of the Continental Edison (French), and this may be said to be a good model of a central station in almost all of its details. Most of the other large installations in operation may serve at the Exhibition, but they can not be convery well their purpose sidered
standard models of a central station for general have distribution, complete in all details. In general, they may
favorably
as

been designed
were

for the particular service foi which they intended, provided no accidents happen, but there was not sufficient flexibilityin the installations to meet the requirements of a well enough

sion central station for general distribution, such, for instance, as proviagainst accidents, stoppages, provisions for reserve pairing, power, rea central station extensions of the system, etc., without which does not deserve its name.

described of the larger installations at the Exhibition were ter of the (London)Engineer for the latand illustrated in the numbers half of 1889, and it is, therefore, thought to do so unnecessary
Most especially as such a description would be of littlevalue unless it is a very detailed one, as it is the details which make a central
iiere,

all the wiring in the Exhibition grounds was underground, by means of lead-covered wires laid directly in the ground, either by rubber-covered directly cases or wires in troughs, and in some in the earth, or by provisional wooden conduits, in which they were

station. Almost

supported

on

insulators. that it was

The

wiring

in the buildings

was

hidden

not noticeable. very neatly so The central station of the Compagnie Continentale Edison was by far the most complete exhibit of a model central station. An illustrated description will be found in the Engineer, October 4 and 11, respects, in its completeness, a typical central station, and showed, in its general arrangement and details, considerable experience in central station work, which can not be said of a number of the other large installations exhibited.
1889.

It resembled

in many

American

The

distribution
in that the

was

tandem
mains,

ctyiiamos.
more

of It differed from
important

by

means

system only, with the usual system of universal concenters of distribution were nected separate switches ; four in series run

three-wire

to the station by independent mains with the loss allowed was Arc lamps were 10 per cent.

between

the 200-volt mains. The central station of the Societe*Anoiiyme pour la Transmission de la Force par I'Electricite* ncluded a large installation of accumui lators in the daytime by the engines and dywere which charged

76
namos

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

which would otherwise be idle. In the evening they added direct, thus increasing their stored energy to that from the dynamos is described under the capacity of the station. This system "systems." Their central station in Paris is to be operated on a
similar system. The station of the Socie'te' 1'Eclairage Electrique comprised systems, including a continuous-current of independent
a

number

three-

for Jablochwire system, system series transformer koff candles, motors, etc. It was in the nature of a general more exhibition of their various systems, rather than a typical central station for general distribution, from which latter point of view the station could hardly be considered very favorably.
a

direct and

Co. (Englishsection) no was small installation of Crompton" doubt the most compact installation at the Exhibition that is, having the greatest output for the smallest floor space, and included a
"

The

inone of the very few stallati There was a small series of also batch of incandescent lamps on a three- wire system from 220-volt dynamos in multiple. An illustrated description will be found in the (London)Electrical Engineer, August 2, 1889.

one-third

reserve
a

force.

It was,

furthermore,

arc

lamp distribution.

LIGHTING

OF

THE

EXHIBITION.

opening of a large part of the Exhibition in the evening necessitated its being lighted. This brought up the question of how and by whom it was to be done and how it was to be paid for. It was finally decided to give the exclusive right to a French syndicate,

The

in the neighborhood of half the receipts from admission in the evenings. Shortly before the opening of the Exhibition, and after most of the preparatory work of this finished, a change in the financial management syndicate was of the which
was

to receive in return

compelled the syndicate to sell their right to the admissions back to the administration for a fixed sum. The area lighted was to be about 300,000 square meters
square

Exhibition

share

of

(3,200,000

about 150,000 carcels (1,500,000 u candles)sing about 3,000 horse-power. It was intended that the lighting should be done by different countries, but, as a fact, it done almost exclusively by the larger French companies. was It was for this reason that the United States exhibitors were excluded entirely
numerous

feet)ith w

companies

from

and

were

compelled

space, and not contribute them

to keep their lights within their. floor own to the general lighting of the buildings

and grounds. There were, in all, nineteen this lighting eleven of them
"

different installations contributing to French, three were were Belgian, two

Swiss, two

German; from there were the none and one United States. By far the greater proportion of the lighting was from the French companies. The number of lights installed by the

English,

ELECTRICITY.

77

syndicate
104 at 25

was

as

follows: Arc lights, 739 at 8 amperes

at 10, 240 at This makes 16, 154 at 20, 72 at 500 power. in all about 176,037 candles, at a consumption of about 4,000 horseillumination, but it was There was, besides this, some gas that from electric lights, except on special as compared with small
"

candles lamps.

48 (3,500 candles), at 16 lamps (400candles),

(1,000 candles), 60 (10,000 146 Jablochkoff candles), soleil (1,000 candles) total 1,053 arc
"

Incandescent

lamps:

5,400 at 4 candles, 3,209 total 9,075 incandescent lamps.

fete days, when certain decorative effects were produced for which the number probably to hundreds of thousands. amounted of gas jets A very good summary of the organization and operation of this syndicate

de la Societe*des Inge*nieurs will be found in the Memoires Civils, April, 1889, in an article by M. de Bovet, director of the syndicate. Another article regarding this, by Fontaine, will be found in the Bui. Soc. Internationale des Electriciens, February, 1890, No.
65.
LIGHTING OF PARIS.

For the general distribution of electric light and power in Paris the city has been divided into sections, each one of which is given has the exclusive lighting of to an electric lighting company who
that section, under conditions, restrictions, and limitations imposed is in progress, some by the municipal staauthorities. The work tions For a well-illustrated article on being already in operation. La Lumiere Electrique, June 29, 1889. see this

subject
great

scarcity of electric lighting in Paris, at present, is due by to the almost prohibitory conditions imposed a great extent tax on the city, in the form of a very high municipal the power

The

to

for this is The reason which is used for electric-lighting purposes. that electric lighting would otherwise, to a great extent, replace gas lighting, which is in the hands of monopolists holding important

privileges, who share their profits in a certain proportion with the city. As their profits are very great under the conditions, the city important from be this source, revenue receives an and it would diminishing to this revenue that of the gas companies as well as lighting to replace gas. Furthermore, the "octroi," allow electric municipal tax, on coal used within high, and electric-lighting companies
or

the limits of the city is very from it as are not exempt

manufacturing companies the city limits and of

imposed

on

the energy

If the electricity is generated outside led into the city an equivalent duty is An pany authority states that their comused.
are.

has to pay 5 per cent of their receipts (not to profits) the city the station is inside of the city limits and 7 per cent when it when is outside. The charges of one of the companies in Paris are from
21 to 29 cents

horse-power

is about 16 to 21 cents per per kilowatt hour, which hour of current ; the rate in Philadelphia, for instance,

78

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

is 7 cents per horse-power hour. For some additional figures regarding in the Introduction. see under the heading "Progress" this subject

STATISTICS.

tistics publishes the following statheir installations. At the close of the year 1888 regarding they had installed in the United States 1,504 isolated plants, having 433,476 lamps ; 200 central stations having 675,660 lamps ; 23 municipal plants

The

Edison

Electric Light

Company

(high-tension series system)having

15,550 lamps.

Total,

Their representative states that and 1,124,686 lamps. they have installed 650 miles of underground wire, equivalent to 217 miles of Edison tubing.
1,727 plants

date had installed Company up to same cent 406 arc light central stations having 51,621 lamps, and 170 incandes120,380 lamps; also private plants central stations having to more than 20,000 arc lamps and 100,000 incandescent amounting The

Thomson-Houston

In 1888 they started to install electric railroads ; in one year they had installed 21 lines having 3,000 horse power, and in June

lamps.

had

in construction 23 other lines representing The Continental Edison Company additional.

3,000 horse

power

(French)state that

they have installed in France alone 1,500 installations of 100,000 lamps, representing 22,000 horse power. For
some

additional

statistics see

under

"Progress"

in the Introduction.

ACCESSORIES.

AUTOMATIC

REGULATORS.

The regulators exhibited

varying dynamo

were almost exclusively for automatically in series with the shunt-wound a resistance magnets of a in order to keep the potential of the circuit constant. pounding Comin the the magnets will accomplish this as far as changes

current strength are concerned, but it will not correct for variations in the speed of the dynamo, regulators which is very important; have for their in potential no matter to correct for changes object what their cause.

In the general type of regulators of this kind there are three essential parts, a resistance arranged in progressively increasing steps,
an

intermediate

and

mechanism detector which

for connecting detects changes

more

or

less of this in circuit,

this mechanism

accordingly.

The

of potential and operates detector is connected across the

or at the center of distribution, according mains either at the dynamo In those to where it is desired to keep the potential constant.

exhibited by the Societe*Suisse pour la Construction de Locomotives de (Swisssection), et de Machines and by the Socie'teAlsacienne

ELECTRICITY.

79
were

almost identical, the detector is a solenoid with a movable core; this is attached to a balanced horizontal bar, the other end of which carries Into this dip a a mercury cup which is thereby raised or lowered.
increasing lengths, so that series of copper wires of progressively or less of them more ing will be put in or out of the circuit by the movto the resistances. cup; these wires lead mercury

Constructions

Mecaniques

(French section), which

In the following regulators the detector magnet operates two contacts, the potential is too high, and one when it is too low. one when mediate The circuits controlled by these two contacts then operate the intermechanism.
contacts

All these have

the fault in
are

common

that these
apt to
cause

require cleaning

and

care,

and at best

very

trouble. In the Edison

which
move
a

form

common

mechanism lever armature

a

the

is operated
over
a

by two

magnets

tacts series of sliding con-

representing the resistances. In the Oerlikon form it is done by the resistance contacts by a long screw

of this

screw

are

two

magnets

opposite detector.

are controlled by the in one or the other causes the screw A circuit shaft to be by magnetic in attraction; this turns the screw coupled to its core tector. that direction until the magnet current is broken again by the de-

directions by

whose belts; these magnets

over sliding contact moved shaft. Opposite to the ends kept revolving in are cores

is similar to this, only the shaft is turned in either direction by a small electric motor that controlled by the detector. The Borssat form is similar to this, only that the shaft is turned wheel, and it has on its surface a raised spiral very slowly by a worm touches successively the spring contacts of very great pitch, which

The

Picon

(FrenchEdison Company)

form

of the resistances. form, which is identical with the Weston, In the Henrion the sliding for the resistances is moved in opposite directions by two contact The pawls for these are kept moving to and fro by a ratchet wheels. lever operated by a pulley and belt. Two magnets controlled by the detector contacts raise or lower one or the other of these pawls, thereby causing one or the other of the ratchet wheels to be turned. the brushes similar device is used to move to keep the current constant. machine
A

of his series-wound

The

Clerc form,

principle to the above, introduced to operate the two large powerful are solenoids whose cores the sliding contact. It is very large and complicated, move details. It is presumably and is burdened with many only experimental. In the Beau

for alternating Edison described

current

machines, is similar in only that relay magnets

"

Bertrand

form

the

detector

is

short but very

80

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

of small armatures, of progressively wide magnet, having a large number increasing weight; these operate the resistance contacts and It is large and awkward, but replace the usual sliding contact.
seems

to work

well.

the following : other regulators for various purposes were for the loss of potential in the leads by means Lahmeyer regulates dynamo the same on a small series wound shaft with the other and of connected in the main circuit. It is not apparent what the advantage is over the much more simple compound winding, which does precisely Among the
same

thing.

is for putting resistance in the main circuit from accumulators, to of incandescent lamps run of a small number lamp constant. The detector is an ordinary keep the potential at the a very long contact arm, magnet operating two contacts as usual ; with

The

Dujardinregulator

the two

magnets

moving

brush in

one

direction

or

the other

over

of a rachet wheel, pawls, and series of resistance contacts, by means He claims to be able to regulate within make and break contacts. The is three-tenths of one per cent. tacts objection to the number of conrequire cleaning and attention. Reference. For a voltmeter for measuring end of the leads, without a return wire, see which
"

the potential at the far under "Voltmeters."

LIGHTNING

ARRESTERS.

for electric-light lines arresters exhibited in the French were one exhibits ; there was confined to the American an section, but it was copy of one acknowledged of the former. few

The

lightning

These

safety devices, so very common and necessary here, are conspicuous by their almost total absence in the foreign systems exhibited. This is to a great extent due to the fact that the lines are

mostly underground, and are carefully kept free from grounds ; rare; also that also that high potential circuits are comparatively have are much less common as we on such violent electric storms the Another continent. explanation is that many protectors systems there
as

of the
are

absence
as

of lightning equipped

not

completely

lightning arrestthe most prominent ers those exhibited by the Thomson-Houston Those Company. were for continuous current circuits, though no longer new, are perhaps not well known.
"

they should be. Thomson-Houston.

Among

is led to earth that the arc which is formed jumping small air space, and thereby, and which current, is might be continued by the dynamo blown out magnetically by means of a magnetic fieldproduced by an principle of all of them
across
a

The

is that the lightning

by

electro-magnet. There are a number on of different patterns, depending whether they are for arc, for incandescent, for railroad, or alternating cur-

an

ELECTRICITY.

81
is formed

rent

the other to connected are gether close toedges, where the arc jumps over, earth ; their adjacent being separated only by an air space of one- sixone teenth at point,
one

circuits. In all of them plates in the same plane,

the

arc

between

two

lic metal-

to line and

inch, and are far apart at the other ; the magnetic field produced by the two poles of a U-shaped electro-magnet, which are situated on the two sides of this space, repels or blows this arc from the short toward the long air space, thus gradually increasing the of
an

length of the arc, which weakens for In some (those arc-light

circuits)

it and finally extinguishes it. this electro-magnet is always

circuit, and is connected between the machine and the In arrester, so that its self-induction helps to protect the machine. incandescent light and railroad circuits) current for the others (for

in the main

the magnet being connected the electro-magnet is that of the arc itself, between the ground plate and the ground ; in this form the magnet circuit is shunted by a small air space between the two points, across of the lightning may pass. which an excess For alternating currents the magnet, which is always in circuit, is ingeniously arranged ; it is connected between the machine and the like a resistance coil (that with two equal is, line and is wound bifilar,

self-induction and " or magnetism under conditions. The "bight normal junction these two opposing windings is connected to one of the of lightning When plates of the arrester, the other being led to earth. strikes the line it passes through only one of these two windings, and hence through the plates to ground ; this develops magnetism which
windings develop
no

in opposite

so direction),as

to have

110

blows

are points and plates by small air spaces, which shunt the coil and take the separated To assist in blowing out the arc. a excess of the lightning current. kiiif edge of slate is sometimes introduced in the air space between e In those for alternating currents theas if to cut the arc. the plates, is carefully insulated from all the space in which the arc is formed

out

the

arc.

In addition to this there

of thick pieces of slate. The writer witnessed the experiment of short circuiting a 3,000-volt arc-light through one of the arc-light current arresters ; the powerful machine
rest of the apparatus
means

by

loud report. The Electrical Supply Company exhibited a lightning arrester, the that the lightning passed between the usual was principle of which teeth, to the ground, and in doing so it passed plates, with saw
arc
was

formed

instantly blown

out, accompanied

by

through a magnet which tripped a lever, which, by means of a simple drop mechanism, rapidly separated these two plates so as to extinguish be continued by the line the arc which might otherwise
current. A system

is said to be used in Switzerland, but was in introducing into the circuit a "choking exhibited, consists self-induction coil between the machine and line. The machine

which

not
"or

end

H. Ex. 410"

VOL.

iv

82

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

of this coil is connected to a condenser, the other plate of which is The other end of the coil is connected to the usual sawteeth grounded. The choking coil is grounded. lightning plates, one of which by its self-induction. The fault of this apparatus protects the dynamo
is that it does not extinguish the arc should a second the dynamo current through ground.
AUTOMATIC SAFETY CUT-OUTS
AND

it be continued

by

FUSES.

Among

the

numerous some were

though
fuses,

exhibits in this class there The features of interest.

was

little novof elty, desired in lead

the exhibits, appear to be to facilitate replacement, fuse render itselfreadily visible,and to guard to make a burnt There were exhibited a few against the scattering of the hot metal.

judging from

electro-magnetic favor, probably

cut-outs, but
on

they do riot

seem

to meet
was

with
one

of their cost. Thomson. potential cut-out, that of The fuse exhibited Lead fuse cut-outs. consists of a short glass tube with
account
"

There

only

much high

by Postel-Viney
a

(French

copper cap at each end, section) the lead wire being in the interior, with its ends fused to the copper between the ends of The holder consists of two large screws, caps. When fuse is this tube is clamped a axially at the caps. which becomes white inside, which enables it to be detected blown the tube

the scattering of the metal. readily. The tube prevents is similar to this one, The fuse on the Zippernowski transformer handle perpendicular to it, and only that it is attached to a wooden the contacts
to enable
a

made fuse to be

are

in the form

In theCockburn

section)
it fuses.

replaced fuse exhibited by the Acme Electric Works ish (Britis long and horizontal, with a small weight atthe wire tached
point, which is intended
to break

The is of spring clamps. object without having to touch the circuit.

to its middle

the wire before

fuse exhibited by the Globe Electrical Works (British there are two separate fuses in series, with a convenient shortsection) Either circuiting switch by which either one may be short-circuited. In the Hedge When the one in use of them should always be short-circuited. to short-circuit its terminals, is blown the switch may be moved over fuse may thus putting the other one in circuit. The blown then be consist replaced at leisure. The fuses themselves, as is well known,
one

of

strip of tin foil between

the two

pieces of mica, which in which

cover

it

completely. Among the fuses in the Edison exhibit was one fuses, with a switch a number of independent into circuit very rapidly, giving to be switched
burnt
one.

there

were

increasing

a new one enabling time to replace the These successive fuses may also, if desired, be made of sizes for special purposes, the smallest one being normally

ELECTRICITY.

83
are (highpotential)
a

Their fuses for the municipal system spirally around made of a long lead wire wound block to prevent the formation of an arc.
in circuit.
Magnetic in which
armature
armature
an

glass tube

or

slate

fuses.
"

Among

these

was

one

of Woodhouse

" Rawson's,

in the line circuit attracts a weighted electro-magnet The moving pivoted like an inverted pendulum. of this ruptures

mercury
armature

the circuit by lifting out the bridge piece of two By the latter device sliding contacts at the movable cups. In another, for very large currents, exhibare avoided. ited

by

magnet lever, which

de Constructions Mecaniques, Societe Alsacienne the trips a small light lever, -which in turn trips a large heavy the
opens
a

snap

there

exhibit the end of a flatspring at switch consisting of it against a contact piece. A piece of paper pinched which pressed between the two insulates them from each other. The two parts are

High

potential
a

safety

switch device.
"

by the action of a strong In the Thomson-Houston knob

spring.

was

leads which are to be protected against increase of potential ; when too high the potential becomes a great it pierces the paper, making the two leads, thereby contact between It is used on arc lamps in series to cut out short-circuiting them.

connected

to the two mains

or

It is also used in the circuit be open in the lamp. in which the alternating current system, each of the secondary or is connected house mains to earth through Should such a cut-out.

the lamp

should

too high, by a cross the potential of either one of them become be grounded, the primaries, or by lightning, it will immediately rendering it perfectly safe.
SWITCHES.

with thus

necessarily very large number of switches exhibited but few that are of sufficient interest to be mentioned there were here. Small switches are as a rule so simple and so easy to design
Among

the

that there is littleof interest to be described. has become

"
"

For

small currents
movement

it

switches have only two

Most

almost universal that is,those which

practice
open

to
a

use

the so-called "snap

and
or

with

snapping

stable positions, either entirely open entirely closed. have gone almost entirely out of use. It is also becoming others the double-contact switches, in which more the general to use

be due to the fact that it often This may circuit is broken twice. the construction. Double-pole celain Porrare. simplifies switches were into use more are and other similar substances* coming and
for small switches. for strong currents are Switches more much in their designing more care requiring much
more

difficult to design, than

is often given not well designed,

them.

The greater number

*See

of those exhibited
"

were

also

General

supplies.'*

84
so

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

far

as

the contacts

were

large surfaces and masses the contacts are good. the large masses of good

fact of having The mere concerned. does not necessarily mean that of copper They may keep cool, but this may be due to

Such switches copper. A do their work, but they do not do credit to their designers. may to fail completely. The contacts be exceedingly poor switch must found to be very poor as in many were carefully and were examined The bright to the size of the intended surfaces of contact. compared
heat-conducting

parts of these surfaces are not necessarily indications of the size of line the true contact, as they may be simply scratches from a mere Even some the better companies had very poor or point contact, of French companies One of the large well known types of switches.
even worse:

had

There

type of switch which could hardly have been designed two rigid flathorizontal surfaces, one laid on top of the other. was absolutely no sliding or friction, and no flexibility of the
a
a

surfaces,

grain of dust would

destroy the contact

almost

entirely,

FIG. 8." Two-way

switch;

by Woodhouse

"

Rawson.

if not quite
contact

so,

and

the spark

on

opening

completely

destroys

the

surfaces.

requirements of a good switch are, that the surfaces should be of a be self that one of the two contact surfaces must -cleaning, flexible yielding nature to adapt itself to the other, and that the opening spark on should take place at such parts of the switch
A switch on the same if burnt, do not affect the contacts. brush of a dynamo answers principle as the contact of a commutator There were several such switches exhibited. all these conditions.

The

which,

a much a small switch will carry larger current. Switches of the class justdescribed were exhibited by Woodhouse de Construction MecaCrompton, Societe Alsacienne " Rawson,

When

designed

in this way.

Some of those of Woodnique, Iliyne-Berline, Hedge, and Auge. house " Rawson in the three are cuts ; the first, shown adjoining Fig. 8, is a two-way switch, the second, Fig. 9, and third, Fig. 10,

ELECTRICITY.

85

are
a

The movable contact in all of these is made of snap switches. large number of fine strips of spring copper, each of which adjusts itself to touch along the whole length of its edge ; the total

section of the arm. surface of contact is then equal to the total cross At the ends these strips- should be slightly separated from each themselves. so as to allow for a slight play to other

adjust

FIG. 9." Snap

switch:

by

vroodhcwse

" Rawson.

i!

'ilia!
FIG. 10.
"

Snap

switch

; by

Woodhouse

" Rawson.

in principle but differ in construction. there is, in addition, a small (Crompton) replaceable spring fastened on one side of the contact springs, which takes the spark and thereby prevents the others from being burnt.

Almost

all the others are. In one of them

similar

In those of the Alsacienne too stiff Company the upper foil was to many of the springs touching in a point only instead adjustitself, of a line.

86

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

bent, somewhat like the In those of Iliyne-Berline the foils were in planes parallel to the axis instead of perpenletter S, and were dicular, the inside of a cylindrical suron as in the others, rubbing face.
This has the advantage that the springs will not wear grooves in the solid surface ; it has the disadvantages that the snapping of

the springs
one

on

opening form

make both

great nois'e,and that it can

be turned

way only. In the Hedge it to

with An interesting and initself to the other surface. genious adjust feature of all the switches, cut-outs, 'etc.,of Hedge's is that the connections may have to be used in making which all screws head with a deep, wide cut ; the have a high of

is connected

one surfaces are flat, but the movable the lever by a flexible connection, thereby allowing

projecting

object

this is to enable any ordinary coin to be used in place of a screwdriver; driver is not always at hand, but a coin generally is. a screwIn many of the large, as also in small switches of various types, noticed that the hinge or pivot of the movable lever is rarely to so as used as one of the contacts ; the lever is preferably made break two contacts, in which case the hinge is not in the circuit. The Oerlikon circuit breaker is intended for opening circuits of
it
was

several hundred amperes and several hundred volts, such as those For such currents an ordinary used in their transmission of power. In this cut-out there are two conanswer. tacts switch will evidently not in multiple arc ; one is a good metallic contact made by a large carbon rod forced in between two spring sockets, and connected by a flexible lead. To open the circuit, the metallic contact is firstopened by lifting the carbon out of its seat; this throws all the current the carbon contact, which is then broken by pulling it out is very large, is therefore of its socket. All of the spark, which taken by the carbon and not by the switch proper.

through

COUPLINGS

FOR

WIRES.

three different couplings for line wires exhibited, one French and two American. The former, exhibited by Lapointe, is for fine wires only. It consists two copper tubes, one with a male screw thread on the end of the other with a female screw. The ends to be spliced are each and There
were

threaded

both tubes and passed through a lateral hole at the The two tubes are then screwed together, end of the farther tube. twists the wire together. It forms a strong joint which and is easily better, if as good, as made, but the contact is not necessarily much
through the usual twisted splice. The Mclntyre coupling
is (UnitedStates section) well known here. It consists of two tubes soldered together so as to have a cross section like a figure 8. The ends of the wires are passed, one into each of these tubes and from alternate ends, the whole being then twisted;

ELECTRICITY.

the

flattening of the tubes caused thereby makes contact with the surface of the wire, while the twist gives the splice mechanical is that the tubes, which are moderately The strength.

objection

long, especially for thick wires, must

not always easy or simple, especially on such long ends of the wire so that they will go in. For thick wires, two special tools and two men as for arc-light circuits, it requires

fit the wire closely, and it is top of a pole, to straighten

to twist the coupling. The Hering coupling exhibited by the Electrical Supply Company the "vise grip" coupling, as (United States section) and known fitthe wire moderately closely, consists of two short split tubes which

together parallel to each other by two are connected and which flat pieces; after the wires are inserted these flat pieces are bent, to bring the tubes together; the by a blow of the hammer, as so the tubes to close on to the wire construction is such that this causes like the grip of the hand, with a very great force, which is sufficient

the whole The time

around the wire, and is therefore very large and good. surface of less than that for an ordinary required is very much The length of wire used is less than one-half of twist coupling. that required for the usual splice.
BINDING POSTS.

even

to stretch the copper

tubes.

The

contact

is therefore

several of interest. The posts exhibited were " Rawson, one shown in Fig. 11, consists exhibited by Woodhouse of a slotted bolt and nut; the wire to be clamped is placed through the slot; it has a number of obvious advantages.
Among the binding
A very good spring clamp by Camus (French post exhibited is shown in Fig. 12. section) The cap is capable of being liftedup slightly, being held down by the spring; the wire is placed under

binding

its edge

or

through

the hole in the pin, the spring Its use cap holding it there securely. islimited to temporary connections such
as

with

instruments,

for instance, for

which The
binding

purpose it is very convenient. following simple and very good post

OK. was

quite

common,

French

connecting stranded to dynamos, currents

FIG. 11. ing -Bindpost; by
Woodhouse

machinery. cables for strong switch boards, etc.

particularly It isfor

" Rawson.

It consists of a short semicylindrical block, which rests with its curved surface in a corresponding grooved block,

FIG. 12." Binding by Camus,

post; France.

which

forms

the base; two down

bolts, passing

transversely

through

it,

enable it to be clamped

into this groove.

The

stranded end of

88

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

this semicylindrical the cable, slightly flattened, is passed between piece and its grooved seat, and is then secured there by tightening the bolts. By virtue of the slight bending and spreading out of the into contact strands, all, or almost all, of the strands are brought An illustration of it may be with each other or with the clamp. " in the recording found ments." Instru(Fig. 59),under amperemeter It replaces the solid eye piece which is generally used with stranded cables, but which requires to be soldered to the cable, and

is therefore

not

so

convenient,
MISCELLANEOUS

although

neater.

ACCESSORIES.

Choking
shown
an

was exhibit (UnitedStates section) coil. In the Thomson induction or "choking" the amount coil, by which of
"

apparent self-induction for use with alternating

could

readily be varied

at pleasure.

It is is

currents

justas

an

r adjustableesistance

used with continuous currents, and like these it absorbs energy, and is therefore limited in practice. Its chief advantage its use is its

FIG.

13." Pole indicator;

by

Woodhouse

"

Rawson.

convenience
as

and
a

the absence

of all contacts.

It may

be described

ring, with a single coil, covering about third of one-third of the ring; this is the induction coil. Another the ring is encircled by a single short-circuited coil, made of solid

resembling

Gramme

thick pieces of copper; this fits very loosely, and is capable of being moved about the axis of the ring as a center, by means of a handle, be moved so that it can over any portion of the ring or the induction iron coil: lastly, the open space in the ring is filled with round disks. When the two coils are on opposite sides there is practically no induction in the solid copper coil, as it is magnetically shielded by the
iron disks. it is moved the other, currents will be induced over in it,which will be a maximum tion the induccovers when it completely is a true transformer, with coil,in which position the apparatus This variable induction in the seca short-circuited secondary. ondary
As

will generate

variable

counter-electromotive

force

in the

ELECTRICITY.

89
self-induction
can

primary,

by

which

any

required
"

apparent

be

obtained.
Pole indicator.

others exhibited

of a circuit can in Fig. 13, of a glass tube containing a liquid and two If these are connected to the two terminals. platinum or a circuit, the one connected to the poles of a dynamo negative is given pole
as

and indicator, by which the polarity pole It consists, as shown readily be found.

Woodhouse

"

Rawson,

Danzer,

will

turn

pink
can,

30,000

ohms.

It

color. Its resistance therefore, be used for

never

high

potential circuits. change of the liquid. Accumulator

in shown Woodhouse

It is said The

to

require

hydrometer.

"

Hicks

hydrometer, by

the

adjoining cut (Fig. 14),exhibited

drometer is to replace the usual hyRawson, " It consists of a flatglass for accumulators. tube, perforated with small holes, and containing four little glass globules of different colors, each of which It is arranged will rise or fall for a distinct specific gravity. the edge of the cell, by means to hang over of
the hook
Wire
at the top.

straightener.
a

"

The

adjoining cut

(Fig. 15)

and probably very effective convenient for use in winding magnets, especially wire straightener, It was by Woodfor large, thick wires. exhibited shows
very

house

FIG. 14. "Hicks1 hydrometer,

for accumuia-

through wire passes axially and on alternate sides of the rollers,which are adjustable. Besides the straightening effect of the rollers them-

"

Rawson.

The

frame is selves, the whole therefore the effect of many

/?

"

made

to revolve, having rollers in different planes.

FIG. 15." Wire

straightener

; by

Woodhouse

" Rawson.

Driving-gear

for dynamos.

"

See "Dynamo

accessories."

90

UNIVERSAL,

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

MISCELLANEOUS

APPLICATIONS

OF

ELECTRICAL

ENERGY.

Under

this heading

will be mentioned
currents
are

belong applications of a lighter character which to the same bells, annunciation, more gas class as electric properly Elecignition, etc., which see for other miscellaneous applications. tro-metal applications of electricity are not included in this
report,
as

the more which from the many

powerful

those applications in required, as distinguished only

they

belong

more

properly

to the department

of Mining

and Metallurgy.
ELECTRIC WELDING.

the Thomson exhibits of electric welding, one, process, by directing heating, and the other the Bernados process, the Russian process, by means the electric arc. sometimes called of The Thomson Thomson's process. invented within the process was

There

were

two

"

last few

years by Prof. Elihu Thomson this process in operation (UnitedStates

of Boston.
was section)

exhibit of teresti exceedingly in-

The

and attracted probably persons and the general public

more

both technical attention among than any one other electrical

exhibit. Electric welding is one of the very few recent developments of an in an entirely new important direction. The exhibit was character for different very complete, including a number of different machines
purposes.

They

were

and practical form as the American exhibits. The principle is, that the two

designed in all their details in as complete of possible, a characteristic feature of many

gether, ends to be welded are brought tothe contact at their a powerful current passed through and to the resistance of this imperfect junction owing ; contact, the

rapidly at this point and in its immediate cinity viheat is reached, when the pieces may be pressed a welding until together slightly. The welds are necessarily always '''butt" welds. metal
is heated very

The

ance cooling action of the clamps, and the fact that the high resistheat there, due to the high temperature keeps generating more both tend to keep the heat confined to the immediate vicinity of the

joint.
in general, consist of two clamps of copper for holding the pieces and for conducting the current to arid from them ; one of them may be moved parallel to itself by a lever or other device. These clamps with the pieces to be welded form part of a large transformer,

The

machines,

part of the secondary coil which has only a single winding, consisting of a large bar of copper ; the contact forms a short circuit to this coil. at the weld In all of the machines the current was started, broken, or regulated

of which

they

are

by switches

and resistances in the

primary

circuit of the trans-

ELECTRICITY.

91

former,

the

use

thereby avoiding in the exciting current of the dynamo, ing of all switches, etc., in the low-resistance circuit of the weldor were

current.

There
from

for iron bars four machines exhibited ; the large one, former, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, consisted essentially of a large transdynamo, a and an exciter for separate alternating-current

the exciting current being controlled and regulated by the operator at the welding machine. The second one, for ^ to 1 inch iron bars, consisted merely of a transformer, and is intended to be used when the current can be taken
that dynamo,

from the general mains of in.place of using a dynamo The third

one,

system

of alternate-current

distribution,

and steam power. inch iron bars, is the direct welder, for " to called -J for use with power direct, and consists essentially of a small dynamo H armatures, having similar to the old Siemens with an armature
two

windings,

very

coarse

one was

not redressed, and which the other a small one in which diately was the exciting current for the field. The dynamo situated immetable, thereby reducing the length of the under the working

the alternating current was directly to the clamps, and connected the current was redressed and formed

in which

leads for the welding current as much as possible. The fourth was a small automatic welder for copper

wire from Nos. It was arranged to automatically open the circuit when 6 to 19 B. " S. finished, that is, as soon as the softening of the metal the weld was forward a slight distance. It was arpermitted the clamp to move ranged especially adapted for and was The current was regulated by a small chains and similar work. ' Many "Accessories"). 'choking" coil (see of the details that can not be included in this short description are very ingenious and are with
a

small

transformer,

arranged
as

very practically to make

the operation

as

simple and rapid

possible. the chief advantages claimed are the great simplicity and and reliability of the rapidity of the operation, the perfect nature little dressing afterwards, weld, the clean form of the weld requiring its application to short pieces and in general where other
Among

methods

welded
The

fail; also its use for welding metals that could not be by the ordinary methods, replacing therefore the usual soldering. exhibit included

num, welds of the following metals : Gold, platibismuth, cobalt, nickel, antimony, silver, copper, aluminium, German iron, cast iron, magnesium, tin, lead, wrought silver, zinc, brass, and steel ; also welds of nickel with iron, iron with steel, with gold, brass with copper, iron with gold with silver, platinum brass, German silver, German silver with iron, brass with German lead with other metals. silver with copper, also Among Applications. the uses to which it is already applied in
"

92

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

practice are the following : In chain welding, in steel tube welding, in wire-drawing for joining hauling cables, for carestablishments, riage fittings of all kinds, for pipe welding up to 5 inches in diameter,

in making for making splicing

squares,

band
etc.

in pipe bending, tubes for ice machines, springs, for joiningbands for bales and boxes, for for making saws, try carpenter's and machinist's
a

homogeneous

It is also used for raising a collar or shoulder on of iron by heating it in the welder and, while hot, compressing bar lengthwise to enlarge the diameter.
A

bar
the the

machine

two

clamps pieces of copper with conical holes, facing each other ; the rivet becomes heated at its ends where it touches these two holes, the large size of these metallic pieces preventing"

is also being constructed are replaced by two heavy

for riveting,

in which

welded to the rivets. Power consumed. The following table gives some data regarding the power required for the welds, also some deductions made therefrom by the writer, which may be of interest. The welds were made bars of different diameters ; the energy was that with wrought-iron
so as
"

them

from

becoming

hot

to become

delivered to the primary ; the current coil of the transformer and those at the weld; the former was are at the potential measured weld and the latter was calculated from the energy in the primary allowing "coil, about
90 per cent efficiency for the conversion.

too much opinion of the writer stress is often put on the fact that there is often- a loss of tensile strength at the weld, as the most important advantages of electric The chief advantages thereby overlooked. are welding of electric welding are given above, and the strength of the weld is in most of

Strength

of

the weld.

"

In

the

as compared of small importance with the other advantages. At the same time tests show that the tensile strength per official inch is in many cases square not reduced very much, and that what cases

loss there

in many to the fact that the metal has cases been heated, and not to imperfections in the weld; without heating, a weld can not be made.

is is due

ELECTRICITY.

be between a weld therefore, would and a proper comparison, be reSuch a comparison can duced similar bar which has been heated. Watertown Arsenal, which from the official tests made at the in the transaction in a paper on electric welding by Woodbury are included
A

Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. x, No. of the American By comparing cccxv. proper samples in these tables it will be seen iron, copper, and brass bars have practically the same that wrought
tensile strength (exceptthe
The
can

per square

inch before and

were

not welded be made stronger than weld evidently if it is slightly enlarged at the weld, which in many Prof. Dolbear for instance, is not an

copper)which

after the weld, the bars having been heated. the rest of the bar cases, as in chains, " I had a states:

objection.

by an expert blacksmith and a number of of bars welded by the electricalprocess for comparison, the results ones with similar than thosa that the electrically welded bars were stronger much
number The bars were of various sizes, up welded by the ordinary process. to an inch and a half for iron and three-fourths of an inch octagon steel." Bernados
arc

process.

"

The by

was

exhibited

Metaux

(French section).

process of welding by the electric le Travail des the Socie*teAnonyme pour The current was obtained from a large

Bernados

The carbon battery of accumulators, of 75 volts and 200 amperes. rod held in the hand is connected to the positive pole, and an iron the welding takes place is the negative pole. The table 011 which carbon is about half an inch in diameter, and is provided with
handle, a flexible lead, and a heat shield to protect thea suitable hand; the operator uses The arc is very long, a blue-glass screen. and the process occupies considerably longer time than the Thomson The writer found that it took from 3 to 5 minutes to process. The jointmust be a weld of a piece of iron i by l" inch. make in a smith's weld. As the metal is burnt and brittle hammered, as it is welded, the process is not a success. Its only commercial where for the application at present is to weld nickel tubes to iron ones,

tubes used in glass-blowing.

APPLICATIONS OF POWER.

Bon The

" Lustrement
cranes

(French section) operated

Hall
by
means

one
an

of the two

eling trav-

in Machinery

single motor and former turned always

moving

were generator in one direction.

on

both

electric motor. the series machines; The three operations of

of

its track, of moving the lifting mechanism done by means the crane, the weight, were on and of raising all of conical and cylindrical friction wheels; the reversing and changing done mechanically, the motor being run continually of speed were all

the

crane

bodily

at

direction. The meconstant chanism speed and in the same to do this was therefore much more required complicated.
a

D4
than

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

if it had been done electrically, as with the motors on an tric elecThe current was ately taken from two bare wires immedirailway.

(Frenchsection, silver medal) operated It was quite similar to the firstonly that the other traveling crane. a different kind of friction clutch was used. Chretien (French section, silver medal) exhibited an elevator driven by electric motors. as in most The electrical system was, of
these
power transmissions

alongside of the track. Megy, Echeverria " Bazan

exhibited,
were

simple

motors. series wound rope drums by means

There

two

motors

The of worm wheels. four bare strips against which elevator shaft as slide the brushes of the car, which contains the switch and the resistance for starting. One of these strips is in some of short places broken into a number connected by resistances which are put into circuit by the car as it passes this point. These are located .automatically before the stopping places, so as to stop the motor gradually. just device for The motors turn in two directions and have a mechanical
pieces which
are

series system with in series driving the leads pass through the

brake on There is a weighted shifting the brushes on reversing. each motor shaft held off by an electro-magnet in the main circuit. The brake is therefore automatically applied as soon as the current is stopped, intentionally or accidentally.

Sperry

(UnitedStates section)xhibited e
an

horizontal mining axially and

drill strikes

operated by with a blow. it,thereby

in very

electro-motor.

The

drill moves

the drill back

essential feature is that the motor merely pulls against the action of a strong spring and then releases The blows are allowing it to strike with a sharp blow.
is
an

The

The motor rapid succession. reciprocating motion being produced

is balanced
on

ordinary

rotary

one,

the The trical Elec-

whole

two

low wheels.

by gearing and a pawl. For an illustration see

World,
Hillairet

June

15, 1889.
a

drill,of the rotary mining type, which was as a connected directly to the shaft of the motor in a of it, the motor being supported by a toggle joint continuation tripod.

(French section)xhibited e

Renard

(Frenchsection)xhibited e
"

La the great military balloon by batteries. The arrangement an run experimental exhibited was force and the axial thrust of the to measure the turning apparatus
was air propeller. The whole mechanism supported so that these forces could be balanced by weights 011 lever arms and For a description of the primary battery, see thereby measured.

motor France/'

as

ling applied to propelIt was intended to be

fan-shaped

under that heading. Trouve' exhibited, among many other applications, a small boat teries. driven by an electric motor from bichromate bat(notin operation) The peculiar feature is that the motor was secured to the

ELECTRICITY.

95

top of the rudder and was geared directly to the propeller by chain gearing, the propeller being also in the rudder itself. It is not clear this is intended to have, except in turning. what special advantages With
a

motor

having

two

armatures

6 inches

long, he obtained

He experimented with electrical navigation speed of 6 knots an hour. No figures of importance 1881. the Seine as early as on could tery be obtained from the attendant of the exhibit, but as a primary batforms was used, the quantity of power carof the well-known ried

could not be very great, and would necessarily be very expensive For some on account of the materials consumed. additional remarks Batteries." "Primary see Deprez (French section) exhibited a number of applications of in the form of a drop hammer in which One was electrical power. intended to lift the hammer by the hammer a coil around shaft was drawing it into the coil. It was not in operathe magnetic action of tion.
also All switches were by one operator controlled operated electrically. Another was a sort of the hammer. application at stan revolving capit to turn it. It is used by some having a motor underneath of
for drawing cars over the French railroad companies short distances formerly employed. in drilling a train, where horses were Guyenet (French section) exhibited a traveling crane and a windlass, The electric motor designed for use chiefly in storehouses. A
crane

attached

to the hammer

to hold the material

was

slightly parallel to its shaft. One pivoted so as to be movable a small cylindrical friction pulley was which drove end of the shaft a large double-rimmed pulley in one direction or the other according as it was pressed on to the inside surface of the annular rim or on
was

the the outside surface of the other rim; this was effected by moving lever. The whole was by a conveniently arranged whole dynamo very practically arranged, but leaves little to be described from an

electrical point of view. " Co. exhibited Sautter, Lemonnier dynamo, which is used and

a on

projector,
The
can

complete outfit of an engine, the vessels passing through

are

the Suez Canal.

base plate, and

engine and dynamo be installed on a steamer

together

on

the

same

rents these outfits at "10 for one company 72 per cent of the vessels pass at night, with the electric light, in 18 The authorities are said to require every vessel that passes hours. at night, to carry an electric light or enabling them to see
a

in 40 minutes. A local It is stated that passage.

distance ahead

of at least 1,200 meters

MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

projector (about4,000 feet).

OR SORTERS.

is to separate particles of iron or machines from any non-magnetic matter other magnetic matter with which They are used largely in the arts, chiefly for the they are mixed. following purposes: In mining and metallurgy for the separation of

The

objectof

these

96

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

iron ore from its accompanying or magnetic the mineral magnetite shops and foundries, to extract the iron from minerals ; in machine filings,turnings, and chippings (an operation which is often done "by

hand, but which is very account of the fine copper

fragments

to injurious

and the grain; in the manufacture of white zinc impurities; in numerous industries, to exto extract magnetic tract oxide, from crude materials to which they have been pieces of iron

the health of the workman on brass dust) in flour mills to extract ;

of iron from

fraudulently added

to increase the weight.

FIG.

16." Magnetic

separating

machine

; by Vavin,

France.

is that the material in The general principle of all these machines the form of sand, powder, or small particles, is made to pass over or near powerful magnets netic which attract the iron particles or the mag-

iron
a

ore,

and allow all the other materials good, simple, and

three

to pass by, thus

affording
aration. sep-

very

reliable

means

of effecting

of these machines France, the United States, and Belgium,

were

There

exhibited, one each from differing only in the manner

in which

this principle

was

applied.

ELECTRICITY.

97

Charles Vavin

shown in the drums, as shown. Each drum is made of four wheels ; the spokes, having their like poles a a, of these wheels are magnets, permanent to an iron ring, at the circumference, and there connected in common

(Frenchsection, bronze medal)exhibited the machine The material falls on the two cut, Fig. 16. adjoining

which, therefore, forms one of the magnetic poles on the surface of drum, are alternately of The four wheels, making one the drum. north and of south polarity, forming, therefore, strong magnetic The material falls, as fields all over the surface of the drums. tions shown, over these drums revolving at the rate of thirty-two revoluis magnetic attaches itself to these per minute; that which is brushed off by the revolving brushes C and D. The drums and of object two drums is to repeat the operation to make the separation This is probably necessitated by the fact that permore thorough. manent
are at their best not very strong. magnets Its working capacity is said to be 660 pounds per hour; it requires There one-sixteenth of a horse power, and can be turned by hand. It has the great advantage five hundred of them in use. are over is required to generin that no battery or dynamo the others over ate It appears to be as the magnets are the magnetism, permanent.

used chiefly in machine shops. The Edison sorter consists simply of a hopper and The material falls continuously, in form of
long,
narrow

huge

magnet. electrosheet, from a

slot in the bottom, of the hopper, and in itsfall it passes but does not touch it ; to the pole of the large magnet, by and near is not magnetic falls perfectly vertically,while that material which that which is magnetic is attracted toward the magnet and is thereby falling on the other side of a partideflected from its vertical course, tion which separates it from that which falls vertically. The advantages that the process is very rapid and requires no power except are The disadvantages are that a battery the current for the magnet. is required and that only a certain class of material, dynamo or a

sand, can be made to fall in front of the magnet for this reason it appears of a thin sheet. Probably chiefly in mining, for separating the magnetic iron ore minerals. It is claimed that black sand,
such
as

in the form
to be used

from

its accompanyin in
so

found

many

well places, other by other methods, can be worked worked machine. In Jaspers

as

as

iron

ores

which

are

too poor

to be

to great advantage

by this

intense magnetic

exceedingly force, and it appears to be used chiefly in the manufacture It consists of two iron horizontal of zinc and zinc oxide. rollers, side by side and almost touching each other, somewhat next to their resembling crushing rollers. The ends of these rollers,

section),

sorter, exhibited by Eschger, the to be to seems

Ghesquiere
obtain
an

"

Co. (Belgian

object

bearings, pass through H. Ex. 410" VOL

fixed coils of wire through

iv

which

current

is

98

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

them so that the one roller is a north pole passed, which magnetizes at the exposed portion between the coils, and the other is a s6uth space between them is,therefore, an exceedingly pole. The narrow
to pass between these rollers at material is made this place, the rollers turning in the opposite direction to that in intended to crush the material. which they would turn if they were

intense field. The

particles, therefore, attach themselves to these rollers, are of scrapers, carried out over the rollers and scraped off by means falls through the space between the non-magnetic while material
magnetic

The

the rollers. As the bearings must necessarily be magnetized by this disposition of parts, there will doubtless be considerable friction Its capacity is stated to be 4,400 pounds per hour, and it produced. requires 2 horse power.
ILLUMINATED FOUNTAINS.

effective decorative display of electric lighting and its in the very attractive over other lighting was shown advantage fountains on the exhibition grounds. They were illuminated not the chief and very effective attraction in the evenings for the only

The most

of considerable interest from a technical general public, but were point of view. the same that was The finest part of the fountain was used in fountain 1888, and known as the Galloway the Glasgow exhibition of As it has been described in the (English section, gold

medal).

technical here.

it journals is not

necessary

to give

detailed description

The principle of the illumination is that a powerful beam of light through a hole in the top of a tunnel is passed vertically upward under the fountain, the hole being covered by a glass plate above the
this plate the jets are so that the arranged beam and remains entirely within the water passes up through this vertical conical space illuminated by the beam ; itthereby becomes
water

level.

Above

highly illuminated, while the beam of light itselfis quite invisible, being hidden from view by some tions decorathe glass plate and jets them. around is exceedingly The effect striking and beautiful. Glass plates
into the beam below the jets, moved of different colors were thereby coloring the light ; all these, as also the valves for playing were the jets, control of the operator and under the complete were controlled with the greatest facility ; the lights are powerful
60-ampere
arc

lamps

rays of the beam them, which, together

reflectors or lenses the proper direction. There

with

They were power. Another system intended

to be
an

with fourteen hand regulators. all was also tried, but it was

both, to give the were thirty-three of others, required 300 horse

or

not

success

; it was

application of the well-known

physical

experi-

ELECTRICITY.

99
issuing horizontally.
so

merit of internal illumination

of

Although

the

jet was

of clear jet water it was illuminated

a

only

for

dispersed. The same was tried the light was short distance, when abandoned at the Philadelphia Electrical Exhibition in 1884, but was An illustrated description of this Paris fountain as unsuccessful. will be found in the Electrical World, June 15, 1889.

II." TELEGRAPHY

AND
TELEGRAPHY.

TELEPHONY.

GENERAL.

the exception of a few exhibits, there was comparatively departure in a interest as a novelty or an important littleof special little more than the natural direction. The exhibits showed new

With

well developed industry. was shown almost entirely in details and in the gradof existing systems and apparatus, rather than in nsil development Telegraphy has already the introduction of entirely new ones. high degree of perfection and development ther that furreached such a
of progress The progress
an

already well studied and

be menthe usual systems may tioned Gray, for reproducing the telautograph the movements of of is based on the steno-telegraph of Cassagnes, which stepencil; nography the train telegraphy of Edison, based on static induction,
an

progress is necessarily slow. departures from Among the new

and

should
create Among

attempt develop
new

by Lambrigot. at telephonography into important systems they would

more*

If

some more

be

of these likely to

fieldsfor telegraphy
the
important

may duplexing

be

mentioned

the

than to replace the present systems. recent developments of existing systems Wheatstone the system, automatic
more

and quadruplexing

Baudot the

multiplex, and some important is the Wheatstone most words

can

of the harmonic

systems, the complicated Of these, probably systems.

automatic,

been increased to six hundred to four times as fast as one

It is duplexed

per minute, speak or transmit

which has now which is from three

through
a

phone. tele-

up to four hundred words, and is therefore formidable opponent to the multiplex systems. The telephone, as a sounder, is coming into use more in and more

numerous

systems. In the city of Paris itself messages are sent almost entirely by the in preference to electrical transmission. pneumatic-tube system,

The

former

presents

many

advantages

besides being very cheap

and

100

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

itself is sent. In the original written message is also in use, in connection with the main telegraph in distribute the telegraphic messages office,to collect and the central part of the city. few exceptions, the exhibits With Exhibits by countries. a very
as avoiding errors, this system London
"

mainly in the entirely from France, and were Department large collective exhibit of the Post and Telegraph of England France. the only other countries and the United States were in this branch. having exhibits of any importance is practically a Telegraphy in the United States. As telegraphy in telegraphy
were
"

in the United States, the wholesome effects of competition monopoly do not exist, and therefore little be expected here other progress may in the service Improvements than such as will enrich the companies.

and

better accommodations to the public demands be looked for can only in so far as they will increase the revenue of the companies. The United States stands alone as the only one of the great nations which
is not

able to obtain

control of the telegraph have

service of the
as

country. All the other great nations necessary for the Government

long ago found that it was to control the telegraph as it was

to

control the postal service; the United States alone is in the rear. This is all the more strange, as this country is the birthplace of the first developed here by Morse himself, with telegraph, which was
money

appropriated by the Government Detailed description. The following

"

the public treasury. detailed descriptions of the

from

principal exhibits is limited to a summary of the chief features of interesting the exhibits. A full description of the details, though Most of and important, would be too lengthy to be included here.
the exhibits will probably be found in the technical journals and books

fully described
on

and

illustrated

these special classes

:

subjects.They
Single transmission,

have been divided

here into the following

automatic, calls, cable transmission, they

were

diplex, duplex,

exhibited
as

always

mentioned,

multiplex, multiple quadruplex, Unless otherwise stated, and accessories. in the French are not section. The awards in many for a collective they were cases given

exhibit.
SINGLE TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS.

Historical.

"

The
a

Western of

Electric Company
one

(UnitedStates section)

exhibited

sample

It consists of a strip of paper an characters indented in the paper. which was Hughes used in
one
"

of the first dispatches sent in 1844. inch and a half wide, with the Morse They

France,

apparatus. has not been

also exhibited the lead type Morse automatic transmitters. of the original The Hughes largely used in so apparatus, materially
since 1878, when the
me-

modified

ELECTRICITY.

101

being substituted for the eleccontrolling apparatus was trical. larger stations power is being introduced, in In some of the for winding up the the form of gas, steam, water, or other motors Several exhibits were shown for facilitating this winding weights.

chanical

up

A modification introduced on some of the power weight. is a double type wheel printing a duplicate message purposes, such as press dispatches, for instance.

ments instrufor various

Wunschendorff

exhibited
a

a cam

automatically

"discharging Estienne system.

moving battery.
"

contact

to the type wheel, for attachment contact with a spring for making

In the system devised by Estienne (Frenchsection, honorable the usual horizontal dots and dashes are mention), replaced by a short and long vertical line, respectively, printed on

The advantages claimed the tape by positive and negative currents. duration and are therefore intwo signs have the same are that the dependent

of retardation, which therefore simplifies the automatic transmission; that the reading is simpler, the tape shorter, and the less. It is also more for error creases rapid, and therefore in"chances the capacity of a line. The key is a double one, sending positive to line, in place of dots and dashes, reor negative currents spectivel

ink writer, having a polarized armature long mark according to the direction short which prints They are used in Germany the current. of and have been tried in lines and sea cables, as also from Paris to France on underground But it was found that they were Berlin. not altogether satisfactory,
a or a

The

receiver is an

they get out of order easily and require much Tho regulation. speed is only slightly greater than that of the Morse and considerably inferior to that of the Hughes.
as

modified the above system by to the usual Morse printer at present small addition only making He added simply another magnet in use in France. and pen, but
"

Herodote
a

Herodote modification.

with a polarized armature, which printed vertically above the other, both of them For a printing vertical lines instead of horizontal. positive current only one of them printed, while for a negative current

both printed simultaneously, producing therefore a short and a long vertical sign similar to those in the Estienne. Neither of these is, however, new, Englishman Herring sugas an systems named gested
a

similar system
1871.

of vertical signs with

"

reversed currents

as

"early Permanent

as

(French

charge system. section, honorable

used to be reduced number of cells at one station and half at the other. An equal number is at each end of the line, with like poles to line. The of cells sending key has an attachment to it which, when the key is depressed, the poles of the sending battery, thus putting the two in reverses series for the moment, and thereby sending a current to line. Though.

system of Bouchard of cells mention) enables the number to one-half, in a certain sense, by using half the

An

ingenious

102
ingenious,

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

it can to lines which serve not well be adapted several different stations, which is often the case. interesting departure An Steno-telegraphy. from the usual systems
"

of telegraphy silver

was

exhibited

by

G. A. Cassagnes

(French section,

medal).

The

principle of this system

DISPATCH.

is that instead of

STENO-TELEGRAPHIC

"

" "

Mi
""

"
M l "Mil I
I

" I

" " I I I

Ml

II

I
IB I

II

I II
I I
M

Ml
III Ml
Ml

" "

I MM

I
"

"A
J.

" II

yv

Ml
I I I I
M

II
I

"

I I

II

:**
"

/A

I I

Mill
I

II

II

EU

FIG. 17." Perforated

for transmitting.

band,

FIG. 18." The

as

dispatch

FIG. 19." Translation

of the

received.

characters

into letters.

telegraphing

the sounds

letters usual, he telegraphs characters representing as therefore, The advantages the words. are, composing
the ordinary writing. it can be spoken. As-

over similar to the advantages of stenography A message can thereby be sent as rapidly as

ELECTRICITY.

T 03

less time to transmit it takes much the characters representing the it does the letters, the carrying capacity of the lines is sounds, than greatly increased.
is perforated with holes the sounds ; this is passed through the mechanical representing transmitter, which signals to line ; on the receiver sends corresponding as then these signals are printed signs, which are recorded The
system
is briefly
as

follows

band

readily translated into the usual letters. Figures, 17, 18, and 19, A short paragraph will show the different stages of a message. by the writer and was from was a daily paper selected at random talk ; the band was rate. punched, transmitted, and retranslated, each about at the same is given below contains 40 words and was The paragraph read which The first band, Fig. 17, is the one punched in about fifteen seconds. read
to the operator

about

as

fast

as

one

would

by

the

stenographer

; the

one

next

to it, Fig. 18, shows

the corresponding

characters as received, and the third one, Fig. 19, shows as translated from the second, by an operator on another the message is as follows: The paragraph machine.
LES AFFAIRES COURAXTES.

de la Enfin le conseil s'est occupe cle regler les affaires courantes et notarament decrets dont la signature avait ete retardee par suite de regularisation de quelques Tabsence de M. Constans, ministre de I'mterieur.

the principles of the Michela's stenographic ranged machine, and consists of twenty keys arlike those of a piano, which work twenty These punches. different combinaboth hands by the stenographer, are with tions worked
on

The

firstinstrument,

the perforator, is based

It is claimed that of the keys representing the different sounds. 200 words per a stenograph with this machine skilled operator can in any language. minute The band
thus

is shown, half size, in Fig. 17. This is punched transmitter which sends alterthen passed through the mechanical nate to the perimpulses to line corresponding forations positive and negative These
are

sent

over

multiplex system, the one as system of La Cour, known known to require description here.
erent

nient of any convesingle line by means being the synchronizing employed is too well the phonic wheel, which
a

By

means

of it the

twenty

dif-

impulses

are

received

by

as

many

corresponding

relays at the

operate the printer. receiving end, which Every turn of the sjnichronizing wheel The message illustrated above. message

represents one thus received

line in the

in Fig. 18 is then translated into the

19 is
a

usual written the characters in Fig. 18. It is claimed of that 15 days suffice to learn to read the tape fttientlyand about 6 to stenograph at the rate of 150 to 200 words per minute. months

and shown language. Fig.

literal translation

104
Besides

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

the speed of transmission over the wire itself,the additional is that of the speed of preparing the message claimed advantage for transmission. It is in this feature that it excels the Wheatautomatic

It is claimed, for instance, that the first system. in sentences of a speech begun in Paris at 2 p. m. could be composed Marseilles (about540 miles distant) 2.10 p. m., a printing at office at following the orator. Such a speech could the stenographer always
stone

be printed and distributed simultaneously in Paris and Marseilles. have been made Experiments the French lines, in one of which, on obtained : Up to made in October, 1886, the following results1 were
220 miles, 24,000 words per hour ; up to 400 miles, 17,000 words ; up The chief use would to 569 miles, 12,000 words. appear to be for As to actual speed of transmission over an average dispatches. press line it does not appear to exceed that of the Wheatstone automatic

system,

which

is in

use

largely in England

at the rate of 300 words

that the words and which has the additional advantage are possible errors. spelled as usual, thereby avoiding many In the Edison embossing Embossing and translating system. and
per minute,
"

translating

system

of a spiral groove these disks. These

the record of the transmitter is made in the form disk, by indentations in a on circular revolving
may

then

be put directly into

transmitter

for

onto another line. automatically repeating the message Train telegraphy. The Edison-Smith system of telegraphing to trains consists essentially of a key, a phonetic reand from moving ceiver (telephone), a high tension alternating current as proand duced
"

is connected between coil. The train apparatus the metallic insulated roof of a car and the ground, through The action depends on the static induction between the the wheels.

by

an

induction

roof of the car and the fixed line wire on the poles alongside ; and as the action is that of alternating condenser charges, it is independent line. It is said to transmission on the same of the regular Morse

have
and

been operated the line wire. between

through Edison

the car air space of 580 feet between for the intercommunication suggests this system
an

ships at sea. Lambrigot Telephonograph.

"

(French section, bronze

hibited medal) ex-

apparatus called a telephonograph, which is a combination by means of which a message of a telephone and a phonograph, may be sent over a telephonic a line as message and recorded at the receiving This phonographic end on a phonograph. record on a strip
an

of paper
a

then be retranslated into articulate speech by means of Its is,theretelephone. fore, apparatus and similar phonographic object as that of an the same ing telegraph, namely, of increasautomatic
may

the capacity qf a line by rapid transmission and subsequent at the receiving end. retranslation The apparatus consists of a transmitter and a receiver; the former

ELECTRICITY.

105
tion. of special construc-

is a telephone, the latter is a chemical phonograph it resembles the ordinary In appearance

but the tin foil is replaced by
a

needle is replaced by a paper and is filled with a decomposable

original phongraph, tinned paper, and the engraving piece of lightly over fixed pen, which this moves

spiral line over the paper. the liquid in exact proportion this pen to the paper and decomposes to the varying current strength, leaving an indelible record of the ances. resistoxide of greater or less depth and therefore of proportionate
from the record is permanent, and may be removed To retranslate it, it is placed on a similar phonograph apparatus. A current in which the pen is replaced by a light metallic point. from a cell is passed through this point to the paper and through a

liquid; this traces the usual The telephonic line current passes through

This

the phonograph cylinder the variations of the resistance due to the different thicknesses of the oxide on the record in the current strength, and produce corresponding variations telephone.
turning thereby

On

reproduce
are

the

same

sounds

in the telephone.

results
been
that

said to have

has not yet used in practice.

"

been obtained, though passed the experimental

apparatus

good the apparatus as exhibited state. It has not yet

section and facsimiles

Very

Autographic.
of Edison

The

of Jordey

in the French

in the United

States section, for transmitting

of writing or drawings, are already well known and were exhibited in the exhibition of 1881. Among G-ray*s Telautograph. the most interesting exhibits of new in telegraphy departures two were small records of autographic
"

telegraphy exhibited in the personal exhibit of Prof. Elisha Gray, in the United States section, and for which, together with his historical the high honor of a grand prize. exhibit, he was awarded Facsimiles of these two records are given below (Figs. and 21), 20 full size, and will explain themselves. The apparatus, though promised for the exhibition, was, nately, unfortunor the writer obtain a description of it, as not sent, could the inventor was not ready to make it public. All that can be stated here is that the pencil of the transmitter in any is free to be moved direction within the rectangular be lifted off the paper and started again at any desired place, thereby permitting line drawings to be sent ; the receiving pen will make precisely the same The two facsimiles below will show the almost absomovements. lute It is believed identity of the transmitted and the original messages.
space, and
can

even

one.

line wires were required, but possibly there was only Fig. 20 is the original pencil copy and Fig. 21 the transmitted ink copy,
that two

106

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

AUTOMATIC

TELEGRAPHY.

is prepared in the message systems, in which form of a perforated band, which is then passed rapidly through into use rapidly and represent probably transmitter, are coming direction of the development As most important of telegraphy. The automatic
main

the the

the
the

increase the carrying capacity of a line, it is to a in of the multiplex systems certain extent a competitor and can be compared directly with such systems. many respects Historical. The idea of the automatic is not new, transmission by an exhibit by the French telegraph department of as was shown
is object to
"

c/jiALasrJi
FIG. 20." Gray's telautograph. The message
as

asna.

sent;

pencil copy.

For description

see

page

105.

an

apparatus
were was

of Chauvassaigne,
a

of 1865, in which
on

the Morse
a

resinous substance printed with The receiver was an then passed under a contact brush. which One of the first Morse systems was also an electrochemical one. being set up in types representing dots the message one, automatic

acters charband, metallic

then passed under a make-and-break contact. these automatic systems is unquestionably of the Wheatstone, and, to which is already in use largely in England it is enabled to With recent improvements some extent, in France. transmit as many 600 words as per minute, used alone, and 400

and dashes, which were The most important

ELECTRICITY.

107

The former would duplexed. replace 30 operators at words when The normal runthe ordinary receivers, at 20 words per minute. ning The apparatus was is 300 words per minute. in England rate (British section, grand exhibited by Elliott Brothers, of London

and prize),

manship, represents a very high degree of perfection in fine workbe compared in which it can the workmanship only with
is briefly as

in fine watches. The general principle of the apparatus is prepared by the punching apparatus

follows

A tape

shown

in Fig. 22 ; the three

/*
FIG.
21.
"

Gray's

telautograph.

The

message

as

received;

ink copy.

dots, dashes, and spaces ; the middle row of holes is regular) for feeding the tape through the transmitter ; the two outside rows the dots or dashes according as the represent holes are vertically over two one another, or as one is in advance of
represent (which is

knobs

the other. The tape, thus prepared, is fed into the automatic transmitter shown in Fig. 23, through which it is carried by a rapidly revolving wheel driven by a weight at the rate of 600 words per minute, or

108

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

The tape could be spoken. about four times as fast as the message two contact thereby passes over springs, which send a positive or to line according as there are perforations on one negative current another almjost instantly side or the other; when the two follow one

FIG. S"." Wheatstone

perforator

for automatic

telegraphy;

by Elliott Brothers.

England.

Fio.

-23."

Wheatstone

automatic

transmitter:

by Elliott Brothers.

dot is produced on the receiver, and when other a dash will be produced.
The
great

they

are

not

over

each

rapidity of the succession of the currents is rendered possible by the fact that the line is discharged every time by the

ELECTRICITY.

109'

Sparks at the contacts are avoided by small condensers reversed current. in derivation between the placed of one-tenth microfarad transmitter and the line. in Fig. 24 a tape is, by similar mechanism, In the receiver shown drawn through very rapidly, passing under a very light ink roller, The retarding effect of which is operated by the receiving magnet. is reduced by inertia of the receiving magnet the electromagnetic For distances over 300 miles the addition of shunted condensers. The exhibit included these relays, as well as. relays must be used. lines without special condensers and resistances for balancing the
duplex. as the line is working when of the message The apparatus, though simple in principle, is quite complicated in For a description of not be described here. construction and can
interruption

FIG. -24." Wheatstone

receiver; by Elliott Brothers.

see the recent improvements before the British Association

the paper of Mr. W. for the Advancement

In the Wheatstone

H. Preece, read' tember of Science, Sepsystem,

5, 1887.

Meyer

Automatic

Repeater.

"

if

is to

be retransmitted

on

perforate another expense and introduces errors. the system so that the receiver not only prints the characters, but at time punches its tape with holes, so that it can be passed the same The ink record is directly through another automatic transmitter.
in this system in long and short vertical lines, as in the Herodote by the corresponding system, described above, and is accompanied It is stated that with this system hundred disone perforations.

it and

another line it is necessary is a cause tape, which of delay and has modified To avoid this Meyer

message transto late

110

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

patches per hour

can

-considerably slower not yet been tried in practice. The Estienne Estienne Automatic.
"

be transmitted, which, as will be noticed, is very It has than with the Wheatstone apparatus.
system,

described

above,

was

so as to be used as an automatic apparatus with perforated .alsoarranged But both this and the Meyer have the disadvantage that tape. the current is not necessarily reversed for every impulse, as in the Wheatstone, and that the speed therefore must be considerably less. devised by Nault and Automatic. Modifications were Hughes
"

for making the Hughes automatic. apparatus others by Parment to be described here. ingenious, they are too complicated Though to a large extent only in the form of drawwere Those of Parment Ings.

References.The
"

graphic system, under this heading

embossing both of which

system
are

and the stenoteledescribed above, might be classed

an

of Edison,

For of automatic systems. for cables see "Cable telegraphy,'' below.

DIPLEX SYSTEMS.

automatic

transmitter

in the In the diplex systems two messages are sent simultaneously In the first a direction. Sieur exhibited several methods. ;same rapidly revolving toothed wheel at the transmitting end connects

the line alternately with the positive and negative poles in very At the receiving end these currents pass through rapid succession. one a polarized relay with two armatures, of which will respond to
Each of the two receivers positive and one to a negative current. operated by this relay will therefore respond to the signals from the end. positive and the negative keys, respectively, at the transmitting
a

In the second method a relay has a double one armature, of which to a strong current. to a weak The current only and one responds transmitting end send currents of different intensities. two keys at the is sent by the ordinary direct The latter is proan alternating current. duced by a tuning fork and an induction coil, and is again transformed in a similar induction coil at the receiver. The phonetic relay double polarized armature, at the receiver has a which in. oscillating due to the alternating current, will operate a sounder. The rapidly,

In the third method current and the other by

one

message

alternating current transmission.

will not

interfere with

the ordinary

direct current

DUPLEX

SYSTEMS.

In the duplex

opposite directions. No. 1 sends impulses

systems In

No. 2 receives

on

in are sent simultaneously Edison duplex systems, operator of the by reversals of the current, which operator Operator No. 2 sends impulses polarized relay.
two messages
one

ELECTRICITY.

Ill

the strength of a direct current, which operator No. 1 receives on an. ingenious double balanced relay, which responds only to changes of the current strength in one of the magnets, but not to in both that is, not to the reversed currents reversals of the current by
varying
"

of the In

transmitter

No. 1.
there is an

coil having two is in the primary secondary and one primary circuits. The receiver circuit. The receiving current passes through both the secondaries direction, and thereby operates the receiver; but the in the same
another

Edison

system

induction

in opposite directions, and them passes through sending current the latter, therefore does not operate the receiver. To accomplish two secondaries in multithe sending current passes through the ple through the one to line and through the other to an artifiarc, cial line.
In stillanother duplex system of Edison, called the phonoplex, one of the transmissions is by the ordinary Morse system, except that, in addition, a condenser shunts the receiver and the key, which therefore

The other transmission is by does not affect this transmission. high-tension currents means and a telephone, the of momentary transmitters must all be between the two and receivers of which is too gradual in its action to Morse stations. The Morse current
effect a sharp click in the telephone; while the high-tension current The high-tension is too small in quantity to affect the Morse receiver. the Morsa key is open or current will get to ground whether

The high-tension closed, owing to the condenser shunting the key. is produced by a key which makes and breaks the local circurrent cuit from a self-induction coil in the line circuit, the extra current of
which will pass to line in order to get to ground at both ends, and in doing so passes through The second the telephone receivers. transmission may be introduced between any two points on an existing line.
Duplex It is used largely in railroad systems in the United States. Hughes. The dirplexing of the Hughes apparatus by TerThe system used new and has already been exhibited.
" "

ral is not

at present is that of differentially wound magnets. Phonopore Telegraphy. Langdon-Davies (British

a

ited e section)xhib-

"

apparatus of of telegraphy called a The is to transmit independent over messages phonopore." object line while it is being used for the ordinary Morse transmission,
system
means
an

by

with the latter; also to diplex or duplex the transmission independently phonopore of the Morse transmission, to be sent simultaneously thus enabling three messages the over This latter was same wire. exhibited in operation.
without
In the phonopore transmission

interfering

the sending

key

and

the receiving

as usual; the special apparatus sounder or printer are the same interposed between the key and the line is called the phonopore, and that between the sounder and the line is called the transformer. The

112
phonopore

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

consists of

an

induction

and two secondary wires. key, the battery, and

primary wire coil having one In the primary circuit is placed the sending vibrating reed, which therefore enables

currents primary of a very rapidly intermittent character to be sulated the coil. One of the secondary coils has one end insent through and the other end to line; the other has one end insulated The connection to the line is such and the other end to ground.

is to a certain extent in multiple arc that this whole transmitter difference with the ordinary Morse sender, but with the important branch is not connected to ground and therethat the phonopore fore

ever, howdoes not affect the Morse transmission. The phonopore, current virtually grounds the rapidly alternating phonopore
inaction between the two sulated of which is to line and the other to secondary coils, one ground; this feature is the essential principle of this system, namely, branch is virtually grounded that the phonopore lator) (throughan insumeans
or

by

of the induction

condenser

is concerned, but is not the phonopore apparatus grounded so far as the ordinary Morse transmission is concerned. The transformer is the receiving apparatus, the of which is
so as

far

object

to receive this phonopore current This transformer Morse current.

only, and not the simultaneous is connected, like the phonopore

a

sender, in multiple virtually connected coil,one

arc

to the independent

to ground

through

receiver, and is double- wound induction

Morse

end of each of whose coils is insulated justas in the phonoIt consists of a delicate relay, which is actuated only by an pore. of alternations as that from alternating current of the same number This is accomplished sending end. opposite to an electro-magnet, somewhat tuned to the same of vibrations, number
the by
as or

vibrating diaphragm in a large telephone, but

a

musical note, as the reed An alternating current of this frequency at the transmitter. only in doing so the diaphfagm, in strikthis diaphragm, will vibrate and ing
against
an

relay, which Duplexing

devised contact, will open the circuit of in turn operates the usual printer or sounder.
or

ingeniously

diplexing of the phonopore itself,independen transmission by the of the ordinary Morse messages, is accomplished harmonic having the reeds at the two stations of system of usual different numbers of vibrations and their respective diaphragms
is the same. All the rest of the apparatus tuned to the same note. The advantages of such a system of increasing the sending capacity here. In. of existing lines are evident, and need not be enumerated the delicate balancing or addition, the inventor claims to overcome

in the usual methods of duplexing and to accomplish A moderately good other useful results by means of his phonopore. description, well illustrated, may in The be found Electrician

synchronizing

(London),April
lines in England.

5, 1889.

The

system

has been introduced

on

several

ELECTRICITY.

113

QUADRUPLEX

SYSTEMS.

is similar to the first one of his system quadruplex is by transmission one described above, in which duplex systems intensities of a the reversals of current and the other by changing two different strengths of There are, furthermore, direct current. The is doubled. this duplex of which currents used, by means by an ingenious arrangement separation of these currents is accomplished of the two keys and relays at each station as parts of a

The

Edison

Wheatstone
are

bridge.

said to be over Union Company,

It is used largely in the United States. There three hundred sets of these in use by the Western which, it is claimed, saved them $500,000 the first

year, replacing $16,000,000 of extra lines.

MULTIPLEX SYSTEMS.

The

principal multiplex

system

(French section,

in of 1878 and 1881, and is now Though largely in France as simple, double, and quadruple. use automatic, very complicated in its construction it is, like the Wheatstone
quite small and compact, and in,this it differs greatly from Among the recent the large Hughes apparatus, which it is replacing. improvements the substitution of a small and very ingenious are centrifugal regulator in place of the vibrating reed used before;

grand prize), since the Expositions

used in France is that of Baudot provement imimportant which has undergone

relays have been replaced by an original one, by which is greatly reduced; the translator, which was their number ously previis now For a more detailed descriptio purely electric. mechanical,

the Siemens

nals, could not be attempted here, see the technical jourElectrique. especially La Lumiere Munier Multiplex Hughes. exhibited a device for transforming
which
"

the Hughes

into a multiplex one; the one exhibited being apparatus It is able to transmit 125 letters per minute, and as a quadruplex. it could therefore transmit about 6,000 words per hour. quadruplex

Experiments
satisfactory. Radiophonic

made

with

it between

Paris

and

Dijon proved
a

quite

multiplex system termed class as the wellknown Gray's harmonic system, in which the undulating currents by a number different pitch of vibrating tuning-forks of produced line and separated again at the receiving through a common are sent end by receivers of the same pitch, respectively.
"

Mercadier exhibited multiplex. "radiophonic," which belongs to the same

In the quadruplex mitter apparatus exhibited by Mercadier, the transis a piece of selenium called the radiophone, on which a ray of light falls; this ray is intercepted by a constantly revolving disk

having

four series of holes H. Ex. 410" VOL iv

around
8

its circumference,

producing

114

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

four sets of interruptions of the light. This will change the resistance the selenium accordingly, and thereby produce corresponding of These the selenium. vibrations in a current passing through holes
moved
at
are

screened by four little movable by hand or by a magnet and key. speed by any

screens,

The

which disk is kept

its speed

can

be

constant motor, convenient by an acoustic method. When to these screens are moved adjusted imitate the Morse characters, impulses current of the undulating to that particular note will be sent to line and to the corresponding

ing revolvbeing

respective receivers. The receivers are telephones

' called by the inventor monoteleare tuned to the required notes, the diaphragms of which phones," to the nodal points of vibrations. and rest on three points corresponding They are furnished with resonant boxes and ear tubes. It is
*

will distinguish between sounds stated that these monotelephones differing by as little as half a tone, thus enabling twelve notes, and

The therefore twelve different messages, to be sent simultaneously. in which a selenium radiophone may be replaced by a thermic one,

microphone
intermittent

is actuated heat ray.

by the expansion
same

and

contraction

due to

an

In another system forks, each with All these

are

of the
a

inventor

the transmitters

are

tuning

microphone

and

an

induction

coil, as

usual.

probably
MULTIPLE

only experimental.
STATIONS
ON ONE LINE.

receiver of the call devised by Limon consists of a teeth as there are toothed wheel, having as many stations on the line; at each station one of these teeth is in connection with the call bell at that station. The wheels at the different stations are all

Limon.

"

The

turned

by a step-by-step motion, produced by a succession from the transmitting impulses station and of current of positive by a polarized relay. When the tooth of the wheel correspondi received is to the desired station is reached, a negative current together
sent to line by the sending

second polarized this closes the local bell circuit of that particular station relay; This negative current at the whose bell is connected to that tooth. time releases the wheels of all the stations, allowing them to same which
operates return to
zero.

operator,

Claude
devised
one

system.

"

The

by Claude

objectof the (French section,

station of a series connected on with that one alone, to the and then to put itselfinto communication the others, and finally to put the circuits back into exclusion of all their original condition again.

system of calls is to enable any silver medal) line to call any other the same

very complete

The apparatus

at each

station consists of

double

polarized

relay

ELECTRICITY.

115

and
of
to
a

two

dials.

suspended
magnet,

strong
a

double relay is in the line circuit, and consists double bobbin, capable of turning in the field of a bobbins responds to a negative and one one of which
The

The dials are turned by clockwork positive current. controlled impulses brings all the A certain number by this relay. of positive pulse, dials to the corresponding ; this is followed by a negative imnumber

and then by the number

two
are

in communication, that their receivers are cut out of the line circuit by their dials. All the dials are brought back by one of the operators by sending a sufficient impulses to bring his dial back to zero. of number
a

of the calling station, after which the all the others being excluded by the fact

It is used chiefly for railroad and other similar service, in which of stations are on one line. It has been in very satisfacnumber tory for a year on the Paris, Lyons Railroad use and Mediterranean

between

Paris and Lyons, a distance of about 320 miles, with eleven It is also recommended stations, 011 No. 9, B. " S. gauge, iron wire. for similar telephone circuits.
SUBMARINE-CABLE
TELEGRAPHY.

Hughes. between

"

The

Hughes

and wise otherquite satisfactory in every respect, the speed was only 40 to 45 therefore not kept in service. messages per hour, and it was
Automatic transmission

France

apparatus Algeria in 1882

was

adapted to submarine by Mandroux. Though

cables

exhibited
to adapt
are

modification it to the siphon sent to the cable through

Belz and Brahie with siphon recorder. transmitter, automatic of the Wheatstone The currents from the transmitter recorder.
"

Froment

relay.

the capacity siphon

transmitter. recorder As parallel conductors System in a multiple cables. of working for greater distances than independently not be worked cable can 250 miles, the Commercial Company (of New York) operate their
"

of the cable from 1,500 words alone to 1,800 with the automatic

It is said to increase per hour with the

conductors
as
as

metallic circuits, and using each pair again part of another circuit, with either another pair or with the earth The chief claim is the perfect way in which this elimireturn. nates inductive disturbances between This the neighboring wires.
is the only one having a transatlantic cable ending in New City, though the line includes a landing in Nova Scotia.

in pairs

as

company

York

The Commercial Cable Company siphon recorder. exhibited the Cuttriss vibrator, which is an attachment to the siphon recorder for cables, to replace the usual electrificationby high-tension is to vibrate the ink-recording of which siphon charges, the
Vibrator

for

"

object

in order to eliminate has many

the friction
as

objections,
the paper.

The the paper. it is affected by the moisture

on

usual method dryness of or

the air and

116

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

In the Cuttriss magnetic vibrator there is a very small piece of No. 30 iron wire, about one-sixteenth of an inch long, secured near The paper passes over a small iron table, to the end of the siphon. ment. which is the only addition which must be made to the usual instruby an intermittent current, iron table is magnetized ducing causing the end of the siphon to vibrate up and down rapidly, proThe intermittent current is produced by a a series of dots. magnet, which has a sensitive mercury regusimple make-and-break lator This
to

the adjust

of impulses to the natural number of vibrations the siphon; otherwise the siphon would not vibrate reguof larly. number
and tration illus-

This system is used on all the instruments of this company For a short description and an is highly indorsed by them. June 26, 1886. see Electrical World, Elliott. Another
"

and simpler vibrator similar to this was exhibited The siphon was by means by Elliott Brothers. attached of a in the rear of the vibrating magnet string directly to the armature

of the instrument. Telephone receiver

In the cable receiver of Ader the vibrates between two contacts. cable is connected to a vibrator which One of them connects it through a telephone to the negative

for cables.
"

battery, the other connects it through of a grounded another .pole battery. to the positive pole of another grounded A postelephone itive in the cable will increase the sound in the firsttelephone current and a negative that in the other.

cable receiver Edison suggests to use his motograph receiver, because of its sensitiveness. Chamroy Siphon recorder. exhibited an attachment to the siphon the writing is done by a succession of recorder by means of which from an induction coil, the paper being prepared chemically sparks so as to be discolored by the spark. Cable relay. The Eastern Telegraph Company (British section, devised by Brown " Allan to replace gold exhibited a relay
Receiver.
"

For

"

"

medal)

the siphon by
core,

recorder. It consists, essentially, of a small coil suspended fine platinum wire, free to oscillate. It has a hollow a

two magnets. A and is placed in the magnetic field between iron, capable of turning with considerable friction small rod of soft by this electro-magnet. a vertical pivot, is moved When around the cable current passes through this electro-magnet it turns it to the

right

left,which moves this rod up to a contact, where it remains, the coil continues to the end of its oscillation. This contact while closes a local circuit working a Morse receiver. It is used largely
or

by this company

for their submarine

ACCESSORIES.

cables.

Keys.

"

The

Arnaune'

key has two

sets of contacts
are

the rocking lever, the connections

of which

at each end of that the depressuch

ELECTRICITY.

117

sion and
to

releasing of the key will connect the positive or negative time connect the other pole pole, respectively, to line and at the same

earth, thus reversing the current for each impulse. In the discharge key of Schaeff er, one end of the key lever is long, the amount so as to increase of motion, and has a spring attached t"" it, which ing, at every motion up or down of the key touches, in passthe line to ground, thereby discharging it a contact connecting
before

and

after every

impulse

of current.

Farjou (Frenchsection, bronze

medal)exhibited

number

of keys

for various purposes, which have given very satisfactory results. The first is for automatically connecting the line to ground for a plished moment only every time the key is released or raised. This is accom-

small movable ball which rests on a spring, which keeps Every depression of the key strikesthis ball, an earth contact open. causing it to roll up an inclined plane, thereby relieving the spring of its weight and closing the earth contact of that end of the line.
by
a

later, opens the earth contact and ball, in returning, a moment the line is again ready for the next impulse. scribed, In the double discharge key the line is not only put to earth as debut a discharging battery is also put to line for an instant The
between

touched and by

the position of transmission by a sort of fork, one by each motion of the key
an

complished and that of repose. This is acof the two prongs of which js lower one being insulated). (the
-

snap spring the contact made thereby is broken This fork is one immediately afterward. pole of the discharging. battery, the key lever being the line terminal, as usual.

ingenious

double discharge key the impulse of the curIn the compensating rent following one another, the is divided into two parts immediately firstbeing that of the whole battery and the second that of a smaller battery. This is accomplished by a second snap-fork contact similar
to the

justdescribed, but closing the momentary contact of the battery during the downward the lever, while the motion of whole acts during the upward motion. other Relays. Sambourg lation. exhibited a polarized relay requiring no regufour electro-magnets are Instead of polarizing the armature
one
"

used,

two

of whose

cores

are

magnet, to them

which by the line current of these two is opposed

gives to these

connected magnetically to a permanent cores a polarity opposite to that given traction which flows through all four. The atto that of the other, and

the

one

common

armature will therefore move to the direction of the current. according

toward

one

or

the other

In the relay of Dutertre the core of the relay is polarized by an external fixed magnet, and is capable of turning under the influence the polarized armature of the current in the coil. In that of Mandroux is between four magnets, so that those facing which are wound each other
are

always of relatively opposite polarity, and those of like polarity.

are

cent adja-

118

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

relay the coil is at right angles to a permanent The action of the magnet which supports the axis of the armature. is normal to the axis of the armature, and the action of the magnet is normal to the armature. electro-magnet Motograph relay. The Edison relay is based on the motograph
"

In the Baudot

on a revolving cylinder of is greatly diminished while some porous material wet with potash die current This cylinder, driven by clockwork, passes. pulls a brush by friction against the action of a spring. When the sliding current passes, the friction diminishes, the spring predominates and

fact that the friction of

sliding contact

closes

local circuit.

It has the advantage

that it is free from

rem-

anent magnetism and extra currents. In his carbon relay the pressure produced by the magnet on a carbon button changes itsresistance and thereby actuates a local circuit.

relay, see Cable telegraphy, above. Receivers. the receivers exhibited was Morse a receiver Oudin,1 very light and compact, containing in it all accessories, including of ten moist cells; another of Dini, of strong and rigid form
"

For cable Reference."

Among

and economical

the diaphragm like magnet,

sounder consists of a telephone in which in vibrating makes and breaks the current of its own an a electric bell, thereby producing musical note to replace the click of the usual sounder. device. Godfrey (French section, silver Discharging exhibited
" "

administration The Sounder.

The Morse receivers construction. are the same as those of 1878.

Decamp

of the French

medal)

simple system of discharging lines, which is said by good authority to be the best of all similar systems. It is for use long aerial or chiefly for underground, submarine, lines having considerable capacity. It consists simply of a coil having is connected from line to earth very great self-induction, which
an

ingenious

and

very

at each end, therefore in derivation to the battery and key, or receiver key, of the ordinary Morse systems, according as it is the and It has increased considerably sending or the receiving apparatus.

the efficiency of the lines on which formerly of relays which were

lines. Clark, Artificial
"

it is used and has replaced considered indispensable.

a number

Muirhead

"

known

artificiallines which are used cables. They consist of strips of tin foil wound

Co. exhibited their wellin duplexing the submarine

so
as

to act both

as

condensers
Automatic

and

resistances combined, The ground alarm.

"

as

object

Houjeau is to sound an alarm in and is of use specially when

the
same

case
a

" the line is grounded tally, accidenlines are operated by number of

similar to a line. of a device of Careme

It is placed between
to
cause

It consists of a coil wound around a bar of zinc. battery and the key. the If the circuit is accidental beyond the key, this coil will heat sufficiently grounded the zinc rod to expand and close a local bell circuit.

battery.

ELECTRICITY.

119

exhibited a system for replacing dynamo The the batteries by a dynamo. circuit is closed through a resistance of German silver wire, the middle of which is connected
Dynamos

for telegraphy.

"

Picard

though it were as This resistance is then treated just a for telegraphing being led off from series of batteries, the currents different parts of it in accordance with the number of volts required, from the right or left of the ground according as they are to be r.nd To avoid accidents due to grounds or short positive or negative.
to ground.

branches leading off from this arc circuits, each of these multiple resistance in its circuit which is proporresistance has a separate tioned 4 ohms the potential, so as to limit at the rate of per volt of The systhe greatest possible current to one-fourth of an ampere. tem for 100 volts and 10 amperes. The system is one was exhibited in use at the central office in Paris and is proving itselfto be very
satisfactory. 6 horse-power The inventor

machine:

estimates At 0.1 franc

the economy

as

follows for

it will cost 14.40 francs per 24 hours, or year, for a station like the central station of Paris. 10,000 cells,would cost 30,000 francs per year.

(2cents) horse-power hour, per 5,256 francs (about$1,000) per

The equivalent,

Wires.

wire '"'Wires, cables, and conduits.")Copper wires have been used by for several years. For telegraphic lines, copper this department 2 to 2^ millimeters have replaced those of iron of 4 and 5 wires of

For the requirements and tests of the galvanized iron line Department. delivered to the French Telegraph (See under
"

city circuits eleven-tenths millimeter millimeters; for telephone is used; for long distances it varies, that from Paris to Marseilles, Copper wires are required to have for instance, being 4-J millimeters. less than 21.4 ohms per kilometer at 0 C. for a diameter a resistance of

grams tensile strain of 40 to 42 kilothan 2 per square millimeter, with an elongation of not more A wire of 2| millimeters diameter must stand seven bendper cent. ings in a vise.
of 1 millimeter. support
a

It must

For
see

description of the underground "Wires, cables, and conduits."

a

cables for the city of Paris,

TELEPHONY.

GENERAL.

fundamental patent for telephony in France the is that the telephone, as an apparatus, is being developed natural result There is much much more rapidly there than in this country. inventors and among both among competition wholesome makers; better, cheaper, and as they can be the telephones are consequently
no

As there is

by anyone they are coming into use very largely in pripurchased vate to an installations. The latter was particularly noticeable American.
Almost
every exhibitor of electric bells and annunciators

120

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

had his system of house telephones; some at the exceedingly low price They appeared to be as common of a few dollars for two complete sets. troduced as exhibits of electric bells and annunciators, and are being inintroducing them by Some are makers about like these. almost always two simple magneto both as receivers and transmitters; or telephones (withouta battery) transmitter connected directly there is a simple microphone in some
thousands.

Such systems

are

to line without

tances induction coil. In the best systems for longer disis always used with the induction coil. the microphone The telephone as a receiver may be said to be one of the Progress.
an
"

few inventions

form in in practically the same which have remained The telephone receivers used at present in born. which they were as the United States, England, and France are practically the same those firstintroduced in the United States; they have been modified

Many radical changes and only very slightly in their proportions. have been suggested are improvements and used, but by far the in the large exchanges are stillof the original types. largest number
As
a

transmitter

it has

given

place to the microphone,

except

for

very short distances. was Most of the progress in the instruments prior to the made exhibition of 1881; that made since has been mostly in the systems, ment in the details, in the proportion of the parts, and in their improve-

tirely almost enthe last international exhibition in 1878. since The systems Telephone systems in France. are and apparatus better than in this country, the transmission being very clear much of music from places of entertainment and distinct. The transmission
"

for special purposes, such as for long distances, etc. apparatus it may be said to have been developed

As

commercial

is particularly fine and clear, especially in the installation at The service in the city of Paris, on the other hand, the exhibition. is exceedingly poor and far inferior to ours, especially since the has taken possession of the exchanges. The answer to that one does not generally wait at the the calls are so long coming For important messages telephone itselffor this answer. within the in a carriage is still limits a messenger frequently preferred to city

Government

the telephone.
into
numerous

is necessary

of delay is that the city is divided subcentral stations connected by trunk lines, and it in many, if not in most calls,to retransmit the call to
causes

One of the

has recently taken possession of another station. The Government the telephone service; the immediate increase in a great result was complaints of poor service; but it is too early at present to draw any conclusions as to the inadvisability of the Government owning and
operating the telephone service. Telephony in the United States.
"

Telephony

being,

even

more

than

telegraphy,

monopoly do not of competition

in the United
exist, and

States, the wholesome effects little progress can therefore be

ELECTRICITY.

121

expected at present other than such as will enrich the companies. The service, as distinguished from the apparatus and systems, is better than in other countries, but even at its best it often probably
ever, howto be desired. The apparatus leaves much are, and systems The transmission is not nearly as inferior to those of France. to ferences more clear and distinct, and the circuits are much subject interOne explanation, and not an unreasonable and to interruptions. is not being introduced more apparatus why improved in use of apparatus rapidly is that there is such a very large number be an unwarranted outlay of already that to change it all would enormous proportions; besides, a change in apparatus often involves
one,

One result of the monopoly, change in the system. which is much to be regretted, is that private installations and house telegraphy In France the private telephone is are practically prohibited here.
a

in

like the speaking tube; here it scarcely exists. use, common Exhibits by countries. Exhibits in this class were tirely confined ento the French and United States sections. In the former they were the finest and largest being the excellent exhibit very common,
"

des Telephones (grand Ge'ne'rale of the Socie'te who have until prize), quite recently had complete control of almost all the telephone service France until it passed into the hands Government in of the of Among September, 1889. the other French exhibitors the one most
was prominent, and especially noted for excellent workmanship, Branville " Co. (gold medal). In the United States section were the large and very creditable exhibts of the Bell Telephone Company

and the Western European among

which the others specialists ; the researches of Edison and of Gray. The accompanying Detailed description.
"

Electric Company,

were

attracted much attention historical exhibits of

been

limited to

historical exhibits of telephones were confined to the United States section. The Western Electric almost entirely its exhibits quite an extensive historical included among Company
"

property Historical.

detailed description has brief one, as this branch, not being public a very here, is of littleinterest to the electricians in general.
The

It was telephones. collection of American confined almost entirely forms and not to experimental models. to the different commercial Among them was one telephones, consisting of the firstcommercial parallel soft iron pole pieces, The diaphragm were the bobbins. was wound which around not to either; that is, it was not polarized, strictly speaking, attached but was the influence of both poles combined. In the Edison under phones, telealso a historical collection of experimental exhibit there was showing the researches of Edison in this field. Illustrations
of
a

U-shaped

magnet,

having

two

of these, but not accompanied found in the Electrical World,

technical description, will be In the perOctober 5, 1889, p. 234. sonal

by
a

exhibit of Elisha Gray

were

shown

the original water

tele-

122
phone

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

described in his caveat of July 14, 1870; also his tone receiver for the Centennial Exhibition; of 1874 and the one of 1876, made his strap and his violin receiver, both of 1874. also In the exhibit of the Socie*te* Gdnerale des Telephones were a large of historical apparatus of the very extended researches of number Among Ader. these was an old Reiss form of receiver, consisting of having a block of wood a simple electro-magnet secured to the one
The longitudinal and a handle to the other end. vibrations of this core, due to the rapid changes of magnetization. to the block of wood. It is said to talk very well. are communicated even without an induction coil in connection with the microphone

end of the

core

transmitter.
RECEIVERS.'

receiver of Ader, exhibited by the Societe* Ge*ne*rale is in the form of a des Telephones, is shown in Fig. 25. The magnet time as at the same circle, which answers Ader.
"

The

the handle of the instrument. On its two the soft iron pole pieces, poles are secured bins, are placed the bobaround each of which B forms
a

B.

The

case,

O, inclosing these,

resonant air chamber, closed at by the soft iron diaphragm, M M, the top is secured at its periphery by the which

trumpet-shaped

In the latter,and cap, E. but not quite close to the diaphragm, touching it, is secured a soft iron ring,

FIG. a5.-Adert

telephonic

receiver.

X X, which is called the exciting armature. The caps are of hard rubber, and a11 the metallic parts are nickel plated.
Two of these
are

usually used

in each installati

for each ear. one is the receiver which is used almost exclusively in all the in France; besides being very simple in contelephone exchanges struction it is an excellent receiver as such. It appears to be especially

This

With the exception good for the telephonic reception of music. X X, it is identical (except proporin of the exciting armature, tions) forms used in the United of the first commercial with one

States, and Company.

Double

exhibited
"

as

historical model
magnet

by

the Bell Telephone

receiver is in the form of a long hollow cylinder, split longitudinally and having its two poles at these edges, to which the two parallel soft iron pole by their coils, are attached nearly radial to the pieces, surrounded
one, cylinder. There are two parallel diaphragms, the two pole pieces, and the other next to the magnet, as

diaphragms.

The

in the Ochorowicz

usual, above and below the

ELECTRICITY.

123

at one point only, and having two holes coils,fastened to the magnet it, so as to allow it to larger than the coils which pass through These two diaphragms are connected together by a ring at vibrate.

their ontside edge forming a sort of flat box, which the augments In the form exhibited by Hutinet sound by virtue of its resonance. there are two separate diaphragms acted upon by the same magnets By means to increase the resonance. a short flexible tube of and mouthpiece be used as

Aubry

telephone may attached to the one in the rear, the same transmitter and receiver, for short distances. In the is very small and form with two diaphragms, the magnet of
a

closed horizontal ring having two projections in the inside containing the vertical pole pieces and coils. This ring is attached to the center of one diaphragm of German magnet silver.
light, in the form This will therefore vibrate together with the other diaphragm (which the is, as usual, magnetic and will reinforce the and opposite poles) It is said to be particularly sensitive. sound.

Concentric poles.
are

concentric, one form encircling it. of the

form

poles cylindrical core and the other of annular In another the magnet is somewhat like the letter S, the two poles terminating respectively in a
"

In

one

of the d'Arsonval

forms

the two

being

cylindrical core and an annular piece encircling it. In one of the has a Testor forms the poles are concentric, and the diaphragm to reflect the hole in the center below which is a concave reflector
sound. Polarized

diaphragms.
magnets,

"

In the

Colson

form

the

diaphragm

is

between
as

an

one of which polarizes it and the other acts diaphragm. In the Pollard form there are a numusual on the ber like poles at the center conhorseshoe magnets of small with nected to the soft iron pole pieces; the other poles are connected to is secured by its circumference. iron ring to which the diaphragm

two

In the Sieur form simply

ones

of a at the

the magnetic having bar magnet ends, which

disposition is similar, but it consists one pole at its center and two like
the outside edge phragm. of the dia-

latter touch

made and all of the last three groups of telephones were by de Branville " Co. (Frenchstation, gold exhibited medal). Almost
TRANSMITTERS.

Most of the above-described receivers are used also as transmitters for short distances on private lines. transmitters. Microphone The transmitter of Ader exhibited by is shown in Figs. 26 and 27. G the Socie'te'enerale des Telephones
"

first shows a complete telephonic installation, of which the isthe horizontal slab. The second is a view from below microphone the carbons of the microphone, up, showing and the induction coil. The

The microphone

consists of

thin

horizontal

plate of deal 2 milli-

124
meters

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

of soft rubber to deaden the mechanical to it from the apparatus. On the lower vibrations communicated diaphragm are side of this wooden bon, secured three crosspieces of carthick resting
on

frame

d, b, and

c.

The

twelve

cylindrical carbons, E E, rest loosely in holes in these cross forming twenty-four pieces,
contacts,

and

be conmay nected, four in series as shown, six -in multiple, or, by connecting which
one

lead to the center pieces and the other to the two end pieces, they may be coupled
two

in series and twelve in multiple. This is the transmitter

FIG. *6.-Ader"s

microphone

transmitter.

Front

view,

used almost exclusively in the ill France. telephone Service form is used also for The same

of operatic and concert music in Paris. In the microphone of d'Arsonval " Bert the rods of carbon have Opposite to these is a iron around their center. a ring of thin soft these loose carbons magnet which exerts a certain elastic force on the transmission

and which
some

is claimed of the

to prevent

able objection-

noises
accompany In the form

so often which the transmission.

devised

by Abare

dank-Abakanowicz

there

four little carbon disks which in vertical planes, loosely rest,

on

their periphery on a slightly inclined liat piece of

carbon on one side and against a thin piece of carbon on the The latter piece other side.

of carbon

wooden FIG. 27." Ader's transmitter. View fiom belo\ weight keeps them in contact The vibrations of the diaphragm tend to roll these up the with both. inclined plane on the opposite side,which keeps turning the disks so These four disks are conas to keep changing the points of contact. nected two in series and two in multiple arc. In the Lagache form
there
are

is on the back of the diaphragm. Their

passes loosely
are

short carbon bars hinged at loosely through hole in the a

on

carbon

plate.

end by a carbon rod which bars, their other end resting In the Maiidroux " Peequet form there
one
011

two

separate

microphones

the diaphragm,

each of which

has

KLKCTRK

ITY.

125
coil has
one

its own

independent

battery.

The

induction

common

It is said for each microphone. secondary and two primaries, one In the Van Kysselto be used especially for long-distance telephony. berghe form for long distances, the eight microphone all rods are in multiple arc to obtain as low an internal resistance as connected In the Breguet form there are six radial rods, all having possible. phragm, block in the center of the diaby one common one end supported
the other ends being supported around the periphery. Bell Telephone Company exThe American Powdered hibited carbon. between layer of powdered transmitter made of a a carbon
"

two

thin by

When

of platinum. has settled the powder

disks

It is always has become or

vertical position. ened packed it may be loos-

in

It is used in the United States on shaking the apparatus. form their long-distance lines. The Hipp (Swiss section) is very box is not quite filled,so that by turning like this, only that the much

This box is placed the material. ing inside of another box having a mouth piece, the axis of the disks beto that of the mouthpiece the inside end of ; over perpendicular there is a stretched membrane ; the the mouthpiece of parchment increasing both sides of this microphone, thereby act on sound waves
or

inclining

it

one

can

loosen

be used without an Up to 25 and 30 miles this can the actions. induction coil and gives excellent results. It is used in Switzerland form there are two parallel disks of carIn. the Berthon bon and Italy.
each other ; a portion of the space, separated slightly from by a cylinder of hard rubber, is filledwith grains of retort bounded in contact these come with the carbons ; on inclining the apparatus In the microphone form a microphone. of Wadeii upper plate and

(Finland section, bronze medal) there

of carbon

are

close together ; one is connected and vibrates with it ; the other is fixed. One of them has a number carbon of grooves on one side, in which are placed about fifty little

parallel diaphragms to the diaphragm proper

two

These cylinders 2 millimeters in diameter and 3 millimeters long. held in place by the grooves are contact and form the microphone between they are in an inclined position. the two. when
Ader long-distance

telephone. carbons

"

In the long-distance

Ader

there

are

two

but separated

from

one

secured another by a

telephone of together and to the diaphragm, short space, and insulated from
rests
a

each other.
of copper,

wedge-shaped piece contact with both of these carplated, making bons. One carbon being secured to the vertical diaphragm and the being some distance back of it,the line through the contacts is other When the diaphragm perpendicular to the diaphragm. vibrates it
platinum
increases
""ii

In the space between

them

of these contacts and diminishes that The current enters by this copper conthe other, and vice versa. tact divides into two branches ; these pass in opposite directions and

the pressure

on

one

through

the two

primary

coils of

three- wire

induction

coil, the

126

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

single secondary of which, goes to line. The effects of the currents be in the same sense will consequently fyom the twr; microphones the induction in the secondary will be proportional to their sum. and
ACCESSORIES.

The Switch boards. of subject switch boards is one of the few branches which are of interest only to a few specialists,and not to A description of such apparatus is therethe electrician in general. fore
"

of

which

interest unless given very completely with all details, be possible in this general report. Furthermore, would not
no
"

from published better able to study the tailed despecialists are subject and illustrated descriptions than they would be from a general It was, therefore, thought useless and brief report like the present.
to give here
more

than

mere

mention

of the chief exhibits in this

branch. largest and most complete switch-board exhibit was that of des Telephones. The exhibit included several Ge'ne'rale the Socie'te' sections, or "units," of a multiple switch board for 3,000 subscribers,
The

and is the type to be used in the Paris service. It is very complete Each of the 15 in all details, but is necessarily very complicated. sections forming the complete board for 3,000 subscribers embraces for each 100 sub200 subscribers, and requires two attendants, one scribers. attendant can connect any one of his 100 subscribers to any of the 3,000, directly as the terminals of all the latter are within his reach in his or in one of the neighboring sections. Trunk lines connecting the several central stations are connected to the Each central station is conas subscribers. nected switch board the same

Each

very

to each of the others, by a number of trunk lines; only in for one connectwo trunk lines be necessary few cases tion. would

All the circuits are double wire, or metallic circuits, but the room than if the circuits were switch board is said to occupy no more in the United States. All the as is usual or single wire grounded,

calls are
are

Lalande batteries battery calls;no magnetic ones are used. teen and twelve to fifused altogether, three cells for a microphone, for a call. Among the details are means permitting the attendant

in order to connect himself in multiple arc with a circuit in use is going on, and another connecto hear whether the conversation tion in series permitting him to hear and also to speak; also another

enabling him to find out whether interrupting the conversation, The Western Electric Company
a

trunk

line is in

use

or

not without

should it be in use. (United States

also exhibit section)

section of a multiple switch board for double wire circuits, such as is used here for the long-distance lines. It is, in general, similar to the one mentioned above, but differs in its details. Mandroux (French exhibited a simple board for fifty subscribers,

section)

for single line circuits.

ELKCTKICITY.

127
a

of switch boards for circuits. One of the characteristic features is that single or by means are of hooks at the ends of flexible made all connections There are one, two, or four of these at the end of each cords. depending the number on of connections to be made simultaneously.

Sieur

(French section) exhibited

double

number

its In the call of Sieur a brass wheel, with iron teeth on is made to turn so that the teeth pass by a polarized electromagnet. periphery, The alternating current generated is sufficient to produce

Calls.

"

audible several yards off. Zigang's electric trumpet at the bottom of a trumpet-shaped consists of a diaphragm tube, which is vibrated by the action of the electro-magnet, like in a
a

sound

in the telephone

self, ittelephone, the current being made and broken by the diaphragm in a bell. In the call of Sieur " Van Rysselberghe, the as telephone is used as a sort of relay to operate a local bell circuit. A of a sort of pendulum contact made resting against the diaphragm,
is in shunt circuit to the bell ; when the membrane vibrates, this a poor one contact becomes and the greater part of the current goes the bell. The vibrating current is produced at the sending through

end by

push

button

and

an

ordinary
OF

vibrating interruptor.

SYSTEMS

TRANSMISSIONS.

Several telephones

on

the

of the Societe Gen^rale metallic

circuit. In the system de Telephones, two subscribers

same
"

of Berthon, on the same

enabled to call each other without by a second call calling up the central office. This is accomplished button at each of these two telephones, which one connects of the lines with the ground, forming independent a the other circuit of A bell at the other subscriber responds to this metallic circuit.
are

(double wire)circuit

circuit, but the annunciator at the central station, being grounded The system of Ader perthe metallic circuit, does not respond. on mits the central station to call any one of the four subscribers on the same at the middle of the metallic circuit. The line is grounded

loop, leaving two

subscribers the central stations there are

on

one

four

At side and two on the other. battery; calls from a grounded

one

sends a positive current and another a negative current to onehalf of this loop ; the other two send a positive and a negative current to the other half of the loop ; the calls at their four subscribers of polarized relays, to one, and only respond, respectively, by means
one one a

of these currents. annunciator responds

In the Sieur system

to
a

for three

subscribers,

current, grounded loop. In the Sieur system for four subscribers, two on the metallic the annunciators of respond only to a weak current, one to a positive to a negative current ; the other two respond to a strong and one

negative

positive grounded current, another to while the third responds to a current

current,

one

to

positive and

one

to

negative

current.

128

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Telegraphing and telephoning

of Van

on

the

s^me

circuit.
"

In the system

Rysselberghe the telegraph, currents are made to vary gradinstead of abruptly, in which case they will not be heard in telephone; furthermore, their succession is insufficientlyrapid Vvt?jie cuit TkXproduce a note. This is accomplished by electromagnets in cirbetween the receivers and the line, and by condensers having
11 ally

by a condenser between the telephone of one-half microfarad, called separator, and the telegraph line ; two of these are used when the circuit to the telegraphic is metallic. These condensers form a screen Up to 200 currents, but allow those from the telephone to pass. kilometers (125 tances miles)iron wire can be used, but for greater disbronze wire is essential; the size varies from 2 millimeters for
one

of their poles to line and

one

to ground
a

; furthermore,

250 kilometers, to 5 millimeters

for 2,000 kilometers.

is used in France Rowen,

on

interurban

telephone

This system lines between Paris and

and on also used in many the United States. there is an induction coil with three circuits at each station. The current primary ; the two secpasses through the one ondary microphone in series and close the end of the loop of are connected coils One the metallic circuits ; this completes the telephone connections. is grounded and the other passes to the end of the telegraph circuit

Havre, Lille, Rheims, and 4,600 7,466 kilometers (over

others ; also Paris to Brussels, It is of miles) lines in Belgium. including countries in Europe and America, In the Maiche system for metallic circuits only,

junction of

the two secondaries, and thence through both in multiple to the two lines,which latter are therefore in multiple arc as arc line ; the currents in these two branches of the telegraph line one then pass through the two secondaries in opposite directions, and
at the receiving will therefore have no influence on the primary the telephone receiver. Trials were station, which contains made in 1885 on several of the long-distance telephone lines in France. Private telephone systems, for priDomestic telephone systems. vate houses, factories, etc., are developed to a very much greater in France than in the United States, due to the fact that there extent
"

patent there to interfere or to make such use by high royalties. Exhibits of such telephones practically prohibitory in the French section. They are as a were very numerous battery or microphone. telephones, without rule simple magneto
is
no

fundamental

but without induction coil. There is .with microphone very little special interest regarding them, to be described here. of In the exhibition building of Operatic telephone transmissions. des Telephones, there were Ge'ne'rale a large number the Socie*te of

Some

are

"

telephones connected

with the opera house, and several other places was where the entertainment of amusement entirely of a musical nature, as distinguished from that in the theaters. The system was a double one, there being two microphones on the stage by the front

ELECTRICITY.

12*9
were

footlights, one by independent

to the right and

one

to the left; these

connected

circuits, each to a series of telephones at the receiving listener had two telephones, one on each circuit. station ; each There were line. The about twenty to thirty sets of these on one
were

being a number all underground, and metallic, some long. The transmission was remarkably perfect and clear, of miles by-sounds. The and there was an entire absence of the objectionable for instrumental as well as vocal transmission was equally good a person skilled in orchestral music could not only distinguish music ;
circuits

readily between the string and the wind instruments, but could even distinguish between those of the same class,as for instance between a flute and a clarionette.
MISCELLANEOUS.

To

an

American,

one

telephone exhibit was forms of apparatus,

features of the whole of the most prominent the very large number of modifications in the having the

it making for the persons more convenient using it. Especially interesting were those exhibited by the So-

general

object of

ciete Geiierale des Telephones. Among these may be mentioned desk form shown in Fig. 28? the lation. which comprises a whole instal-

be moved

rollersand may about at will. The forms the top slab microphone of the apparatus, and is slightly inclined ; the two telephones
are

It is on

the receivers; the small push button in front is the call (battery call) Another convenient form known as the Berthoii form
.

FIG. 28." Telephone G6n"rale

apparatus ; by the SocietS des T"l"phones.

is shown

in Fig. 29, in which the receiver and transmitter together by a convenient handle so that the former

are

connected

ear while the latter is at the mouth screws. altered slightly by

adjusting

is at the the relative positions may be ; The call button and switches

comprised in the small wall fixture. This form is used largely for desk work, or on the person shipboard, or in general, when talking can not remain in a fixed position in front of a fixed microphone.
are

which

In another form the receiver was attached to a long handle his elbow while holding the appato rest ratus. enabled the user In some two small ornamental the wall instruments of

brackets, each having a small cushion, were fixed at the two sides to enable the listener to rest his two elbows while of the apparatus H. Ex. 410" VOL iv 9

130
holding

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

AT

PARIS.

In another form the apparareceivers to his ears. tus by a small writing tablet for taking notes while was accompanied listening or talking. In another, the trumpet-shaped ear pieces of the two the receivers hard rubber,
were

made of thin soft rubber in place of the usual it much more making comfortable for the listener, for
were

long conversations. Among other exhibits

complete installations for use on shipboard. These were inclosed in tightly fitting
were

iron boxes, and

especially well insulated the switches a^id calls were against moisture; so arranged as to obviate the use of a central
station, each operator other directly.

being

able to call any

also a large number of exhibits mestic telephone systems, such as for doof private purposes, for factories, large establishments,
were

There

by the necessary etc., accompanied annunciators person and calls, to enable one to call any other directly. In general, there
great exhibits of this kind showing in the adaptability and use progress of the telephone abroad, progress which can not be
were

many

looked for here in the United

States, the birth

fundamental

place of the telephone, until the broad patents have expired.

Apparatus

for divers.
there
was

"

In the French

naval

department devised
divers.

by Auger

exhibited an apparatus for the use of submarine

It consisted essentially of two small flat spring telephones united by a curved, the head and held the which passed around telephones
to the
ears.

To

the

same

was attached a microphone, which was held in front of the mouth. The Societd Ge'nerale des Tlieatrophone.
"

spring thereby

Telephones
Marinowicz.

exhibited This was complete

the
a

theatrophone

of

but
FIG.

very

somewhat ted complicatelephone republic ceiving always connected

29." Berthon's apparatus.

telephone

with

station, which transmitter at

was some

operated into a slot, which (10cents) silver piece After five minutes the mechanism circuit. automatically cuts it out. is introducing these in Paris, and provides a continuous A company at the transmitting musical entertainment station.

It was

musical entertainment. by dropping a 50 centimes the telephone in puts

ELECTRICITY.

131
was

Telephonograph.
graph

"

In the

Edison

exhibit

shown

telephone-

which consists of an automatically acting phonograph attached for the purpose to a telephone a telephone receiver, of recording in the case is present to no the phonograph one on when message it can then readily be rethis phonograph record receive it. From produce the person for whom when ic transmission. lelephonograph
"

similar described under belongs.

returns. A different system, though devised by Lambrigot, in its dbject, will be

it was

intended

somewhat

found

the heading
it may

"

telegraph," to which

it more

properly

In this connection

winter into an it
was

be of interest to call attention to an experiment the Franklin Institute, in Philadelphia, in the exhibited at in which a cornet solo was l$88-'89, by Mr. Hammer, of played in New York city; from the phonograph Edison phonograph
by microphone received by
over
an

transmitted where it was

recorded
so

as

on phonograph; another to be audible to an audience

phia, metallic circuit to PhiladelEdison motograph receiver and from this it was then reproduced
a

of several

hundred

people

in

moderately Cryptophone.
" Berthon
a

large lecture hall.

"

to enable

devised by Henry the cryptophone, department building, is and exhibited in the French war a distant building or person to keep watch secretly over
of object
or

The

district. the ground

It depends

cryptophones and
is
a

for its action on the vibrating or trembling of The walls of a building caused by a moving object. proper consist of delicate contacts connected to microphones
at the receiving

situated at the respective places.

sort of annunciator
are

The cryptophonoscope station to which the microphones

Any connected by separate wires. vibrations at the to ring an alarm and the respective annunciator cause microphone By means the watchman then can operate a drop. of telephones listen to the nature
purposes. Telephone
a

of the noises. The

It is applicable chiefly for military

Electric Company

exhibited telephone bullet probe and induction balance, for locating the position in the human body. The a bullet or other masses of metallic is called Dr. Girdner's, and is said to have been invented apparatus by Professor Bell; the balance is known by the name of Hughes. The balance is for the purpose the part of the body of determining
"

bullet probe.

Western

under below

which the bullet is, while the probe is for finding its depth A well illustrated, though scriptio the skin. not very technical, deYork Medical Journal, April 9, will be found in the New
for measuring

1887.

"

the electrodynamometer Measuring instruments."

For

telephone

currents,

see

132

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAEIS.

III." ANNUNCIATORS,

ALARMS,
AND

BELLS,

LIGHTING,

ETC.,

MISCELLANEOUS

CLOCKS, GAS TIONS. APPLICA-

ANNUNCIATORS.

the large number in the of exhibits of annunciators French into use almost as much section, they appear to be coming there as in the United States. Although there were ferent difnumerous forms shown, there is little interest to be described here. of the ordinary forms of the mechanism the of annunciators, force required by the movable is the magnet, greatest armature of it is farthest from its magnet, in which position the magnetic when
In

Judging

from

hibited and exmore fore rational and thereThe armature is connected by a requires less battery power. spring lever to a small hammer which strikes and trips the signal disk just as the armature is about to touch its magnet ; that is, at its force is a maximum. the moment It has no work to do when by Postel-Vinay, this disposition is
force is greatest, when until the magnetic impact. accumulated
An

force is smallest. This disposition is evidently not the most In the annunciator devised by Abdank-Abakanowicz one.

rational

the hammer

acts by its

for hotels exhibited by the Western Electric Company was (United States section) provided with return calls, by the receipt of every call can be announced means to the of which The push buttons sender by a return signal to the respective room.
annunciator
on

the annunciator with

a

were

furthermore

arranged

in

circle,and

were

arm which, when moved around in the buttons in succession. The circle,will press each of of object this is to sound a general fire-alarm signal throughout the whole hotel and in each separate room This lever arm, and corridor.

provided
a

common

lever

being actuated by a strong spring, need merely be released, and will then continue automatically to ring all the bells in succession. The system requires a double circuit for each room. In several of the annunciators exhibited in the French section between two magnet turning were polarized armatures poles used to turn the signal disks. Reversing the current, by means a pushof button in connection with the annunciator, back again sets them
ready for the next call. The chief advantages claimed are that they less likely to get out of order than those having are drops and be reset from a distance. A disadvantage catches, and that the dials can is that two magnets are required for each dial in place of
one.

Among
was

other annunciators
a

was

the call

registered on a counter. annunciator, small electric light was dial whenever a call was respective transparent

in which the number of In another, called a night automatically litbehind the

one

received.

ELECTRICITY.

133

There Fire annunciators. indicating by automatically

"

were
an

exhibited a number of devices for ing. alarm the presence of fire in a build-

Most
known Among

of these were slight modifications of the usual and wellforms, and are not of sufficient interest to be described here.

in which a small spring was held back one fusible metal, which, when melted by the by a plug of some readily heat, allowed the spring to expand and thereby to close a contact. Stillsimpler and more practical is the form exhibited by J. Hutinet the simplest
was

(French section), which

consists simply

of

of two small copper wires very composed which is insulated from the other by a thin coating of soft rubber, the two together being then wound with cotton, covered with rubber, desired color to or an silk of any exterior coating of cotton and

insulated wire heavily tinned, one of

double

drapery, or furniture 011 which it is to be the papering, A fire will melt the rubber separating the two wires, and placed. by virtue of the thick coating of tin will solder the two together, match The wire may closing a circuit and ringing an alarm. readily be run through any desired parts of the building without being noticeable, and thereby affords a very cheap and simple protector.
thereby It has the disadvantage that it requires the direct action of the flame to actuate it, but this is in many no cases great objection for by the fact that it can readily be run is partially compensated and It has the additional advantage in any desired parts of a room. that it can not, like many others, give a false alarm, and there is it directly with the fire department connecting of a city. It is less than one-eighth of an inch in diameter and is quite flexible; it is sold for about 1 cent per foot, and is said to require only fifteen to eighteen seconds to fuse the contact between therefore
no

to objection

In mounting the wires. by means of which

"

be connected to a small push button, can one themselves of the at any time assure the whole system. proper working conditions of Burglar Messrs. Chubb " Co. (British alarm. section, bronze alarm attached to a fireproof safe. The rings an alarm if the door is opened or if the wires are with in any way, either cut or short circuited. The general
a

it,it may

medal) exhibited
apparatus

burglar

tampered

bridge, principle of the circuit is,as usual, that of a Wheatstone in which the wires at the contact on the door form one of the arms;
any

disturbance of the balance of the bridge will ring the alarm, it will continue ringing until stopped at the bell itself. The and constant current for the bridge is said to be very small and requires
is said to be independent only one cell ; the apparatus of variations in the strength of the current of this cell. A galvanometer needle is in working attached to the apparatus shows whether all order on

for a number Although setting the alarm. providing of different it does not appear to cover cases, the case of the bell wires or the battery wires being cut ; the battery might be put into the safe, but

134

UNIVEKSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS,

the bell must necessarily be outside. For illustration,see Industries, June 14. 1889.

description, with properly

not

good

Railroad

signals.

"

This branch

belongs

more

of railroad engineering,
report.

and

is therefore

to the subject included in this

References. For
"

the

subject

cellaneous recording and indicating apparatus, see "Misbelow. See also references at the end of applications," "bells." of
BELLS.

the large number of exhibits of electric bells little those of special interest. Among and appliances, there was Louis from the usual forms of bells was an differing exhibit of

Notwithstanding

the principle was that the contact breaker did not break the circuit until the armature had received the touched the magnet ; that is, until the armature in the usual form of vibrator this is not full force of the magnet ; begins to the armature as the circuit is broken as soon The advantages claimed, and probably justly, approach the magnet. more too, are that the force is utilized much completely, or in other
the
case, as

Borel

(French section, bronze medal),in which

The armature work. words that a smaller battery will do the same does not break the circuit directly as usual, nor is it connected to the it is pivoted so as to be free to move, hammer; and when close to the it strikes, with the full force of its accumlated magnet energy, the latter in moving breaks the circuit ; this which pivoted hammer,
to be used in the position in which enables the force of the armature The external appearance this force is a maximum. of the bell is The also of interest as a complete departure from the usual forms. is in the form of a large acorn, hanging on a penwhole apparatus dant

part of this

the ceiling or from an. ornamental bracket. The upper is the bell proper; the lower part contains the acorn the leads being the suspension. mechanism, Bonnet two (French exhibited a bell having clappers from

section)

striking it in different parts and thereby producing two different and distinct sounds or signals ; by means of a three-point push button

these two

together, producing a third distinct signal. In the electric trumpet devised by Zigang and exhibited by Basthe bell was replaced by a small vibratsee-Crosse (French ing
can

be rung

section),
on

diaphragm
magnet
was

at the base of

directly By
means

interrupter.

The armature a small trumpet. of the the diaphragm, which contained also the the pitch of the note an screw of

adjusting

guished emitted may be altered slightly, thereby enabling it to be distinfrom a second one in the same It is said to require room. less battery power, as the energy required is said to be less. The decided and penetrating, sound is said to be more it is used largely as a railroad signal.
for which
reason

ELECTRICITY.

135

Another

devised

some

Reichmanii
requires
no

" bell," is one magnetic call bell of interest, called the and exhibited by years ago by Abdank-Abakanowicz, Its chief point of interest is that it (Russian

section).
The

bat'tery.

current

is generated

by

means
a

of

small

permanent of consisting simply magneto, alternating-current a horseshoe magnet coil of fine wire, which is fixed to a small and flat spring so as to be capable of vibrating to and fro between stiff To generate the current all that is necesthe poles of this magnet. sary a conis to snap this spring, which is readily done by means venient of handle;
momentary
magnet.

the coil will vibrate for a few seconds, generating a the poles of the current every time it passes between The receiver, or bell, consists simply of an electro-magnet,

with bell.

to strike the polarized armature, which contains the hammer There is no interrupter, as the current is an alternating one. The whole is of extremely simple construction and is not likely to Bells were ited exhibget out of order. The sizes are almost unlimited.
a

structed while others are said to have been conAs the electromotive force generated is 3 feet in diameter. the very high (inthe small sizes it is said to be about 75 volts), bells distance. They are used largely for railroad be at a very great may
18 inches in diameter,

work,

calls. Push buttons and door-bell pulls are arranged so as to snap the spring by the action of pressing the push button or pulling the knob of a door bell. References. A few other exhibits closely allied to this of
as

also for telephone

"

subject

have been referred to the o calls, bells, and annunciators subjectsf belong. they more "telephony," "telegraphy" properly where and See, also, " Miscellaneous applications." below.

ELECTRIC

CLOCKS

AND

TIME

DISTRIBUTION.

properly to the class "Watches exhibits belong more N in (classo. 26), which most of them were exhibited. clocks will therefore not be described here.

These

and
They

"

The

following

interest here.

be of of the exhibits may data re(French section)ives the following g garding in his clock. The distributing or the battery power used
notes Reclus

regarding

some

electrically, requiring every half minute a current of 400 milliamperes for one-twentieth of a second, which hours per makes a consumption of 57 coulombs per day, or 6 ampere it about 3 years. The the Leclanche cells will, therefore, run year;
master

clock is wound

up

receivers, which are also run electrically,require 125 milliamperes 180 coulombs every minute for about 1 second, making per day, or hours per year. 18.25 ampere He states that a good Leclanch^ can

deliver 350 to 400 It is therefore

coulombs

He

not the total capacity of the cells he gives

per day without sensible polarization. output per day. overworked with 180 coulombs
uses

as

90,000 to 150,000

136
coulombs,
18 months.

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

and

that therefore the cells will

system

run

the receivers about

In the Gardiner

Government
master day which
a

exhibit),

of time distribution (United States section, by the United States Naval Observatory, used

every

current to line at noon clock sends a momentary pendent, sets the hour, minute, and second hands of the inde-

how
hours.

or no matter supplemental, controlled clocks exactly to noon, they have varied during the previous twenty-four much by an ingenious pin and cam This is accomplished motion on

the hands, which is actuated by the current, and which moves all the hands to 12 o'clock and immediately again, each releases them ment supplemental clock being complete in itself. This correcting attachmany clocks already in use, and they can be to the many set by merely connecting them about noontime circuits It is in through which this noon current is sent from Washington. lines covering more than 50,000 miles of practical operation over may

be put onto

territory, and is said to be the only system accepted and adopted by in all the Department buildings at the United States Government It is stated also that time is sent from their lines to Washington. Spain via Havana.

well-illustrated and detailed description of the well-known Hipp's system of electric clock and time distribution in eastern in Switzerland (exhibited the Swiss section, gold medal) see La Ge'nie Civil, March 24 and 31, 1888.
For
a
.

The

small transmission the

Horate'le'phone " exhibited by Sal vaing (Frenchsection, honorable is intended to replace the expensive tower clock in mention) hamlets and villages, by a small clock which by electrical
"

will strike the

any convenient

hour
tower

hour) on

and half hour bell in a church

(by repetitions
tower
or

of

public

building.
GAS
LIGHTING.

as not numerous, exhibits in this class were such apparatus, in the United States, is used very littlein France, so very common owing greatly to the fact that gas is used much less in private houses than it is in the United States. Oil lamps are preferred by many,

The

even

by the wealthy. Some ingenious devices

were

of them The apparatus turning the cock. was simple and could be atof tached to any burner, plain or Argand, it and the end of between The turning of the cock lights a small auxiliary flame the bracket. flame, and which is again to light the main which is long enough is turned off when the other is turned on full. The objection that the gas flame can not be turned down partly without causing a leak from this small flame.

(bothFrench). One

exhibited by Ne'e and also by Giraud for lighting a burner by the act was

Also, that

in this

as

well

as

in other forms

ELECTRICITY.

137

of this device, it is possible, by leaving the cock partly turned, to keep the battery short-circuited, a case which is not possible in the ing forms. A modification of this was shown, for lightusual American ble from a short distance by means of a rubber bulb and small flexia

tube, the air pressure from which turned the cock by means of forming part of the mechanism. small piston neous Reference. For electrical ignition in gas engines see "Miscellaapplications," below.
"

DOMESTIC

APPARATUS.

devices were exhibited for various purposes, minor mostly either of the nature chiefly in private houses, but they were One of the most of playthings, or of littlenovelty or importance. Numerous
common

conveniently small low resistance battery or accumulator in a box having a contact key, a small spiral of fine arranged taper touching the latter. On pressing wire and a small wax platinum
was a

the key the current lights the taper. From lit. These

appear large number of exhibits. very high price of matches

MISCELLANEOUS

heats to redness the coil of platinum which this a candle or another taper can then be to be used largely in France, judging from the This may be due to in France.
APPLICATIONS OF
a

great extent

to the

ELECTRICITY.

Under
which

this heading small currents

will be mentioned
are

required, as which currents of greater quantity are required, and which therefore lamps, motors, etc. which see belong to the same class as dynamos, It will be noticed from the for such miscellaneous applications.
,

only those applications in distinguished from those in

following
very

numerous

applications
many

largely and in very substitute for other means

or as

that electricity is coming different ways either as would

means

into
a

use

simple

which
an

auxiliary mechanical apparatus, have been done otherwise. not

GAS ENGINES
WITH

require very complicated for doing what could

ELECTRICAL

IGNITION.

engines by an of the gases in gas and petroleum into use more ing electric spark appears to be coming generally, judglarge proportion in which from the this of engines exhibited

The

ignition

There were way is preferred to the gas-flame ignition. exhibited different systems of gas and petroleum engines, counting twenty-one the various different exhibitors of the Otto engine as one exhibit. Of these, thirteen (or62 per electrical ignition, and only used

cent)

eight (or38 per cent) used the gas-flame ignition. following Historical. The the history of abstracts regarding electrical ignition are taken from a paper of Mr. Delamere-Debout"

138

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Engineers teville, read before the Institution of Mechanical July 3, In 1844 John Reynolds heated by means 1889. a platinum wire used mechanical contact maker the current at the proper moment. stopped in place of an electro-magnetic generator of
santi and the
a

battery.

and breaker started and In 1850 Shepherd used

a

battery.

In

1857

Bar-

the

de

used a Bunsen from which were sparks la Rive multiplier by a

Mattenni

battery, with a de la Rive multiplier, In 1860 Lenoir replaced used. Rhumkorff

'

induction

coil.

The

primary current the spark when

passed
was

was continually, and the secondary closed There was difficulty in timing the required.

wire is apt to become platinum cooled at the moment it can of the passage of the gases, and not be timed besides requiring considerable battery power. It therefore sharply, to be abandoned. seems All the engines exhibited used the spark.
"

spark exactly. General. The

heated

the gas flame appear to be chief advantages of the spark over its very high temperature, which is of importance, especially when poor gases are used ; it is independent of cold or moist air ; it reduces the temperature of the valve chest and parts, and thereby facilitates lubrication of those parts and does away tions with incrusta-

The

formed
timed, which
a

there ; in is claimed

considerable The disadvantages one-twentieth of a second. of using electricity in place of the gas flame depend upon the particular system used ; in the ordinary mechanicgeneral it introduces something with which
is not familiar.

of the systems it can be very definitely to be very important, as there is said te" be difference in the power if the time of ignition varies
some

here divided, for convenience, use ignition electrical for gas ignition, showing that they can only, having no means rely In all but one the spark is made to pass in entirely upon the spark. the cylinder ; in the other it is in a special chamber. The insulation the parts entering the cylinder are variously of porcelain, plaster of
systems exhibited into four classes. All, in common,
"

The Classification.

are

asbestos, in order to stand the heat and the mechanical pressure of the explosions. First system. In the first system a battery, generally two or three
or
"

of Paris,

large Bunsen

korff cells, is used with an ordinary Rhuminduction coil having a simple hammer vibrator ; the vibrator the time while the engine is running, and the spark acts all of the is operated by various means. In all of these the secondary coil two fixed points in the cylinder. The adspark passes between vantages this system over the others is that there are no some of of
or

bichromate

parts entering the cylinder ; that there are numerous sparks the others ; and that generated instead of a single one, as in some ofthe spark can be well timed. The disadvantage is that the vibrator moving

ELECTRICITY.

139

acts all the time, which, is bad for the contacts of the vibrator, and battery power continually. consumes Details." In the engine exhibited by E. Roger (French section)
the secondary open at a sort of switch outside of circuit is normally the cylinder, which is operated by the moving parts of the engine, instant the spark is required for the explosion. and is closed the When

the switch is closed the only break in the secondary in the cylinder, where the sparks are therefore produced. that no premature explosions can take place.

circuit is It is evident

Freres and In the engines of Louis Charon and those of Solomon is continually shortthe secondary Tenting (French section) circuit circuited outside of the cylinder, except the instant when the spark Premature is required. not take place unless this explosions can dirty. They used two large short-circuiting switch is exceedingly

cells. Those

differ essentially from Powell (French section) of Thomas the others, in that the spark passes continually in a spark chamber, ignition is to take place When which is closed by the slide valve. this spark chamber a port in the slide valve makes communicate with

the cylinder, thus igniting the gases. They millimeters, or about ^ inch.
can

accurately is probably There more the slide valve. possibility of premature "sneeze." as in the flame-ignition engines, causing it to explosions, They use only one cell of two carbon plates in bichromate solution,

be

more

length of the spark is 1.5 tion claim that the instant of igniand definitely timed by these ports in
The

the zinc being in sulphuric acid in a porous cup. In the second system a battery and induction coil Second system. are used as before, but the primary circuit, instead of the secondary, The vibrator, therefore, acts is closed when the spark is required.
"

only while the primary It has the same power.

battery circuit is closed, thus economizing as the first system, advantages except that

it is necas the spark is not so definitely timed, and is not so sure, essary itself and responds promptly ; to do that the vibrator starts it must be well this a adjusted,nd its contact must be very clean ; it if is difficult, at all possible, to clean it while running.
this class belong Frangais, A. F. Xoel To des Moteurs

the engines
au

(French section),

d of the Socie'te'es Moteurs a Gaz A and of the Socie'te'nonyme

Pe'trole et au Gaz (Belgian section). In these the primary circuit is operated by a contact piece on the part, and a brush sliding thereon, usually shaft or other moving The one exhibited by in order to time the spark. made Inexplosibles

adjustable
Freres

was a double-cylinder et Cie (French section) engine, in addition to the above there was a second contact piece on the and revolving shaft connected to the secondary circuit, and having two

Rouart

brushes, the

of object

which

was

to

switch

this secondary

circuit

140

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

alternately to each of the two cylinders. They used only two large used as one-gallon bichromate cells. The frame of the engine was a ground-return rents. circuit for both the primary and the secondary curis used to In the third system a magneto Third system. machine of the generate the spark without an induction coil. The armature from revolving usually a simple Siemens H armature, is kept magneto, it is revolved by a strong spiral spring. For each explosion its shaft through 90 degrees against this spring and allowed to on snap back to its normal position, during which rapid return motion An instant after the armature it generates a momentary current.
"

the is released, and at the moment when its current is a maximum, there a single bright circuit is broken in the cylinder, producing The advantages are that no battery is required, there is IIQ spark. coil with a vibrator to keep in order, and it is always ready to start;
the high rate of rotation necessary to generate the current is produced the engine is required by a snap movement, no great spBed of be the case if a dynamo was as would used in place of a at starting, is that only one A disadvantage spark is produced in magneto.
as

place of
more an

number

powerful

objection.

in the other systems, but as it is a much spark, and quite positive, this does not appear to be In this system there must be moving parts entering

of them

as

the cylinder to break the current there. The engines of Gotendorf " Co. and of E. Delahaye
were

(Frenchsection)

of this class. In the latter the exact time of the spark The engine of W. C. Home be by may adjusted a cam movement. belongs to this class. It differsfrom the other (British also section) is normally in the stable position into two in that the H armature which the magnets would pull it, the spring assisting it to return to this position, while in the other two the normal position is the unstable position, in which it is held against the magnetic pull by
the spring, which must, therefore, necessarily be much stronger. two steel springs in the cylinder, between The spark is produced of a rod passing through a stuffing-box. This operated by means

rod has

rotary notion instead of a longitudinal one, the construction of the fireproof stuffing-box. Fourth system. In the fourth system a dynamo
a
"

itating thereby facil-

turning

all the time, generating the current, which cylinder directly without a Ruhmkorff coil. The disadvantages of this system are that in starting the engine sufficient speed must be produced by hand before the dynamo will generate sufficientcurrent
to produce a spark. In the engine of E. Durand neto magis used, generating Both wires are an alternating current. insulated ; that is, the frame of the engine is not in circuit. The circuit is broken in the cylinder by a revolving rod, as in the engine No self-induction coil is used. of Home.
a (Frenchsection) small, simple

is magneto is broken in the

or

ELECTRICITY.

141
current

In the Baldwin
by

Gas Engine

the (UnitedStates section) dynamo

is

a small shunt-wound of about one-eighth generated It is driven directly from the fly wheel by a friction horse power. by its own There are weight. pulley, the pressure being produced for high two friction pulleys of different sizes. The smaller one,

speed, is used only for starting. There is a self-induction or spark coil in circuit, and the circuit is closed except when the spark is The breaking of the circuit is operated by an insulated required.

It pin passing into the cylinder and having a longitudinal motion. in the cylinder to keep the contacts is difficultin this arrangement the tendency of this particular construction is clean, especially as to destroy its own contact.
MINE BLASTING.

classes of electrical mine blasters the low-tension class or those in which the ignition is caused by a heated wire, and A special the high-tension class, in which it is caused by a spark. by the French Government in 1888 to examappointed ine commission
There
are

two

"

important the matter of mine blasting reported that there were to the objections the high-tension caps, and that they recommend to use of those of low tension. The chief objections those of high following : The impossibility of exploding the caps tension are the perfectly insulated, the difficulty of making unless the leads are them all alike, and the danger of igniting the fire damp should there be a leak from the wires. Among the exhibits of the low-tension class was one of Manet chief advantages claimed are the simple and solid construction of the caps, their cheapness, and the fact that by virtue of their construction, they are all absolutely the same is entirely by machine. The caps are of a glass tube containing which by
a

(Frenchsection).The

the chlorate of potash powder (notgun a cotton),nd closed through which pass two metallic pins, to the inside wooden plug is soldered
a

ends of which
one-twentieth

fine platinum

of

millimeter

wire 0.377 inch long and i (0.00197 nch)diameter; the leads are

pear connected to their pins ; the resistance of a cap is 3 ohms ; they apto require from one-third to two-thirds of an ampere. The exploder

small hand dynamo weighing only 22 pounds ; the size is It has an electromotive force of only about 10 by 8 by 8 inches. about 80 volts. It is a self-exciting series machine, and is turned by An automatic switch ata crank and a train of four gear wheels. tached to the dynamo the current into the external cirwill switch cuit
is
a

It is able to reached the proper strength. explode eighty fuses without a line resistance, or twenty with a line The line resistance is proportioned so that resistance of 4 ohms. the total external resistance is the same, for any namely, 64 ohms
it has

the moment

number

of fuses up

to twenty.

The

diameter

of the leads must

142

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

therefore be chosen in accordance with the distances, which is The advantages of the dynamo not withorut its

ture feaare

objections.

that it is independent is always

of the state of the atmosphere, The dynamo includes a the same. exactly by means the continuity of the circuit may be of which tested before proceeding with the explosion. Burgin (Swiss section, bronze exhibited a small and very

and its current bell-testing appliance,

medal)

purpose, with the high-tension spark means of which either a addition of a be produced by different internal concan a low-tension or current nections is automatically The dynamo the dynamo. switched of by a magnet in the main cirthe circuit at the proper moment cuit. onto

conveniently

arranged switch by

hand

dynamo

for the

same

exploded in the presence of the writer through hands. joint resistance of four persons in series joining
A
cap
was

the

Breguet,

Ducretet,

and

others

exhibited

mine

exploders

of

the

by with soft-iron pole pieces surrounded old form of a steel magnet coils, the spark being produced by a sudden tearing off of the armature Scola " Ruggieri (Frerch produced by a blow with the hand. of these with the additional improvement laminated, by which the induction and that the soft-iron cores were increased. therefore the capacity of the apparatus was

e section)xhibited

one

ELECTRIC

ORQANS.

Historical.

one

firstapplication of electricity to musical instruments having a keyboard is said to have been conceived more than hundred years ago by a priest from Nivernais, named Jean Bap"

The

it was to be applied the record unfortunately it was, presumably, does not state ; a mere The real vague prophecy. to have history appears begun in 1867-'68, when Englishman an
tiste Laborde,

but how

Barker, aided named the firstelectric organ

barrister named Peschard, constructed in the church of St. Augustin Paris. The at
a

by

gan principle appears to have been simply to open the valves of the orby electro-magnets the circuits of which were pipes closed by keyboard. did not prove very satisfactory, This contacts at the

to the large battery power required, not only in the number of cells, but also in their capacity. Messrs. Schmoele " Mols, To overcome this important

owing

objection

ingenious relay system, called the electrowas system, in which the function of the electro-magnets pneumatic not to open the valves themselves but merely to open a small aperture air used to blow under the valves, which admitted the compressed the organ, which in turn opened the valve ; thus the force required
an

of Philadelphia,

devised

by the magnets was very small, the actual work of opening the valves the mechanism for the different stops being done by the and moving

compressed

air with which

every organ

is already supplied.

ELECTRICITY.

143

there is a contact conIn general in an electric organ nected key and stop of the keyboard, and a wire for each with each to the respective leads the current stop mechanism pipe or and directly there, which in turn operate directly or inactuates electro-magnets

General.

"

The advantages the pipes and stop mechanism. of electric by purely mechanical means are as follows : those operated organs over between the keyboard The only connection and the pipes being by
be and the pipes may of electric conductors, the keyboard placed any desired distance apart, and either of them may be placed or building, irrespective of in any convenient part of the church
means

the other is placed ; the same several different organs, separately switch putting the battery on where

keyboard
or

both together ; or there may be may ; the keyboard This electric conductor takes the place of and by a flexible cable. levers, pins, wires, and angle dispenses with all the complicated the keyboard with pieces, which are otherwise necessary to connect
the

means ple of a simthe other organ or either one or for the same be several keyboards organ being connected merely about, moved

may together, by

also be used for

which, being very complicated, are apt to get out of dryiiess, and dust, causing to be affected by moisture, order and The force required by the player in depressing variation in their action. the stops, being merely to close a the keys and moving
pipes

and

small contact, is practically be brought into as small can it easier for the player.

nothing.
a

The
as

compass

stops, etc., desired, thereby making

keyboards,

Organ
It

exhibited.
was

"

There by

exhibited section), inventors, in accordance with the patents of the American and made in two " Mols. The organ Messrs. Schmoele was parts, proper board the single keythe two ends of the upper gallery, while placed at floor below. The system was in the center of the main was
that called the electro-pneumatic system mentioned for opening The mechanism Valve mechanism.
"

was only one electric organ at the exhibition. Messrs. Merklin " Co. (French

and be briefly described as for working the stops may the mechanism of follows : The valve is attached to the movable part of what might be termed a small pair of bellows directly below it, and in the same
The compressed presses on air normally air chamber. compressed both the inside and outside of this bellows, and, therefore, does not is simply to open a it. The action of the electric magnet actuate bellows, allowing the inside to communicate small aperture of this
air on the outside with the open air ; the pressure of the compressed of the bellows consequently closes it, and being attached to the with it a sort of valve of the organ pipe, it pulls it open, forming is thereThe force required by the electro-magnet balanced valve. fore
very

above. the valves

small ; the

armature

weighs

only

gram

(15grains) and

144
its movement

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

is only 1 millimeter (faof an inch). All the mechanism heavy, is actuated in the same of the stops, no matter how way by a sort of bellows, larger in proportion to the work they have to

do, and controlled electrically by a very small magnet. Contacts. As the current used is very small the contacts may be They made very simply. consist of small, flat springs of German to the lever of the key, and slide over are a silver, which attached fixed contact piece, thereby cleaning themselves each time they move.
"

in which the valves were older systems of electric organs so opened directly by the magnet, the currents necessary were great that the contacts had to be made with mercury ping cups and wires dip-

In the

into them. said to be sufficient for a large organ and will not need attention more in sevthan once eral In one of their organs at Lyons four of these cellswere years. ing used ; the box containing them was not opened for three years, dur"

Battery.

Five

Lalande

"

Chaperon

cells

are

time they did not fail once. The cost of recharging them is very slight, amounting, it is claimed, to only 40 to 60 cents a year. Cost. The cost of these electrical organs is stated to be the same

which
"

as

that of mechanically

operated
MELOGRAPH

ones.

AND

MELOTROPE.

gold medal, for this exhibit alone) a set of instruments exhibited in the class of musical instruments The and melotrope. called melograph objectof the former is to an accurate make and permanent record of what is being played

Carpentier

(French section,

The special piano. of object the melotrope is to mechanically this music 011 any other piano from the record of the reproduce duplicates of the same. or from The melograph melograph operates
on
a

electrically as follows: A contact is secured to each key of a piano; these are connected by wires to the melograph conproper, which sists a corresponding a set of number of electro-magnets, operating ink-writers, which record a series of parallel broken lines. The of relative positions of the lines of this record, therefore, indicate the pitch of the notes, and the lengths of the lines indicate the time or length of the note. For a range of three octaves, or thirty-seven
of paper, about 4 to 5 inches wide, having for thirty-seven parallel lines. This band of paper is made to room or ink- writer at an pass through the melograph absolutely constant by means a rate of speed of small electric motor and an ingenious mechanical duplicates From this melograph regulator. record any number of in the form of a band of stiff, are then made, tough paper, in through them, corresponding rectangular holes punched
on

notes, the record is a band

with

position and length to the marks are sold in the market and The latter is a small rectangular

the original record. plicates These duare ready for use in the melotrope. box, placed over the keyboard of

ELECTRICITY.

145

fly wheel and strikes the keys any piano; it is operated by a crank and is passed in at one by means of pins. The perforated band of paper is purely mechanical, and end and out at the other. Its operation For therefore does not come within the scope of the present report.
a

very

good
see

apparatus,

and fully illustrated description of the whole set of 1887, No. 53, p. 651. La Lumiere Electrique, Vol. xxvi,
AUTOMATIC
WEIGHING MACHINE.

tric called the Spelgrove elecby Messrs. W. " T. Avery (British machine, exibited weighing the sliding weights on in which the operation of adjusting section), was the steelyard or beam automatically by electrical performed is to combine the accuracy, The means. of this machine
Among

the weighing

machines

was

one

object
great

scale with the capacity of, the lever or beam All that the operator self-indicating advantages of the spring balance. to be weighed the platon to do is to place the form needs objects dials when the on the of the scales and read off the numbers
reliability,and
to rest. steelyard has come the As the construction of the automatic apparatus for adjusting so than is more weights is very complicated and intricate, perhaps description of the principl than a general necessary, nothing more

of.this operation will be given here. In Engineering, June 21, ing there are some good working drawings of one of these scales, differdescription, however, only slightly from the one exhibited; the is not very clear. The general construction of the scale is that of the usual platform

scales, having two sliding weights, one small and the is on the The whole large. of the operating mechanism other beam itself. This is an essential feature. At the free end of the beam beam,
are

in place

of

the

usual

stops
one

for limiting
one

above and electrical contacts, the weights to advance on the beam, causes the upper one closing them to recede. One or the other of these conthe lower one causes tacts be closed as long as equilibrium has not will therefore always if it to rest, even been reached, and the mechanism will not come

two

below

its movements, the beam;

has made

mistake, until the beam rests between the contacts, when In a scale for 500 kilograms the equilibrium has been reached. itself in steps of one-half kilogram up to small weight will adjust in steps of 10 kilograms up to 10 kilograms, and the large weight
a

500.

The

weights adjusting
the beam.

are

electric motor on placing the goods to be weighed, for instance 86.5 kilograms, on theThis up and close the upper contact. platform, the beam will move starts the motor, which pushes the small weight out to the extreme On arriving at the end of the beam end; registering 9.5 kilograms. it closes another contact H. Ex. 410" VOL which
iv
-

They

pushed forward by a small fixed In. brought back by springs. are

causes

the large weight

to be pushed

10

146

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

out in steps of 10 kilograms, until overbalance is reached, which in this case would be at 80, therefore registering altogether 89.5 kilograms.

This

causes

the beam

to tilt and

turn relieves the small weight, escapement until exact balance is reached at 6.5 when the beam will rise,open the circuit, and rest between the two contacts. On taking off the load, the beam fallsand closes the lower contact, which releases it arrives at zero, closes a contact the small weight, which, when from this, that there that releases the large weight. It will be seen the large weight too should the machine make a mistake by moving be to bring both back to zero and make far, the automatic action will them start over The weights can not again from the beginning.
come

to close the lower contact. This in back by a step-by-step which moves

has been attained. A weighing to rest until equilibrium is stated to require from six to twelve seconds, while two to three seconds for the return of the weights to zero. For ordinary are required work,
a

intermittent sufficient. A number

battery of large Leclanche' cells is said to be

come of difficultiesin an electric scale of this sort are overby the ingenious idea of making first, the small weight move to the extreme the large weight out the beam, then moving end of

and finally moving required position. This operation in by hand.

to overbalance,

backwards to the the small one is the reverse of the natural one
a

adjusting

Scales weighing up to 1,000 pounds adjustto Those for 40,000 pounds one- tenth of 1 per cent. that is,to two-tenths of 1 per cent.
While
to
come

pound,

that is, to
8 pounds,

to adjust

the machine in its present form is probably too complicated into use very largely, the principles are good and will doubtless
of
FOR

admit
MACHINE

simpler construction.
AUTOMATICALLY WEIGHING OFF AN

EXACT

AMOUNT

OF

YARN.

The
an

of object
exact

the machine

is to weigh

amount predetermined in the form in which otherwise, by Mouchere, in the French section, in Class 54
or

off rapidly and with precision to wind it into balls of yarn and it is to be sold. It was exhibited

(Appliances and

Methods

of Spinning

and Rope

Making).

It consists essentially of a pair of scales, an apparatus for feeding the yarn on to the scale pan, an apparatus for stopping this feed at for winding the measured the proper time, and a machine amount
of yarn into a ball or any other desired form. The yarn is placed in skeins, as it comes from the spinning machine, two reels or rollers above the machine. The thread upon jaws like those of a vise; passes loosely between a pair of smooth

thence between
into
a

a roller and light cylindrical box

an

idle pulley resting is the of tin, which

'

on

it, and

finally of the

scale pan

weighing

scales.

ELECTRICITY.

147

of a chain gearing and a large wheel this roller is turned hand or by other rapidly (by power) and pulls the thread of yarn off the skein and into the box as long as the idle pulley rests against the

By

means

tin box into which the yarn is thus fed is on one arm of is placed the required the other arm a pair of scales, on of which On the weighted end of the scales there is a wire dipping weight. into a mercury an a cup, thereby keeping electrical circuit, from roller.

The

"battery or small dynamo, closed, as long as there is not the required In this circuit there is a powerful elecamount of yarn on the pan. tro-magnet
the armature of which is secured by levers to the idle described above. As soon as the weight pulley and vise jaws of the is being fed on to the scale pan, is sufficient to counteryarn, which

balance

the weight on the other arm of the scales, the tilting of the cup and thereby scale beam opens the electric circuit at the mercury of the magnet releases the armature which in turn raises the idle from the feed roller, thereby stops the feed, and closes the pulley

vise jaws,which then hold the thread securely at the required point. An empty scale is then put in place of the one which is full; and while the second quantity is thus being weighed off the firstis simultaneous into a ball by a simple winding wound apparatus attached

operated by the same machine. The success to be due to the fact that the the machine seems of but are two are not one and the winding weighing and the same, The precision with which the yarn can thus successive operations. depends evidently only on the sensitiveness of the balbe weighed ance
to and
a circuit when the required weight of opening is reached, the apparatus be arranged to close a circuit,, thus might But the latter would have the disadvantage current. economizing fail it would not render that should the current, from any cause,

used.

Instead

itself evident,

as

in the

reverse

arrangement,

in which, if the current

fails, it stops the feed.

KNITTING MACHINE
IN

WHICH

THE

DESIGN

IS

PRODUCED

BY

ELECTRICAL

MEANS.

Among

Emmanuel

colors, was to the ordinary which

an a

the weaving was one and knitting machines exhibited by Buxtorf in which the design, in two (French section), produced by a very simple electrical contrivance attached
machines. It is
a

very
a

good
to
a

example
machine

of

case

in

very

simple electrical attachment

will perform

to very complicated apparatus which would require do mechanically, if it could be done at all. The machine is for making hosiery, material like that for jerseys,

operation

etc. which
,

is made

in the form

thread, which is knitted 011 a continuous circular movement to the way in which a stocking the knitting mechanism of similarly is knit. The design of two colors is produced by using two threads being of the two colors side by side, in place of the single one,

of by

cylinder, and is woven

of

single

148

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

the equivalent of a single thread the two sides therefore practically led to the needles side of which are colored differently. These are hides the other, therefore making one by side, so that one of them side of the material one color and the other side the other color. By the relative position of these two threads a merely interchanging design of two colors is produced, the one on the back being the negative design of the face. of the This interchanging of of these two threads is effected by means a small electrotwo light guides, which are moved by an armature magnet, of which is attracted or released according as one or the other face of the material. The current for colored thread is to form the the suris made or broken by a contact- pin sliding over the magnet face the design has been a small rotating brass cylinder on which of
Whenever painted with thick shellac or other insulating compound. This design cylthe pin passes over the shellac the circuit is broken. inder the cylinder of mateis rotating in exact correspondence rial with has a corresponding is being woven, axial motion, and also which on the design cylinder so that the position of the contact-pin

corresponds being woven interchanged

exactly to the place into it. The exact

on

the material where the thread is the threads are to be place where

corresponds, therefore, to the place where the current is made or broken by the design of shellac on the brass cylinder. By design will rotating this design cylinder two or three times as fast, the in two or three places, respectively, on the material; be produced
the axial motion by increasing or diminishing inder of the design cylthe design will be shortened or elongated, respectively, on the material, producing quite different effects. The original design is evidently not limited in any way as to its
to the nature of shape, outline, irregularity, or simplicity. Owing the weaving, the color on the back of the material shows through the face slightly less definite and lightly on the face, making

prominent.
a colored thread into such material was The operation of weaving limited to geometric but it was done before by mechanical means, in the colored thread rendered patterns, and the mode of weaving the material inelastic.
LOOM
ARRESTER.

the electrical devices for automatically stopping a spinning machine and weaving when a thread is broken, or in general when a were of number any fault arises in the process of the weaving, devices exhibited by Radiguet, (Frenchsection, class 55). The action
Among
a is, in general, that any fault or failure in the weaving will cause The action contact to be closed which actuates a small, light magnet. is simply to trip a small lever, which therefore requires of this magnet The releasing of such lever puts into only a very small current.

action

more

powerful

mechanism,

which

shifts the belt and stops

ELECTRICITY.

149
small
is sufficient to current The apparatus more furtherso

By this means the machine. actuate the necessarily heavy

cuts the current

very

off

as

soon

mechanisms. as the mechanism

avoid

waste
can

of current.

It is furthermore

has operated, to that the arranged

workman inventor

using in 1865. He the earliest workers in this field,having begun 8,000 looms are already fitted with these devices. that over
TRICYCLE.

The not start the machine until the fault is repaired. instead of prefers to employ metallic circuits throughout, to have been one frame as a return circuit. He seems the of

claims

construction, flexible rim, which was operated by a with spring spokes and duction sort of gas motor, the gas being ignited by electricity from an. inbattery. There was nothing novel and a small primary important about the electrical portion of the apparatus. or
MACHINE

Millet

(French section)xhibited e

tricycle of peculiar

FOR

VOTING.

Debayeux

(French section,

honorable

mention)exhibited
to

voting

The voter moves a one pointer opposite of a vertical machine. Nothing more be ascertained list of names a lever. could and pulls the exhibit. about
ELECTRIC LOCK.

Piret and also Le*monon (bothFrench) exhibited an electric lock for a door, which enables the door to be opened from a distant point It is an attachment to replace the metallic part by a push-button. the bolt of the lock passes, and the jamb of a door, into which on

the therefore be adapted to any existing lock without changing lock itself. An electro-magnet trips a lever which opens the side of this catch, enabling the end of the bolt to pass out through the side
can

A spring the bolt of the lock. withdrawing in public buildings, as slightly. It is for use for instance for the exit doors of factories or prisons, the fire exits for theaters, etc. Also for the front door of houses divided into

without unobstructed the door open pushes

flats, etc.
RECORDING
AND

INDICATING

APPARATUS.

Numerous
or

for automatically registering electrical devices were shown indicating at a distant station various meteorolgical observations, direction of wind, rainfall, etc. ; also temperature, as such

the level of water in reservoirs, the rise and fall of tides, etc. Such belongs more apparatus rology, properly to other classes, such as meteoinstruments of precision, engineering, etc., for which see the
reports

of other experts.

150

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAEIS.

IV."
ELECTROPLATING

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
AND

GALVANOPLASTICS.

General.

"

The

deposition

of thin coatings

of metal

from

their

than scale more solutions, by electrolysis,practiced on a commercial by the exhibits to have reached a very is shown thirty years ago, The improvements more high state of perfection. made recently

have been chiefly to improve the adherency, of the coating, to vary the nature of the coating, to increase the list of and appearance the metals and alloys which may be so deposited and on which adherent be made, to coat insulating materials, to depositions can
those metalscolor with the oxides of metals, etchings, etc. Among are platinum, zinc, exhibited which formerly presented difficulties tin, iron, cobalt, arsenic, black oxide of iron, brass and bronze, as metals to be deposited, and zinc as metal to be coated. Galvanoplastics, or the deposition of thick, self-sustaining into use a very largely on commercial of metal, is coming
masses

scale, for the manufacture and reproduction of ornamental, artistic, chiefly these are historically interesting metal goods ; important among or busts, statues, solid silver goods, and reproducthe productions of tions iron, such as iron in their original metals, even of antiquities,
armors.

Electro-metallurgical processes, for reducing the metals from their the are ores, scale. Among also being developed on a commercial in this class were three electrical processes for obtaining exhibits
aluminum,

for obtaining pure iron from iron Other electrical processes belonging to this class included scrap. for bleaching, and one for for making one sulphate of copper, one liquors. purifying water and
one

for zinc, and

one

With the exception of two of the metallurExhibits by countries. gical in the French section. While the exhibits were processes, all they were probably not as complete as might be desired to show the full state of the art, yet they were convery interesting and showed siderable
"

development.
DETAILED

DESCRIPTION.
are

The
some

confined to a summary of interesting exhibits. the processes are in alof the more most kept secret, it leaves little to be described here, more all cases As
a mere
"

following

detailed descriptions

than

mention of the principal exhibits. By Christofle. far the finest exhibit of electroplating and that of Messrs. Christofle " Co. (French noplastics was

galva-

section),

who

in the whole electrical section who received est the high award of 'grand prize. They are the oldest and larghave house of the kind in France, if not in the world. They
were
one

of the few

ELECTRICITY.

151
if any

carried the art to

state of perfection which, few

others have

reached. Their exhibit of reproductions of works of art and antiquities in their true colors and metals, by electro-chemical means, was one of the most interesting portions of their exhibition and appears to be lifewere their exhibits of reproductions their specialty. Among size statues of copper ; others of bronze and other metals and alloys;
in reproduced solid silver ornaments and articles ; old steel armors iron directly; and many other articles,from the most delicate to large the exhibits of electroplating were samples and massive pieces. Among known stable metals and a number of plated with almost all

different tints. Samples of etching, oxidizalloys of shades of many ing, by oxidizing, aging, and other effects were also shown. coloring interest is that of superficially bronzing a copper Another process of statue by plating it with a coating of zinc or tin and then heating it,whereby the zinc or tin will alloy with the copper, forming brass
or

bronze

on

the surface.
"

in copper of a bust, a hollow reproduction Their process of making in detail. The in one that is, without a joint was shown piece is made of gutta-percha and forms the mold or cast of the original
"

retaining vessel for the solution; the anode is a thin foil bent so as to be roughly the form of the inside, but considerably smaller. This
anode is of lead, not of copper, the metal which is deposited being that obtained from the liquid only, which must therefore be renewed. In the silversmith
making

department made

artistic solid silverware

beautiful exhibit of very Such processes of electro-chemically.

a

they had

of advantages solid silverware have a number ornamental by hand, giving exact reproductions of the original and over shaping being quite rapid and cheap. They have made many similes copies or facof historical antiquities from the originals, and with their for museums true appearances, and art schools. There were besides Christofle a number Other exhibitors. of or less importance. this class of more other exhibitors of articles of
"

fine exhibit of sulating ornamental work and of depositions of the precious metals on inagate handles, vases, substances, such as glass ornaments, deposited as a thick etc., on which the metal, silver for instance, was

C. M. Ri valid

(French section,

bronze

medal) had

layer and afterwards carved away decoration on the glass, it being a

its shape,
as a

in designs, leaving

secured
a

the metal as to the glass by virtue of

large number

band, for instance.

of articles insulating substances, electroplated of vegetable, animal, and other for preserving them or for ornamentation. Among these were natural flowers, leaves, mosses, insects, laces, ribbons, hats, plasgrasses, ter
statues, wooden

L. Magniny

(French section) exhibited

and

more

or

furniture, wicker baskets, and many esting other interless useful articles. Some of these materials are

152
very

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

to difficult plate, not only on account of getting the firstmetallic the insulating substances, but also because many coating on of
are

them

apt to swell and

warp

when

in the bath.
a

fine exhibit of aristic decorative work, including depositions of different colors of alloys, oxidations, frosted finish, etching, inlaid work of different colored

G.

Bajou (Frenchsection, silver medal)had

metals and enamels. Claude Lionnet (French section, silver medal) exhibited a large sition copper statue, once and a half lifesize,made by electro-chemical depoleathers ; also negatives, in the form of rollers, of ornamental for pressing imitation leathers. A. Gaiffe (Frenchsection, silver
articles electroplated The cobalt with cobalt, nickel, old cobalt, and old nickel. resembles very much the more usual nickel, but is said to have some The old nickel and old cobalt finish presents a very other properties.

medal) exhibited

fine appearance. J. Pe'rille (Frenchsection, silver

iron and steel direct by
a

medal) exhibited

nickel-plating

on

perforated with numerous anode is dissolved better.

"

He uses special process. anodes of nickel large holes, whereby it is claimed the

Iron oxide plating. Among the novelties which may be of considerable is a process exhibited by A. de Meritens " Co. importance for (French section) electroplating with black oxide of iron, on iron revolvers, and many other articles. It and steel goods, such as rifles,

black, glossy coating, which, being already oxide of iron, does not rust, and forms an excellent and ornamental The promised description of the process was coating. not received by the writer ; it is probably a deposition and not an oxidizing at
forms
a

very

hard,

From the expense of the metal, and it is said to be a rapid process. it is a far better coating for iron than theoretical standpoint a creases nickel-plating is, as the latter, by its electro-chemical affinity, inthe iron be slightly exposed. Plating without current. A. A. L. Levy (French ited e section)xhibarticles,such as steel pens, beads, buckles, and other small, cheap in a hot metal goods, nickel-plated directly by simple immersion

the tendency

to rust should
"

nickel solution without

very Plated

The process is exceedelectric current. ingly the coating of nickel, though necessarily simple and rapid, and thin, is bright and tenacious, and requires no burnishing.
an
"

Henry " Co. (French section, silver zinc. ited medal) exhibin which various metals and alloys were deposited on articles zinc directly, which was said to have been difficultto do formerly. Accessories. Delval " Pascalis (French the are who
"

section),

successors

for his work in electroof Roseleur, who is well known chemistry, had a large and fine exhibit of goods for electroplaters. Among in the form of a pair of an other accessories was apparatus balances, by means of which spoons, forks, etc., were suspended in

ELECTRICITY.

153
when
ratus appa-

the

silver bath, and which

the required weight of interest was constituted its own copper, in which
was

opened the circuit automatically Another of silver had been deposited. bath, for armatures, a copperplating
It consisted of
a

which

battery.

porous cup placed in in dilute sulphuric acid. The article to be plated was suspended to the zinc; this forms a the copper bath and connected shortbattery, the current of which deposits copper on the article circuited

of sulphate of containing a bar of zinc

bath

immersed.
MISCELLANEOUS.

COLORING

ELECTRICALLY.

section, gold medal) claims to be one of iron and steel directly on a comthe earliest to have copperplated mercial He claims to to electroplate with other metals. scale and in electroplating. have been one of the firstto have used the dynamo

Frederic

Weil

(French

already well known. His exhibit was chiefly of articles electroplated with the lower oxides very brilliant colors, chiefly blue, green, red, of copper, producing The colors are bright and clear, the process being used and yellow.
His
processes
are,

however,

mostly

old and

iron Articles of any metal or alloy, even chiefly for ornamentation. and steel,may be thus colored directly and very rapidly at ordinary Any one temperatures and in a single bath. color or a variety of at will. It is stated that piece can be produced colors on the same the coating is not exceedingly thin, as is often supposed, and as is This may be shown by the the case with the lead-oxide coloring. fact that if an article thus coated by his process is treated with hydrogen into metallic copper, the coating is converted nascent which thin.

has the true color of copper,

REPRODUCTION
OF

and

can

not, therefore, be very

ENGRAVINGS.

P. E. Placet

(French section,

become
pictures,

an

important photographs,

silver medal) exhibited what may in making advance plates for printing from It is a direct engravings, etchings, etc.

process, reproducing

in general the illustration is then exposed to is photographed on a gelatine plate, which the action of light and other similar treatment we (etching, believe), leaves it with the illustration raised or depressed. On this which is then deposited electrically a negative of a thick coating of copper,
a

and The

requiring process is, to

all the so-called "half-tints" of photographs, "touching or up" by hand. absolutely no engraving
great extent, secret, but

from

be printed directly. The prints shown were may very which beautiful reproductions, and were in the minutest perfect remarkably hiliodelicate details. The process is termed gravure and most
graphique.

154

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

ELECTRICAL

PRODUCTION

OF

SULPHATE

OF

COPPER.

interesting process, for which great expectations are held, is one exhibited by Messrs. Perreur- Lloyd et Fils (French section, bronze An

medal),for
stored and
copper

the manufacture

of sulphate
as a

process in which

electricity is produced sold. The process is simply

sulphuric
as a

of copper by a by-product

an

electrical be and may

consumed The cell consists of metallic copper in residue. copper sulphate forming the negative pole plate, not the positive as sulphuric acid, usual ; the positive pole plate is a plate of carbon in a porous cup and acid
containing : The

are

battery in which in discharging,

metallic forming

nitric acid. On discharging copper is dissolved, forming

lows the cell the action is as folcopper sulphate; the nitric

acid is reduced

is set free as a gas; in to nitrous oxide (NO) which order to regain this nitric acid the gas is led through chambers containing fragments filledwith steam and hot air, by which it of coke and is again oxidized to nitric acid, which is then used over again. Theoretically,

is copper, sulphuric acid, therefore, all that is consumed heat, while the products gained are sulphate of steam, air, and some copper and electricity. But in practice there will probably be other developed is, however, comparalosses. The quantity of electricfcy tively
great ; for instance, for every pound of copper dissolved there hours of electricity generated ; the electromotive 385 ampere are force is said to be 1 volt, and the useful difference of potential may

then be about 0.5 volt, at which

rate 192 watt hours

are

generated

for

to 0.388 effective every pound of copper dissolved, which corresponds horse-power hour per pound of copper, or about 2. 6 pounds per gine. effective horse-power hour, or about like coal used for a steam en-

Owing

to the low voltage, however,

be necessary for charging a single The retaining cells are made set of accumulators all in multiple arc. of lava, being cut out of a solid block, which is said to be necessary,
the cells must be heated to about 160" F. and must stand the action It is claimed that the the hot acids at this temperature. of process is much cheaper than the present method of making sulphate
as

of cells to develop a It is intended probably but even then about five cellswould

it requires a large number high voltage to be used directly. sufficiently for charging in multiple arc, accumulators

of copper. commercial

It appears scale.

to have

been started only quite recently

on

BLEACHING.

The

Hermite

"

Cooper

son process was exhibited by Patter(British and section), by Darblay Pere et Fils, paper electric bleaching

(French section).The process consists essentially of elecmakers composit trolyzing a solution of chloride of magnesium, which, by direct deand attending chemical reaction, produces at the positive
electrode
an

oxide

of chlorine which

remains

in solution in the

ELECTRICITY.

155

is a powerful it is said, hypochloric acid, which liberated at the negative pole. This is bleaching agent ; hydrogen is then used to bleach the materials, which reaction simply liquid consumption reduces this hypochloric acid ; there is, therefore, no

liquid, forming,

liquid may be used over again repeatedly chemicals and the same one The process is a continuous ; the 5 per cent solution the electrolytic bath is passed through of chloride of magnesium continuously ; from there it passes through the bleaching bath, from
of the it is then pumped which loss is the liquid which

back

The only into the electrolytic bath. by the bleached is retained mechanically

material, and which hours. twenty-four

iron tank having
a

to from 6 to 10 per cent in is said to amount The electrolytic bath consists of a galvanized flow perforated supply pipe at the bottom and an over-

are

In this tank there pipe for the electrolyzed liquid at the top. a large number tive. of parallel plates, alternately positive and negain frames of The former are made of thin sheets of platinum

rubber to stiffen them ; the negatives are round disks of zinc, which are kept revolving slowly and have scrapers attached to clean form on them ; these zinc plates, being the may any deposits which

hard

negative

solved. is liberated, are of course not dispoles where the hydrogen from 1,000 to 1,200 amThe current peres, used for each bath is from 6 to 7 volts, requiring, therefore, about and the potential
The
one

10 to 12 horse power.

makers

guarantee
as

to bleach

as

much

per

twenty-four

with In a published estimate of calcium. chloride of the relative costs of the old and new method, it is stated that to do the same bleaching as with 1,000 kilograms (2,200 of
apparatus

hours with

can

be done

grams 100 kilo-

(220pounds) of

pounds)

volves chloride of calcium at 230 francs ($44.0) requires power 5 and intogether to 102 francs (about a loss of liquid corresponding the total cost of the latter less than one-half; this does $20), making
not, however,

include

number

materials which can not be bleached by the ordinary process, as jute,or instance. f It is already in use in a among several in Boston. of establishments which are number
Very

of purposes, to be capable of bleaching stated

interest and amortization. chiefly, it appears, for paper

It is used for a bleaching: ; it is

in La
xxxi,

good and well illustrated articles on this process may be found Lumiere Electrique, Vol. xvm, 1885, Nos. 48 and 52 ; also Vol. Internationale de 1'Electricite, 1889, 1889, No. 4 ; also Revue
vin,

Vol.

No. 88, p. 144.

TREATMENT OF

LIQUORS.

there was In the exhibit of A. de Meritens " Co. (French section) uors for treating water, wines, beers, and other liqshown an apparatus with an alternating current, for the purpose of purifying them It conby destroying all living organic matter sisted contained therein. a row tubes connected at their tops and bottoms of of vertical

156

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

in such a way that the liquid enters at the firstand flows through In these tubes are numerous perforated plates each in succession. two apart, which are alternately connected as positive and inch or an

attached to an alternating-current current, therefore, traverses the liquid machine. It is these tubes. repeatedly while the liquid is flowing through destroy all living organic matter claimed that this treatment will
negative
are

electrodes. These The alternating

dishes were spoil. Two had been treatment .after In the former there was quite a allowed to evaporate to dryness. large quantity of mold, and in the latter merely a stable sediment of a fine powder. and that the liquid thus treated will not liquor before and in which some shown
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.

section)
aluminium

the following exhibits : Lei range In electrometallurgy there were Freres (French for " Co. (French section) obtaining zinc ; Bernard for aluminium Anonyme by the Minet process ; Socie'te'
a

pour Tlndustrie

1' Aluminium

(United

States

(Swisssection)Cowles process for ; Placet (French for section): section)

refining iron by electro deposition from its solution. The latter operation, the inventor claims, can be done for 1.3 cents per pound ; he suggests using such iron for the manufacture of steel by fusion

with cast-iron, and for other purposes in which pure iron is required. As all these metallurgical processes belong more properly to the department of metallurgy rather than to electricity,the reader is referred to the report
on

that section.
BATTERIES.

PRIMARY

GENERAL.

Among

the very

improvements
some,

though

a number exhibits in this class were of interest and showed were and modifications which of The field being already so not very great progress.

many

for any very great progress ; studied, leaves littleroom in details of construction that shown was and in slight, mainly in the elements of the cells. improvements though not unimportant, The exhibits of powerful batteries showed that electric lighting thoroughly batteries is not only possible but also practicable ; primary its best it must stillbe considered a luxury on even at account though if all of the facts and figures given by one of of the expense, the exhibitors are correct, it has been reduced to the very low cost
but of one-tenth of from

consumed
everything. for domestic

cent per candle per hour, for labor and for material ; or two-tenths of a cent per candle hour, including Although this is stillbetween three and four times the
a

cost of gas, yet it makes

electric lighting by such

means

practicable

purposes.

ELECTRICITY.

157
are

very thorough researches of Renard resulting in his obtaining what is undoubtedly

The

interest, of some the lightest battery

in batteries were in the details of of the improvements differing essentially from the old wellconstruction ; the only one In the Leclanch.6 type known types is the Lalande and Chaperon.

made.

Most

the tendency

appears

to be to diminish

the construction, and in the latter direction improvements. The

to diminish

their resistance, to cheapen the attendance required by them ; the so-called dry cells are the chief among

Daniell cell was by the absence of conspicuous ; with the exception of Callaud's well-known any improvements improvement the solutions, it gravity to separate of employing to have originated as an almost perfect cell. appears
Processes for purifying zinc, and for the utilization of the residues One of the interesting novelof batteries are also being developed. ties the electricity is a by-product, the a battery in which was

object

sought who

for being the residue, namely, Conspicuous by their absence were

sulphate of copper. the inventors so often their batteries than

claim to obtain

under

energy theoretically perfect conditions.

more

from

met, is possible

This

alone is a proof

of progress. Exhibits by countries. The exhibits of primary batteries were almost exclusively in the French section, the only exception of note
"

exhibitor. to the diversity of applications of the different be attempted here, other than that cells no classificationwill those usually intended for great power will be described first and those for small currents last. Such a classification is, necessarily,

being by

one

English
"

Owing Classification.

of the firstgroup are almost exclusively and modifications of the bichromate of potash type of cell,and the latter of the Leclanche* type.
only
a

very general improvements

one.

Those

BICHROMATE

OF

POTASH

CELLS

AND

THEIR

MODIFICATIONS.

zinc-carbon The construction presents some couple, with porous cup. points of interest, the being to obtain great surface of electrodes, small object distance between the plates, small quantities of liquid, renewed continually kept in continual circulation. The and automatically and

The

Gendron

cell

(French section, bronze

medal) is a

and for small powers. Details. The box made of sheet iron, the inside and outside with hard rubber, which renders on covered it perfectly acid proof, while the box is light and strong. The porous bent around jaris a narrow parallel vessel with parallel sides,
"

battery is intended

to be used for lighting jar is a low, rectangular

to itself repeatedly, somewhat in parts of which (seven

like

number)
porous
one,

are

broad, short letter S" ^ne long straight and parallel, forming

practically several to act so as another

narrow

as

with one cells communicating there being narrow parallel spaces

158
between the

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

each two bottom over

for
a

carbon

plate.

The

porous

cup has
a

hole at
cock
of

of the seven zinc plates is made of a number of rectangular pieces of thin sheet zinc, well amalgamated and afterward form one thick plate amalgamated secured together so as to its whole mass. The cure of this is to sepractically throughout
"

special construction Zinc plate. Each

in the one corresponding to drain off the liquid.

jar, with

object

amalgamation zinc and to be able to use the cheap, impure These zinc plates are held in their porous cups, at and commerce. of by their edges, by a three-sided grooved frame, the open side being

good

at the top. may

zincs are thereby held like a slate in its frame and be replaced. This frame is made of copper, well amalreadily gamated, the contact between it and the plate is made by means and

The

of the mercury.

many
zincs

evident
are

This simple mode of supporting the zinc plates has ; besides being readily replaceable, the advantages

and consumed, and the contact is always The liquid is dilute sulphuric acid. clean. good and Carbon plate. The carbon plates are placed between the parallel portions of the porous cup as well as on the inside of the four sides completely
"

immersed

of the

jar,being
"

mitered
is

to hold

them

in place.

The

liquid is bichromat

connected with each cell, the cisely of object which is to draw off automatically the old liquid at preliquid is being added, so as to the same rate at which the new The liquid which keep the cell from overflowing or being drained.
a

Drain

of soda. There pipe.

drain pipe

passive is heaver than the fresh, active liquid and sinks tom, therefore lead it off at the botto the bottom ; the drain pipe must time it must not allow the level of the liquid while at the same

has become

to change.

To fulfillthis condition it is made tubes, having an annular space between

of two vertical concentric them ; the inside one

is open bottom

height of the liquid and leads out at the top at the normal is open bottom of the cell, and the outside one through the at the

level. The overflow, therefore, and is higher than the normal takes place from the bottom of the cell. There is one of these The supply of fresh drains inside the porous cells and one outside. liquid takes place in one corner of the cell and the drain is in the diagonally
continually and the porous The opposite through
cup.
are
corner,

thus

the winding

the liquid to circulate the plates parallel canals between

requiring
two
a

liquids

battery.

These though
tube

supplied tanks are

by lead tubes from

filled by
means

tanks

above

the

of

very

rubber

not new. laid in the

a

suitable guide ; circumference,

wheel

consisting of a acid pump, form of a semicircle and supported by a its of slightly less diameter has rollers on in rolling over

genious, simple and instrong flexible

each of which

this tube compresses

it

ELECTRICITY.

159

pushes the liquid forward, similarly to the mechanical body. action of the intestines of the human A cell 18 inches square Size and capacity. and 6 inches high, the zinc plates being about 5" square feet, active surface of the seven

and

thereby

"

gives about

2 volts

on

showing The bronze

an

0.02 ohms.

apparent The normal

Automatic

of polarization) discharge is 30 to 40 amperes. rate of Electrical Corporation, limited (English section, complete lighting.
a

on open circuit and 100 amperes internal resistance (including

short circuit,

medal),exhibited
battery for house
"

combination
compact

primary primary
are

and

secondary

Details.

comparatively

small and
charging

battery is
from

automatically the lights are

and

continually

mated amalgarequired. supplied when in dilute sulphuric acid in a porous cup, and carbon in zinc The fresh liquids are supplied by of soda. solution of bichromate

accumulators, The elements

which

holes in the bottom canals and the spent liquids are led off through The drainage of the cells,closed by valves of special construction. and refilling are operated electrically, every twelve hours for the acid solution and every three hours for the bichromate solution. A clock The jars hard rubber ; the reservoirs are starts this operation. of of sheet iron, lined with lead. Output and cost. The battery exhibited is said to light ten to twelve lamps of 10-candle power six hours per day, allowing 25 per cent loss in the accumulators, and to cost $100. The zincs last about
are
"

week.

The

cost of running,

per 1,000 watts

a

(by which
a

watt

hours

probably meant), taken from about 50 cents, divided as follows

are

acid, 4 cents; zinc, 12 cents; At the rate of 2 watts per candle this would correspond to 500 candle hours, or 0. 1 cent per candle per hour, which, for a 10-candle lamp, in London A company to install one cent per hour. makes undertakes and run the battery, supplying everything, including the wiring for ten lamps, charging at the rate of 1 penny (2 per hour per cents) lamp, which is certainly very cheap for incandescent lights 10-candle
primary liquid used.

of reliable authority, is Bichromate, 20 cents ; sulphuric : 1.2 cents; labor, 11.5 cents. mercury,
report

from

batteries.

They

use

as

sort of meter

the quantity

of

Renard
great

In their factory they utilize the residues. battery of some importance, cell. Another owing
"

to the

small, light cells,is that of Commander illustration (French section),hown in the accompanying s (Fig. 30)and called the chlorochromic cell, or the tubular battery, on It is at present used for small portaaccount of its appearance. ble
power

developed

from

Renard

table lamps,
was

the battery being

suggested France." It is, 110 General

to be

in the base of the lamp, and it " La used to propel the great military balloon doubt, the lightest battery ever made.
"

description.

The

class, in which

be said to belong to the bichromate cell may the bichromate of potash is replaced by

160
free chromic hydrochloric

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

acid, and the sulphuric acid partially or entirely by cylindrical acid. The cell consists of a long, narrow, The negative electrode is a conor ebonite. centric retaining cell of glass tube, usually made of a very thin sheet of platinized silver ; The positive electrode is a long, thin rod it may also be of carbon.
of zinc, concentric with The general arrangement this silver tube

of

and insulated therefrom. battery with twelve cells is shown in

Fig. 30.

Fia.

30." The

Renard

battery.

Solution. A very thorough scientificand practical research seems to have been made to find the best proportions for the battery solution to study its behavior. here only Of these results we and give
"

The tests are probably quite relithe most important able. conclusions. chloric By replacing the usual sulphuric acid, part for part, by hydrofound that the rate discharge for the same cell acid, it was

of

was

in proportion as the hydrochloric replaced the sulphuric, being increased fivefold when the sulphuric acid was all phuric solution with sulreplaced, as compared with the usual bichromate liquids, however, The capacity of all these new acid alone.

increased

; that is, as the rate of discharge increases remains about the same the time of the discharge diminishes. hydrochloric acid there is, the more The more tendency there will The liquid should, therefore, not be to disengage free chlorine gas.

hydrochloric have too much acid and should not be prepared too The mixture most frequently used for lighting, in long in advance. below) which the proportion of sulphuric to hydrochloric acid (see

ELECTRICITY.

161

is 80 to 20, is quite stable and can be mixed two or three months in When 110 sulphuric acid is used the instability of the advance. liquid is so great that it ought not to be used longer than two days
after mixing. The following

the mixture three liquids composing may be prepared in advance and kept in stock : Liquid A: Chromic acid, 530 grams; water, 770 cubic centimeters. hydrochloric acid of 18" Saunas' (oraLiquid BC1: Commercial

specific gravity of 1.143). Liquid BS: Dilute sulphuric

gravity

acid of

26" Baume'

(or a

specific

consisting of 450 grams of 1.25),

acid of 66" Baum^

and

800

cubic centimeters water. The greater the proportion of the liquid BC1 used, the more rapid be the rate of discharges and the shorter the time of discharge. will for all, being 50 to 60 watt-hours per liter, The capacity is the same

the difference of potential has stopped when fallen to 1.25 volts per cell. The following figures are deduced from a table given: Proportions by volume of the liquids A, BC1, and BS, Properties.
the discharge

being

"

respectively, 100, 20. and

80; specific gravity, 1.27; maximum

current,

the cur3.5 amperes; rent coulombs, stopping the discharge when has fallen to half its maximum value, 10,630: watt-hours, 3.54, and therefore the mean hours, 2.95; watt-hours have been 1.20, and the ampere volts must gram per liter of liquid, 54.6; watt-hours per kiloof liquid, 43.0; weight of liquid per horse-power hour (metric), For the proportions 100, 100, and 0" 17.2 kilograms or 38.2 pounds. the figures are very nearly the samey e.. without (?'. sulphuric

acid),

current except that the maximum the same. remaining exactly

is 8.5 amperes,

the

mean

voltage

therefore exists in two things namely, in the potash or soda salt by chromic acid, and sulphuric by replacing hydrochloric acid. One or the other of these changes alone will not ing have much effect, but it is with the two combined that the dischargis increased fivefold, and the total capacity increased 50 per rate
"

Renard's

improvement

cent. Positive pole plate.

sheet of 0.004 inch or silver, covered with thick, the platinum coating being only about 0.0025 millimeter or is necessary for protection, as the The platinum 0.0001 inch thick.
"

The positive pole plate is made It is 0.1 millimeter platinum.

of

it. It is silver is attacked slowly when the platinum does not cover form of a long, narrow bent into the cylinder, the lap of which is left so as to allow the liquid on the outside to circulate and slightly open get into the interior to the zinc. The diameter of this tube should be

about 0. 4 to 0. 6 that of the retaining cell. The cost of such an electrode 1 inch in diameter and 9 inches long is $1. Three little hard-rubber rings in the inside stiffen it and insulate it from H. Ex. 410" VOL iv 11 the zinc rod, which

162

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

It may be replaced by a the holes in these rings. carbon cylinder, but platinized silver is preferred, as its conductivity is better and the weight and volume less, the latter being pracare tically
nothing. by carbon

is passed through

It is very expensive, however, and should be replaced if the maximum is not essential and the output
"

liquids not too concentrated. Negative pole plate. The zinc used is in the form of a thin zinc It is made small in order to diminish the local action (which wire. is proportional to the and pletely surface), so that it may be consumed comby one charge of the liquid. The smaller the surface of the zinc the more nearly is the consumption proportional to the current. Tests shoty- that 1 literof the liquid dissolves 85 grams of zinc. This would,
however,
as

require the action is

zinc wire

more

and would result in cutting slightly larger, in general 0.16 of the diameter of the cell,which is about one-fourth of an inch for the normal cell. It is not amalgamated for several reasons. It was found that after a certain point of
concentration
was

too small to be practicable, especially the top than at the bottom, rapid at it off at the top. It is therefore made

reached, the amalgamated and unamalgamated Furthermore, it increases zincs are attacked equally by local action. the expense brittle as glass. and makes such a thin rod as Unamalgamated zinc also enables a leaden retaining tank to be used for table lamps, which would be destroyed by a single drop
from the zincs. of mercury Characteristics." The characteristic of

from

a cell is the curve obtained the values of the difference of potential and of the current, correspondin to successive values of the external resistance varying from infinity (or open

to
a

zero

circuit) For (orshort circuit).

is,without

theoretically perfect cell, that polarization, as, for

a

instance, in

ought to be a in the accompanying diagram, Fig. 31 (excepting the curved

Daniell cell, this straight line, as

part KA), in which 1.67 would be the voltage on open circuit and 35.7 the amperes of current on closed circuit. The constants of such a cell would be the electro-motive force 1.67 and the internal is evidently the quotient of 1.67 volts resistance 0.047 ohms, which is stated to have been The characteristic shown and 35. 7 amperes.

obtained from one of these cells without sulphuric acid. The points K and L are those between which the cell is used in practice, for therefore, the constants For other those given above. are which, By drawing a cells, however, this characteristic is always a curve. straight line through that portion of such
a

curve

which

represents

ELECTRICITY.

163

tical conditions, and prolonging this line, the pracin tha same be shown way. constants may The following are some Output and capacity. of the dimensions of cell, If inches; tube of and capacities of these cells. Diameter the normal working
"

silver, about three-quarters of an inch; zinc, about one-quarter of an inch; height, not given, but probably 9 to 10 inches; difference of ance, normally, 1.20 to 1.25 volts; internal resistpotential while working

the voltage has fallen to discharge stopped when 0.17 ohm; described the one The 1.12. above, 100, 20, solution was about discharged continuously and 80. Twenty-four cells connected in series were through three lamps of 27 volts and 1.25 to 1.3 amperes each;
6.3 liters; it ran 140 minthe total quantity of liquid used was utes, 55 watt hours per liter of having given 347 watt hours, making Constructed as light as pracliquid, or 18 liters per kilowatt hour. ticable,

40 kilograms it will weigh per kilowatt hour, included, or almost 66 pounds per useful horse-power practical batteries of this class, it is doubtful whether be brought materially below this figure. can ever

everything hour. For

the weight

figures regarding the battery " La France:" which is intended to propel the great military balloon Cells, 4 centimeters diameter; silver tube, 3.2 millimeters; zinc, 6.4 Total weight of a battery of twelve cellsconnected, six millimeters.

The

following

are

the dimensions

and

The useful power at the end of onein multiple arc, 10 kilograms. half hour's running was 220 watts, thus requiring about four of these batteries per kilowatt; or with a motor, about four batteries, weighing
40

kilograms The

for

useful

horse-power

hour the
or

shaft. kilograms,

weight therefore

that

could be carried by 10 horse-power, making

measured balloon

was

at the 400

7.5 kilowatts

for 1

hour

and

superior not hope

While 36 minutes. these results are very good and to others obtained, the inventor himself admits that we that electrically driven
war.
"

far
can

balloons

will

ever

be

successful

implements

given by the maker of a table incandescent lamp furnished with a battery of these cells in its Weight, base. complete, 35 pounds; height, clear, 33 inches; lamp,
are

of Table lamps.

The

following

data

duration, 5 hours; 4; mean candles; volts, 10 to 11; amperes, 8 hours; price, $60; cost of recharge, 50 cents; cost per maximum, The liquid is raised or lowered by air pressure candle hour, 0.56 cent. produced by a small rubber bulb.
25

References. For
"

of the Bibliotheque

complete description see de la Revue de I'Aeronautique,

more

the firstvolume
a

is published abstract of which 364, March 29, 1890, from, which

very complete in 1'Electricien, of Paris. Nos. 363, taken. the above illustrations were

(French section, gold medal) had an elaborate batteries, chiefly for medical purposes and small exhibit of primary lights and powers. They are almost all of the ordinary carbon,

M. Gustave

Trouve

164
zinc, and

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

bichromate

type,

and

leave little to be described.

The

small portable and pocket cells for medical and surgical purposes, and for small lights, are arranged in convenient form, as regards the plunging of the plates and prevention of spilling the acids. A small portable lamp battery has loose ribs around it like those of an umbrella, which ordinarily are not noticeable, but if the cells should it from falling. these ribs spread out and prevent start to fall over He exhibited, also, a small boat run by an ordinary plunge battery. the only novelty is that the motor Apparently and propeller are on

the rudder

and

are

additional remarks Power, " p. 94.

M. Trouve*
uses a

For some geared together by a chain gearing. boat, see under "Applications regarding this of
more

water, the boat

concentrated solution than usual ; his proportions 8 parts (by weight) are : 1 part bichromate of potash, The constants 3.6 parts sulphuric acid. of the cells for and
are:

internal resistance; 1.9 volts, 0.07 to 0.08 ohm per second for two hours cells will develop 14 kilogrammeters
before it falls. Most Modifications.
"

four
running

of potash for

acid.
:

of the batteries exhibited using bichromate depolarizer, have the zinc in a porus cup in diluted sulphuric ing Among the principal modifications were the follow-

M. Crosse

(Frenchsection,

honorable

mention)replaces

the usual

carbon plate by a sort of cage of thin sheet lead, perforated and The lead acts merely as a filledwith fragments of retort carbon. for the carbon. The lead cage is made a conductor receptacle and nular of two concentric cylinders united at the top and bottom, the anthem being filled with the carbon fragments. space between He claims as the advantages, A lead terminal leads off the current. is not fragile like carbon plates ; it is cheaper ; it offers great that it
surface of carbon, lowering the resistance, diminishing the polarization, the thereby increasing the rate of discharge ; it overcomes and to the unreliable brass terminal secured to the carbon A
ampere

objection
plate.

costing 20 amperes.

1-pint cell costing 50 cents is said to have hours, at a rate of from 1 to 5 amperes. $3 has a capacity of 250 to 300 ampere hours

capacity
1
a

of 30

A
at

-gallon cell rate of 6 to

simple and ingenious overflow tube was of different batteries of this class. The liquid used in a number in such cells,after it has performed itsfunction, is heavier and sinks tube. Overflow
"

The

following

In adding new liquid to the old, the overflow of the of the cell. This is effected old liquid should be from the bottom by means of a vertical glass tube outside of the cell, the upper end
in a semicircle, forming a nozzle for of which tube is bent around the liquid to flow out of. The lower end communicates side with the inThe top curved part a hole in the bottom. of the cell through

to the bottom.

ELECTRICITY.

165

level of the liquid. as of the tube must be just high as the normal liquid is added the old will, therefore, overflow autofresh When matically from the bottom. If this tube is connected to the cell by tube, the cell can a flexible rubber readily be emptied by bending down the tube. Lagarde (French section, bronze exhibited a battery for

medal)

lighting purposes in which the carbons were revolved continually by an electric motor to agitate the liquid. The cells were arranged from a tank in and over in a circle ; the fresh liquid was supplied
the middle, the supply cock being opened electrically when the potential had fallen sufficiently. The zincs are perforated. The following Price of liquid, 4 cents per data are given by the maker: lamp for 1 hour. 1 quart will run a 5-candle-power The quart;
240 ampere price of the zinc, 40 cents ; the set of twelve zincs will run hours ; a battery of twelve cells gives 15 to 18 volts and 8 to 10

amperes, and costs $100. instead of raising In the battery of Mr. Fillet (French section), and lowering the zincs the liquid is lowered and raised, respectively,

by air pressure

produced

by

rubber

bulb simultaneously

on

all the
same

advantage, making clean, practically for physicians and surgeons. The sealed cell,very well adapted The upper retaining cell is of porcelain, and consists of two parts.
one,
one

cells. In the medical principle is used

battery
to great

of Chardin

this (French section)

a

containing the electrodes, is empty when not in use ; the lower is closed completely and contains the liquid. A tube communicates from the lower part of the upper to the lower part of the

air into the lower one, cell. By pumping which is readily done by means of a rubber bulb, the liquid is forced up through into the upper this air to escape the this tube cell ; by allowing is drained. upper cell

lower

Baziii battery for lighting, the carbon plates are in the form of circular disks mounted on a common shaft which is revolved by a small electric motor : the revolving of the plates is claimed to In the In. the curves the polarization. of discharge exhibited, the difference of potential of 1 volt for currents of 9 to 10 amperes for forty to fifty hours conto be remarkably constant is shown tinuous

diminish

discharge. In the battery

narrow,
some

the cells are very (Russian section) of Kornfeld deep, rectangular boxes made of carbon plates cemented in way at the edges, and heavily copper-plated on the outside.

box forms the positive pole ; the zinc plate is lowered down into the box when in use, and is very close to the carbon on all sides, thus Liquid is supplied conthe internal resistance very low. making tinually The

The

at the top, and is led out at the bottom whole battery is very compact.

in the usual way.

166

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Iii the Chameroy

battery (French section)

of carbon, the zinc being a concentric bottom. The liquid enters continually The zinc rod is cast in the form of a screw the bottom. with a very deep thread, whereby the liquid is made to circulate in passcoarse, ing down.

the cell itself is a tube rod secured at the top and at the top and is led out at

In the cell of Radiguet (French section, silver medal) the is not only to lift the zinc out of its solution in the porous

object

cup, in use, but also to empty this porous cup at the same time, when not to prevent diffusion of the liquids. To do this, there are two cups at right angles to each other, joined at their open end like the letter

and turning on a horizontal axis through this point, over one edge, of the jar. One is porous and swings in and out of the jar, and the other is glazed and is outside. The zinc is placed in the To immerse the zinc its porous cup is turned vertically porous one. to be in the jar, so as and the liquid from the glazed cup flows into

L inverted,

it. To withdraw

the zinc, the two cups are rotated through a right angle, which empties one into the other. In another cell of the same exhibitor, instead of using a zinc plate for the negative pole, he uses a copper tray or basket well amalgamated, filledwith
scraps
as

tray acts merely The

object

The copper mercury. of zinc and some a conductor, and is not attacked, if well amalgamated. is to use up scrap zinc.

able cell exhibited by Gue*rot (Frenchsection, honordesigned chiefly for electro-plating,and consisting of mention), is cup, the liquid used with the carbon zinc, carbon, and porous water, and 155 made of 87 parts ferro-chromic salt, 198 parts warm

In the Delaurier

parts sulphuric acid. The liquid for the zinc is water, The zinc need not be amalgamated. of this added. is cheapness. advantage Residues.
"

with The

little chief

an other exhibits properly belonging here was Founder interesting one (French section, bronze of Mr. George medal), which may prove of importance in cheapening bichromate for the residues of these cells. The batteries by finding a market

Among

exhibit comprised these residues.

the various

commercial

products

obtained

from

His process of separating the residue into^ommercial products is from the batteries is a mixbriefly as follows: The residue coming ture of sulphate
or

of chromium,

sium sulphate of zinc, sulphate of potas-

sodium, sulphuric acid, chromic acid, and water. firstprocess is to neutralize the free acid by means of scraps This is finished when the solution has become green of metallic zinc. During this process chrome alum crystallizes out, instead of brown.
The of the commercial products, being used chiefly as a The oxide of chromium is then separated by precipitamordant. tion by oxide of zinc at 212" F., by adding fragments or at of zinc forming
one

ELECTRICITY.

167

This is finished when the solution has become ordinary temperatures. is the second commercial quite clear. This oxide of chromium The remaining solution is treated with chalk, which preproduct. cipitates This is oxide, together with sulphate of calcium. is finished when the liquid does not become turbid when ammonia liquid contains only sulphate of potassium The remaining added. or both, depending or sodium, upon whether the bichromate of potassium If only one in the battery. these was or of used sodium was this liquid, evaporated to dryness, forms the third commercial used To the mixture of oxide of zinc and sulphate of calcium product.
zinc

sulphate of zinc is added until the solution is slightly acid, in order to be sure that no chalk remains ; bichromate of potash is then added, forming a bright yellow precipitate of chr ornate of zinc, and may be used for coloring paper, which is an excellent pigment
some

for paints, etc., having then

oxides are mixed of calcium acid, metallic chromium, made different colors, mordants, chromic iron and steel industries. and it may be used in the
OTHER CELLS

great covering with it. From

power, owing the chromium

to the sulphate

FOR

LARGE

OUTPUT.

One of the most interesting of the battery the Lalande " Chaperon cell,exhibited by De Branexhibits was ville " Co. (French section, gold medal, for
Lalande " Chaperon.
"

It collective exhibit). has gradually come into extended use, its numerous advantages teries. batit a very important place among giving

It is depolarizing
open

single fluid cell,with a solid It can be used for substance.

circuits, for closed circuits, and for The electrodes are amalstrong currents. gamated zinc and black oxide of copper;

the liquid is caustic potash of 30 to 40 parts to the 100. The action is to dissolve the
zinc and
to reduce

the copper

oxide to metallic

copper.

One of the principal forms, called the spiral form, is shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 32, in which D is
"

Construction.

FIG. 32." Lalande

" Chaperon's

cell.

the zinc spiral, and A is a thin sheet-iron box containing the copper oxide B and a copper-wire conductor, C, insulated where it passes the zinc. The cell is 7J inches high and 4i inches in diameter. near
type, consists of a cast-iron called the hermetic bottle, forming the retaining cell and at the same time one pole, having the oxide of copper on the bottom. The zinc, suspended by brass rod, is held by the rubber stopper, which at an amalgamated

Another

form,

the

same

time seals the cell.

In the large hermetic

type the zinc is

168

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

in the form of a large flat spiral, presenting great surface, and the of three bolts and a rubber gasket. cast-iron bottle is closed by means In the trough form, for heavy currents, the iron cell is in the form, The layer of oxide of copper of a very shallow, fiat,rectangular box.
on

the bottom

is covered

the zinc is a flat sheet, with a is covered with a layer of some thick oil. When a number of these to be used in series, as for incandescent lights, they may conveniently cells are be placed one over the other. The size and style of cell

with a sheet of parchment paper, and brass lug attached to it. The liquid

depend

The large trough the purpose for which it is to be used. form, about 16 by 8 by 4 inches, is designed chiefly for lighting, small
on
"

electrolysis,etc. The following constants of these cells may doubtless Constants. be relied upon as correct. The electromotive force on open circuit
powers,

is from

0.8 to 0.9 volt.

The

following

table
an

gives

some

of the

discharge, through for continuous constants equal to the internal that is,for maximum
"

work

external resistance in which case,

"

therefore, the difference of potential or useful electromotive slightly less than half of that on open circuit.

force is

See also the constants in the expert's reports given below. There being no great polarization, the cells Properties and uses. be used on closed circuits without any stirring or circulation of can
"

the liquid; the difference of potential on closed circuit is said to fall nearly constant until the. mateslightly at firstand then to remain rials The quantity of zinc consumed is very are almost consumed.

nearly that required by theory, showing that there is almost no local action and that it is therefore not necessary to raise the zinc out of
the liquid when
on a

small the solution of zinc does not appear to lower its resistance, of ishes while the reduction of the oxide of copper to metallic copper diminfor lighting or other In using them the internal resistance.
purposes of maximum
are

It is, therefore, well adapted for lighting not in use. tion scale, for telegraphy, electrolysis, etc. The forma-

requiring

much

output,

the point energy, they are used at or near which is when the external and internal resistances But under

about equal.

these conditions the useful poten-

ELECTRICITY.

169

tial is also reduced to about a half that is,to 0.4 to 0.5 volt per cell. Thus, for incandescent lighting it is necessary to have about twice as many cells as the pressure in volts at the lamps.
"

two lamps in battery of the large trough cells is said to run A precaution is necesderivation, presumably 12 to 15 volt lamps. sary in running lamps ; as the initial electromotive force is about double the normal, it is necessary to switch a resistance in series

of starting, in order to save the lamps with the lamps at the moment high initial electromotive force at starting. from the strain of the For charging accumulators, 4 cells must be used for one accumulator. For medical purposes it may be used for a surgical lamp or cautery.

On

well adapted

account of its great current capacity it is especially for signal work or similar purposes, in which strong

currents are required. mo'mentary As there is 110 local action consuming

the zinc when

not in

use

it

termittent is very well adapted for open circuit work, especially when the inIt is largely current required is comparatively great. and for calls and has been adopted by ther t used for microphones

Societ^ Ge'nerale des Telephones at their central stations. Notwitl standing the low electromotive force, one cell is said to be able to place a Leclanche, probably owing to its low resistance and the fact

that it does not polarize. The latter property adapts it very well for telephonic transmission of operatic, theatrical, and musical entertainmen long uninterrupted service. In. such service requiring
one

of these cells is replacing five Leclanches. The cell gives off no odors, forms no creeping

salts as

in the Le-

The soluclaiiche, requires no adding of water or other attention. tion of zinc formed is very soluble and no crystals attach themselves to the zinc, which therefore requires no cleaning or scraping. The
attention and cleaning required by the ordinary Daniell cellsused in the large telegraph central stations are by no means a small matter.

In the main telegraph office in London, for instance, there are 27,000 Daniell cells,requiring three miles of shelving. Regeneration. After the oxide of copper has been reduced by the the cell it can be rendered active again by exposing it to action of the air for several weeks or by roasting it at a red heat 011 an iron plate.
"

also be regenerated by passing a current through it in direction. the opposite For the same Capacity. weight the cell is said to have five times

The

cell can

"

But the capacity in ampere hours, as compared with accumulators. is misleading, as current can not be used without such a comparison potential ; as the useful difference of potential is between one-half and one-quarter of that of an accumulator, a true practical comparison should include both, in other words, should be a comparison of
energy

and
may

not

energy

of ampere perhaps be one

hours.

For the
or

same

and one-half

even

weight the useful two times as great.

170

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

The principal precautions to be taken and objections. into free contact with the air, as that the liquid does not come are be taken not to get that changes it into carbonate; and care must Precautions
"

the liquid

on

the hands

or

clothes.

The

former

is

overcome

sealing the cells,or covering the liquid with a by supplying the salt in an iron box is The latter objection overcome from which it is poured directly into the cell,and water poured over
it, so that
was
no

by hermetically layer of oil.

handling

of the liquid is required.

Another

objection

that the zinc was liquid. This has been

There
The

brass rod appears to be

or

no

rapidly eaten off justat the surface of the by fastening the zinc to an gamated overcome amalthat the zinc is wholly immersed. so strip, local action if the brass is well amalgamated.

prices are from $1 for the small one to $4 for the large trough cell. A recharge of zinc, oxide of copper, and potash costs about 80 cents for a small trough and about $1 for a large one. These phones,
are

Ge'ne'ral des Tele*cells have been adopted by the Socie'te' des Postes et des Te'le'graphes,and by the Administration
others
in the

used among

London

Post

and

Telegraph

ment. depart-

following extracts are taken from, various reports : M. E. Hospitalier discharged the small form illustratedabove, Fig. for 6 days' con32, through 0.8 ohm, obtaining about half an ampere tinuous
Tests.
"

The

is 260,000 of zinc consumed For an coulombs, showing almost entire absence of local action. full report see 1'Electricien, August Dr. d'Arsonval 1, 1883. obtained
25

The

259,000 or running, coulombs theoretical capacity of the 88 grains

(about 70

ampere

hours).

amperes

from

this

one,

from short circuit. He found that 20" C. (67" F.) to 50" C. (122" F.) the current increased from 4 to 12 amperes regularly with the temperature, and as the electromotive

the large and 106 from by increasing the temperature

one,

on

force remained the same due to diminution this increase of current was internal resistance. He also finds that there is no local of the
action.

See La Lumie're

Ele'ctrique, August
25, 1884, Sir William

25, 1883.

In the Electrician
gives
1, 1883,
some

(London)January
results which
gives
some

Thomson December

he obtained.

In La

Nature, with
a

pitalier Hos-

results obtained
CELLS
OF
THE

small light.
TYPE.

LECLANCHE

chief exhibit of cells of this class was that of Leclanche' " the original makers of the famous (French section, gold medal),
"

The

Co.
Leclanche

cells. Original cells. These cells were taining usually made of a porous cup confilledwith broken fragments a plate of carbon of carbon and

and

(the mineral pyrolusite of comnative peroxide of manganese merce); the negative pole is a zinc rod, and the liquid is chloride of

ELECTBICITY.

171

The zinc is amalgamathe sal ammoniac of commerce. ted be a saturated one. and the solution should time ago, now The improvement Modification. made some already to make known, and fast replacing the porous cup pattern, was well
ammonia,
"

blocks of the peroxide of manganese hard, conglomerate with the blocks are held to the carbon plate by rubber bands ; carbon, which The resistance this replaced the porous cup and its loose contents. and polarization are thereby diminished, and consequently the useful difference of potential and current increased. These conglomerate broken pieces of retort carbon, peroxide of masses are made of
manganese, and shellac, under The Recent improvements.
"

hydraulic
more

exhibited is made in the form of conglomerate having a metallic terminal fastened to the top, as a hollow cylinder illustration,Fig. 33. The zinc rod, having in the accompanying seen a tinned wire terminal at the
were

pressure. recent improvements

mass

the following: The

top, and a small rubber cap at is placed inside the bottom

this cylinder and is held concentrically lid, as by the This increases the shown. depolarizing power of the peroxide it being of manganese, rational disposition of that material; the resistance
a
more

stillmore, and the distribution of the current FIG. 33. LeclanchS cell. "Improved and consumption of the zinc is more the volume symmetrical; and weight are also diminished by this construction and the unreliable rubber bands are dispensed with. This construction enables the price to be diminished 25 per cent. The force 1.5 volts, internal Electromotive constants of this cell are: 0.4 ohm; weight of positiveresistance (afew days after being set

is diminished

up)

pole H pounds; price of cell complete 73 cents. New one salt. Another salt,to be used of their novelties is a new in place of the sal ammoniac. The latter has the very objectionable feature that crystals deposit on the zinc which thereby becomes insulated
"

the zinc rod to be causes and is rendered inactive, and which through or " cut off" at the top of the liquid long before it is. eaten below. The positive pole also becomes clogged with these consumed
crystals.

The

new

salt,which

is said to be

mixture

of 75 per cent

of ammonium the formation

chloride and 25 per cent of chloride of zinc obviates of these adhesive crystals and thereby keeps the zinc perfectly clean, enabling it to be consumed evenly and completely. It sellsfor 26 cents a pound.
for which they claim a cell. Another of their improvements " dry cell," a poorly chosen name, as great future is their so-called
"

Dry

172

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

of keeping or moist cells. It consists of a cylindrical forms the retaining cell and the vessel of zinc which negative pole; in this is a conglomerate cylinder similar to the one described above. Between the two is a mass of plaster of Paris,
on.

the action of all such cells depends moist; a better name would be humid

their property

moistened with a solution of their new salt; the top is closed with It is sold ready for use. It has the great advantage of requiring no or cleaning, and is particularly in cases setting up applicable the cells are jolted as on trains, boats, etc. Its capacity where about, Fig. 34). as that of the usual cells (see appears to be almost the same It sells for 87 cents.
wax.

The

diagram,
some
an

showing through

Fig. 34, gives a series of discharges of their qualities. The discharges

of different cells,
were

continuous,

external resistance of 10 ohms.

Cell shown in the above.figure.
Cell with two Dry Cell conglomerate Imitations foreign imitations'
imitations, foreign

blocks

Cell with porous cup Cell with porous- cup and

of dry cells

concentric zinc

10

13

15

16

Fig. 34." Curves

showing

the discharge

of different Leclanchg

cells.

discharge the dry cell stillgave 50 thirty days' continuous .After milliamperes; the discharge of the ordinary porous cup fell to this The replaceable conglomerate blocks current in about fifteen days. in the same that they are consumed are time that one of such a size last. zinc will improvements are of the minor follows: In the porous cup cells the porous cups have slits cut A " cavalry battery" to be used them to increase their porosity.
"

Minor

improvements.

Some

as

in
on

horseback

in military service is made of small carbon plates having to it on one a zinc plate cemented side with a paste of boiled oil and an making plumbago, electrical and mechanical contact; these are

the other with sheets of blotting paper between them; piled one over the whole is strapped together without any retaining cell. To render it active the whole is dipped into the solution, long enough to in merely wet the blotters. All the cells are evidently connected series by this construction. Instructions.
zinc should that the new

be amalgamated

that the regarding their cells are: the solution completely saturated; and be added when the old becomes solution should milky;
"

The

instructions

ELECTRICITY.

173

that the addition of chloride of zinc solution is advantageous, and that tinned wire is preferable for connecting the cells. ments improvethe minor Other exhibits of Leclanche cells. Among of the Leclanche' type of cells,as exhibited by different exhibitors,
"

are

the following:

Henri

Serrin

(French section,
a

honorable

single block of wood, mention),exhibited retaining cells made of Two lined on the inside with a waterproof holes or more coating. block, making a battery of cells complete may be made in the same
claims cheapness, strength, and lightness ; being sealed no there can creeping of the salts, and the cells are as convenient the " dry cells." He claims that the blocks cost only 0.8 cent as A complete battery of two cells in one block sellsfor each to make. his contact on the carbon with a He furthermore 39 cents. makes in itself. He

be

tinned zinc strip,

so

as

to avoid

the oxidation

minal. of the usual brass tera

J. Warnoii

(French section,

bronze

medal) exhibited

new

form

of terminal to the carbon plate. He claims that in the usual construction, local electrolytic action forms a salt between the metal In his terminal terminal and the carbon, destroying the contact. the brass binding post is tipped on its inside end with platinum, the end of a screw against the carbon by forming He replaces which passes through the cast lead cap of the carbon. by a coarse linen canvas bag soaked in turpentine and the porous cup He the carbon. resin, inclosing the active material and tied around

which

presses

For instance, claims for this, cheapness and rapidity of discharge. a half-gallon cell with four carbons and selling for $1.16 gave 40 on the short circuit. He claims that he can amperes regenerate be used over again. so that it can of old cells, peroxide of manganese This He
is probably

done by

charging

the

cells in

reverse

direction.

also exhibits some small portable medical cells,1 by 1 by 2| for only 19.3 cents each. inches, selling Electric Company The Western (UnitedStates section)xhibited e Leclanche' cells with the porous cups replaced by cotton bags ; also

with slots,and canvas around them; also porous cups the top to replace tile with holes near usual glass tubes through the holes and a canvas top ; also glazed cells with numerous bag on the inside, to replace the porous cups. Ch. R. Goodwin a large cylinder of the (French makes
porous cups

section)

conglomerate
one

mass,

having

secured to it a zinc rod, forming

together

piece. This he claims will give 3 to 2% amperes Messrs. Renault " Desvernay (French section,

on short circuit. honorable men-

tion)

show

"

dry cell" in which

OTHER CELLS FOR

the moist
SMALL

mass

is a siliceous gelatine.

CURRENTS.

Among
are

other cells for small the following:

currents

not of the Leclanche* type

174

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Chas. Chardin
makers

(French section, silver medal),one

apparatus,

of the principal
very
conveniently

of electro-medical

almost half the same capacity, and which do not require the cleaning and attention of other cells, an important item for a physician. is more While the firstcost is greater, the cost of maintenance than The cells consist of a high, narrow, indrical, cylcorrespondingly cheaper. arranged weight for the medical cells,which
are

exhibited he claims

some

retaining cell,having a carbon and a zinc rod fastened on to all the cellsof a battery. The liquid cover, which is common fillingabout one-third of the cell; on this is bisulphate of mercury, floats a large cork, which fitsthe retaining cell loosely. In the state ing of repose the electrodes are separated from the liquid by this floatthe

cork, which also serves By depressing slopping.

to almost seal the cell so as to prevent the electrodes this cork is forced down,

and in doing so forces the liquid up to the electrodes, thus putting the battery into action. As it is necessary to raise the electrodes out of the liquid when not in use, the box containing all these cells

been

that the lid can not be closed until the electrodes have The top or spring. raised, which is done by a counterweight of the box contains all the ordinary accessory apparatus used for The electro motive force is 1.526 volts. medical purposes. is so arranged The

cell of Dr. Fontaine- Atgier, exhibited by Mors (French section), is also intended for medical purposes. The electrodes are nese zinc and copper, the latter having a mixture of peroxide of mangaa sack of thick, ordinary coke secured around itby means and of
pasteboard.

liquid is potassium hydrate (the soapmaker's the electromotive force is 1.49 volts. The adpotash of commerce); vantages are, that it can be used on open circuit work, it is claimed
The

A battery of a large numquite constant and the resistance is low. ber is constructed without retaining cells,as follows : All of cells the electrodes, as described above, are fastened in pairs connected in

lid,the zincs being tied against the pasteboard. series, on a common To put it into action, the whole is dipped for a moment into a large
Enough liquid tank containing the liquid, and is then withdrawn. The whole is is retained in the pasteboard to actuate the battery. to be convenient for transportation. arranged L. Maiche

(French section) exhibited

battery in which

polarizat the de-

is effected by the air. The negative electrode consists ; the positive is made of scraps of zinc in a bath of mercury of a receptacle in the upper part of the jar, fragments of crushed containing have been coated with a very thin layer of platinum coke which

black ; this coke rests half in and half out of the liquid, allowing the It is claimed that one of air to be absorbed by the platinum black. these cells has been in action more than ten years without any attention. He which also exhibited a salt to be used in place of sal ammoniac, he says will dissolve eight times the quantity of zinc as compared with sal ammoniac.

ELECTRICITY.

175
ZINC.

CHEMICALLY

PURE

It is in place here to mention the exhibit of Louis Cahaigne (French section, bronze medal), who exhibited chemically pure zinc produced by a new by means process, of which it can be made cheaply. It is well known that local action in the zinc used in batteries is caused by the impurities in the zinc ; if, therefore, the zinc is free from other metals it will not be attacked on open circuit, and will
not need to be amalgamated,
no a source of trouble and entails this exhibitor enables him to small expense. process of make chemically pure zinc at a sufficiently low price to enable it to in batteries. It can be made for 1 franc per kilobe employed gram,

which

is

The

or

8.8 cents

per

pound,

which

is very

low.

Numerous this metal

from

chemical

experts

were

given, showing
pure

reports to be

really chemically pure. Another process of obtaining

exhibited by M. L. Letrange. This is an electrolytic process, but it belongs to the department is,therefore, not included in this report. of metallurgy and
zinc
was

MISCELLANEOUS.

Messrs. Perreur-Lloyd residue of the action generated sulphate of copper, Electrochemistry,"

"

et Fils exhibited

was

was

mere

sulphate of copper. by-product, the object the description is given

a

battery in which the But as the electricity being to manufacture under

the heading,
the

Mr.

Thomas

A.

p. 154. Edison exhibited

"chalk"

battery, but

as

action is probably thermic, it is described under that heading. References. For other generators of electricity, see respective headings. For battery carbons, see "Carbons," under "General
"

Supplies."
lines
see

For substitution of dynamos "Telegraphy."

ACCUMULATORS.
GENERAL.

for batteries

on

telegraph

lead accumulator battery may be as a practical commercial to have originated about the time of the firstelectrical exhibisaid tion in Paris, in 1881, the chief inventors, Plante and Faure, being
The
both from France.

Although

probably

more

capital has been spent

in developing

has been very

what good
was

in any other electrical appliance, its progress at the present time, are not slow and the results, even however, in sufficiently desired. They are, or expected
now

it, than

form

growing They are

to find considerable application in practice, which is very fast. But they stillleave many points to be desired. best heavy and expensive, and deteriorate rapidly; many at
care,

of them, of the grid type, require considerable they will suffer greatly.

without

which

176

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Development.

"

The

development,

as

shown

at this exhibition, is

chiefly in the direction of details of construction and modifications intended to keep the active material from falling off and out of the A number have also been made in the supports. of developments Plantd type, possibly because this form is not patented ; these have

been mainly in the direction of first preparing the material in the form of finely divided lead so as to be more readily formed electrically. Severally forms differing in their chemical action have been proposed, but as yet they are not any better than the lead cells. Exhibits

French
Austria.

The countries. exhibits were principally in the Italy, and section, with a few from Switzerland, Belgium,
"
"

by

exhibits in detail it of the terms used, as there is great ambiwill be well to define some guity take them, which unfortunately many manufacturers respecting

Definition terms. of

Before

describing

the

of to deceive purchasers advantage better than they really are. much

and to make their goods appear This has been carried to such a have very little value. degree that statements of manufacturers In giving the capacity of an accumulator, for instance, manufacturers they are charged, which can often give the amount with which

evidently be increased very greatly by simply continuing the charge. charge disIt is the amount they will yield on a single continuous which which is the important factor for determining the real capacity cell,and by which the number and size of the cells required for a plant must be calculated. This will here be termed the effective The true capacity should capacity and is the only one of importance. of
a

include the than

two

mean

difference potential; of effective

a

volts, at

proper

less than 1.8 volts; a mean a as if anything, is too high. be A discharge should constant, which, be considered as ended when the difference continuous and should of potential has fallen to 1.8 volts. The capacity per pound ofplates is the effective capacity divided by the total weight of the plates to this weight complete; should include all lugs and attachments
The capacity of a necessary part of them. the rate on of discharge, which should therefore be stated ; this, in order to compare different accumulators, is generally reduced to the rate per pound plates. The usual rate is the plates which cell depends also
are
a

rate of discharge, therefore be taken of 1.9 volts may

this is rarely higher be and should never

of

charge per pound of plates, but this is too slow a disabout half an ampere for many cases, especially for traction purposes, in which the weight of the battery has to be carried by the locomotive mechanism. good accumulator should stand a discharge of 1 ampere per pound without injury. A better way of stating the rate of discharge is to give the ratio of a discharging current to the capacity; for instance, if a 100-ampere hour cell is discharged at 20 amperes, the rate is
A
20-i-100
or

one-fifth; but ihis is evidently the reciprocal of the time

ELECTRICITY.

177

tor; This time is, therefore, an important facdischarge in hours. the shorter it is, for the same capacity, the better the cell, A similar figure diminishes rapidly with the time. as the capacity tance. for the shortest time in which they can be charged is also of imporbe the ratio of the watt The of efficiency a cell should really latter is the one usually given hours instead of the ampere hours; the higher, but it is the because it must necessarily be considerably former which expresses the real efficiency of the storage of the power. be known The mean voltage of the charge and the discharge must be assumed, however, to determine this, but it is seldom given ; it may the mean that for any good accumulator effective voltage of the discharge is 1.9 volts, and that of the charge is about 2.25,

of the

making

an

of efficiency the

in ampere in volts, the result In all w att hours.

If the efficiency volts of about 85 per cent. hours, usually given, is multiplied by this efficiency of the energy stored, in will be the true

efficiency

it should be stated whether a given effiThe terms positive and in ampere hours or in watt hours. ciency is negative plates will be used as denned by the electrical congress of
cases

The positive plate is the one forming the positive pole cuit of the cell,and is connected to the positive pole of the charging cirThe negative is or it is therefore the brown peroxide plate. ; the other one. tested Jury tests. A number exhibited were of the accumulators for the jury. A few of the Laboratoire Central d'Electricite' at the
1889, namely:
"

though results obtained are given below in the detailed description. Althese results are correct, yet they were not all obtained under for the cells,and therefore should not the most favorable conditions The charging, for instance, be taken as the best results obtainable. continued until the difference of potential reached 2.5 volts, which is too high, and consequently the efficiency is lower than it should be. On the other hand the capacity is for this reason be ordinarily. The results obtained are not greater than it would
was

in all cases

very good and are considerably lower than those given by the makers. In general, for a good accumulator one Mean cannot capacity.
"

count

on

much

more

than

five effective ampere

9.5,
or,

hours

plates, which
per pound

at 1.9 volts gives

say, 10 effective watt

per pound of hours

of plates, which is equal to about 75 pounds of plates per The horse-power hour, or 100 pounds per kilowatt hour. effective proportion which the weight of the plates bears to the whole weight of the cell complete differs very widely in different systems, being the limits 82 per cent for the Faure-SellonVolkmar 75 per cent and 44 per cent for the Dujardin. Assuming for a light cell,gives therefore about 100 pounds as a high average hour, Or 133 pounds per of cells complete per effective horse-power
in these tests between effective kilowatt

hour.

These

are accumulators of importance H. Ex. 410" VOL iv 12

figures regarding the weights of the only when the cells are to be trans-

178
ported,
as

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

for traction purposes, car lighting, etc. If they are to be is of little conseinstalled in one quence. place their weight permanently interest, however, to the electricalengiIt is in all cases neer of effectively the materials are utilized. we Cost. A poor practice has arisen in France (started, believe, by by the makers of a heavy of selling accumulators
as

it shows

in

degree how

"

accumulator)

is This is very irrational, as the better an accumulator the pound. in the lower would have to be its selling price for the same output Unless such a statement is combined with a guarto compete. antee order than of a certain capacity per pound it has no value, and, worse The two statements might therefore that, it deceives the purchaser. be combined a uniform as system, which is at once, just well making

rational" that is, to give the price per effective ampere

a

hour.

Such

system enables any electrician to calculate readily the cost of the t cells for a certain output, and does justiceo the better accumulator. to be able to readily compare In order Comparative statement.
"

some

ex'features of a number of the accumulators of the common hibited, tions the following table is prepared, giving a few practical deducnot usually contained in the published descriptions, and from some

which

results were the makers makers, but

The and useful figures may be taken. directly, and only, from data published by in their circulars. They are therefore quite fair for the
fair, average,

all deduced
so

are probably too high ; the second, the capacity per pound, therefore also too high, It will be seen that from 4 the weight also being often underrated. to 4.5 may be assumed The third, containing the rate of as a mean. discharge, is probably nearly correct, but it is doubtful whether, at

for the purchasers, because some been exaggerated. given have undoubtedly The first column contains the capacities, which
not

of the data

as

those rates, the capacities will be as stated, for the maximum rates been taken in all cases. Half an ampere per pound be may The greatest rapidities of discharge, in the taken as a fair mean. have fourth column,
are

charge close to the real values ; a 5-hour disappears to be about the most rapid, the average being considerably The fifth column has been deduced in order to slower. idea of the average cost of accuendeavor to obtain an approximate mulators, has here been reduced to a common which rational basis hour. The prices used in this deduction are list of cost per ampere probably
to discounts, but at the same time prices, which are always subject a number tend to balance this there are generally of extras which discount, besides the fact that the capacities are generally considerably

overrated,
two,
are

ampere taken
on

that the figures here obtained, the quotient of the From 7 cents per probably not far from the true values. hour for the smaller ones for the largest may be to 4.5 cents
so a

rough mean. whether the cells are

as

these values will depend largely for rapid or for slow discharge, also 011 the
course

Of

ELECTRICITY.

179

of the retaining-cell and other factors, and are therefore no very well as a general guide. criterion, but they will answer is The classification made according to the capacities, the sizes selected from the circulars being those corresponding most nearly to
nature
100, 500, and

2,000 ampere

hours.

whose

eletromotive

data for the copper-zinc accumulator, force is 0. 75 volt, have been reduced to
The

equivalent cells of 2 volts, in order directly with the others.

that they

may

be compared

Detailed description.

cells are type, and those belonging

CELLS

In the following detailed description the divided into those belonging to the Plants' type, the Faure
"

to neither.
OF
THE PLANTE

TYPE.

In the personal exhibit of the late original accumulator. Gaston Plante (French section, grand prize)there were exhibited the plates of an accumulator of considerable historical interest, as they had constituted what was undoubtedly one of the firstpractical
"

Plante

's

ever The plates shown were mere accumulators made. sheets of lead 19 inches long and 8 inches wide, one piece was light brown and In the accumulator they had been rolled up together the other gray.

180

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

The following data acPlante* form. companie spirally in the well-known in 1860; unrolled in 1885; weight it: "Made of both per, plates, 1.075 kilograms; one discharge deposited 20.425 grams of copwhich
to
more

is equivalent to 61, 765 coulombs. " This capacity, reduced hours, which terms, is equivalent to 17.15 ampere modern

hours per kilogram of plates, or therefore reduces to 15.95 ampere This result, obtained from the firstaccu7.26 per pound of plates. mulator thirty years ago, is even better than that obtained by many of forms of the present day. (see ing includtable above), the "improved-"

the Faure type, in which the capacity is generally from 4 is often claimed to 6 ampere hours per pound of plates, though more by the inventors. This shows that as far as capacity per weight is concerned no progress has been made.
even

Dujardin. The plates of the accumulator exhibited by P. J. R. Dujardin(Frenchsection, silver medal) are made of thin horizontal
"

bands of rolled lead about three-eighths of an inch wide, having a the other or over ribbed surface, which are piled one roughened and connected together by a frame of lead cast around them, so as to
formplate three-eighths of an inch thick laminated transversely. Kabath In itsform it is,therefore, very similar to the old well-known
a

plates. The chief novelty is in the process of forming the plates, which liebe done in 8 hours by a single charge, in place of the claims can This he does by long, tedious formation in the usual Plants process.
adding
current
a

certain salt to the sulphuric acid and using a very strong It is a modifor forming ; this salt is used only in forming. fication hastening the formation by the well-known process of of

the same nitric acid, the salt used having presumably adding some function, namely, of assisting the more rapid oxidation of the lead. is that itis so hard to get rid of afterThe to wards, objection the nitric acid for if any traces of it remain it will continue to oxidize the

lead

the pardestroyed. Whether that the whole frame is soon ticular tion is more the plates after formareadily washed out of salt used ment If so, it is no doubt a valuable improveremains to be seen. the ordinary process. over
so

negative plates are made of positives reduced by reversing The plates being exceedingly porous, he is enabled to the current. fewer of them. In the cells shown there were one use positive and is filledwith a the plates two negative plates. The space between The is exceedingly porous, the plates resembling a sponge, and which renders contact between creased practically impossible, but the internal resistance is probably inIt is evident that an accumulator of considerably thereby.

granular preparation

of

burnt

silicatewhich

this form will stand The following are Weight

some

very great amount of abuse without injury. the results of a test made for the jury: of

of plates, 44 pounds;

weight

of cell complete,

90 pounds;

ELECTRICITY.

181

discharge 299 ampere hours, charge 375 ampere-hours, at 10 amperes; Deductions: 6.8 effective ampere hours per pound of at 40 amperes. hours, 80 per cent; rate of discharge, 0.9 plates; efficiency in ampere The charge ampere per pound of plate; time of discharge, 7.5 hours. too long. In another smaller cellthe results was probably continued
and
49.5

deductions

pounds;

125.6 ampere

Plates, 22 pounds; cell complete, hours at 20 amperes; discharge, charge, 192.8 ampere Deductions: 6 ampere hours per hours at 20 amperes.
were as

follows:

pound

of plates; efficiency in ampere

0.9 amperes
"

per pound Pollak the (Austrian section, silver accumulators lead is formed by a on the spongy the plates themselves medal) chemical method, as follows : The plate is covered with a paste made believe) chloride or the sulphate, we which is of a salt of lead (the

hours, 62 per cent; rate of discharge, of plates; time of discharge, 6.3 hours.

Pollak.

In

then covered with

in acid. By a complate of zinc and immersed bined the zinc is dissolved and the chemical and electrical action, lead salt reduced to spongy lead, which is said to be very adherent.
a

For positive plates these spongy lead plates are oxidized by the ordinary The lead plates for holding this material are electricalprocess. in the form of a sheet with numerous teeth perpenminute dicular made to the plate ; the material is held in place between these teeth which, been put on, slightly, after the active material has will form short hooks and will thereby tend to lock the to the plate. The reduction of the lead salt to spongy when
over

bent

material on lead is said to require twenty to twenty-four hours. The chief for this accumulator are that it can be charged in six hours claims a rapid rate, but and discharged in five hours. This is undoubtedly it is permissible with almost any Plante* accumulator. Strictly however, this belongs to the Faure type rather than to the speaking, Plante.
in which

is the compound modification, though not new, cell is divided off into several separate waterone retaining cell tight by the plates themselves, which are secured to compartments the box on their three edges by water-tight jointsf soft rubber. o One half of each plate is therefore negative and the other positive,
An

ingenious

of each plate belonging to two neighboring cells. The object such a is to increase the volts at the expense of the amperes, cell compound by combining It is very necessary, several small cells in one receptacle.
to guard against having any holes through the plates. of course, This form is light, portable, and compact, and is especially well adapted for small lights.

In the Simmen the (French section) plates accumulator fine hair-like threads of lead, made by pouring melted made of lead through a sieve and thence directly into water. This material
"

Simmen.

are

is then compressed into plates, and a frame of lead cast around it. It is a question whether they will hold together after being thoroughly

peroxidized.

182

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

G-arassino.
"

In the Garassino accumulator

are

(Italian section, bronze

medal) the

plates

made

and ribs, upon which this is then compressed on

sions of a rolled sheet of lead having depresis deposited, electrolytically,spongy lead ; to the plate forming a porous coating on
for the positive plates by the

is readily oxidized the frame, which usual Plants' process.

Cely.
below

For the Cely cell,which might under the Faure type of cells.
"

be classed among

these,

see

CELLS

OF

THE

FAURE

TYPE.

the They are largest and most complete exhibition of accumulators. the makers under the Faure patents in France, and under the Volkmar patents for the grid, and the Sellon patents for the inoxidiz"

Faure.

Philippart

Freres

(Frenchsection,

silver

medal) had

able alloys of lead and antimony Electric Power Storage Company

too well-known

for the grids. They represent the in France. Their accumulator is

recent improvements .Their the same in the details of construction, the grid remaining as it are in Fig. 35. The has been. The present form of the plates is seen

to be described

here.

FIG. 35." Accumulator;

by

Philippart

Freres,

France.

negatives alone rest on the bottom of the cell,while the positives are supported on insulating blocks resting on a shelf attached to the The positives may readily be lifted out by the sort of negatives.

bridge piece in the center. The construction, though complicated, is quite practical, except that it does not permit the removal and

ELECTRICITY.

183
improvement is their "twin"

changing

of

"sick"

plate.

Another
37, which

plate shown

in Figs. 36 and

explain themselves.

FIG.

3(5." ''Twin"

accumulator

plate.

FIG.

37.

"

Phillippart

Freres

"

accumulator

with

twi

n"

plates.

or

for overcoming This is a very ingenious contrivance furthermore between cells, and other connections

all soldered

plate being there

cell ; This

enables any even to be removed, or changed, while the cells are examined, that has the slight disadvantage It charged or discharged. is 110 equalization of the capacities of all the like plates of a they must therefore all be made of exactly the same capacity. to be selling large quantities of accumulators company appears

claim that, if properly taken care of, the plates will give Their cells are used largely for house, as well as central trouble. no They undertake to keep the station lighting, especially in England.
; they
15 to 30 per cent of the listprice, per cells in good order for from The test made for the jurygave the following results : Weight year.

of plates, 26.8 pounds ; weight of cell,complete. 32.7 pounds ; charge, hours 108.5 ampere hours at 5.5 amperes : discharge, 137.9 ampere hours per pound of Deductions : Capacity, -i ampere at 8.5 amperes.

184

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

per pound of plates ; time of plates ; rate of discharge, 0.32 amperes Notwithstanding discharge, 13 hours; efficiency, 78. 5 per cent. the low rate of discharge, the capacity per pound is not very good. very At a high rate of discharge the capacity falls rapidly. of the original Faure cells of 1881, consisting of sheets of lead having the active material held upon their surfaces by pieces of felt tied around them.
"

Historical.

Among

their exhibits

was

one

large exhibit of accumulators of this kind was 1'Electrique Anonyme that of the Julien cell,exhibited by the Sacie'te' differs from the (Belgiansection, gold medal). This accumulator Faure-Sellon-Yolkmar only in details of construction ; the general
"

Julien.

Another

The plates are as a rule smaller, as of the grid is the same. are also the meshes of the grids. They claim as their point of superiority the Faure-Sellon-Volkmar over that their grid is not oxidizable and will therefore not only last longer but will not suffer as much from use. They claim to make their grids of an alloy of lead, antimony
nature

While this may which is said to be inoxidizable. it is not absolutely so, as the grids will corrode in be so The usual type of their cells differs littlein appearance from time. form. feature is that all the simple, well-known One prominent in and about the cells are either soldered with homogeneous connections of clamps of the same solder or are made by means alloy, which and mercury, in a measure, is quite hard, not at all like lead. The following details may be of interest. The size of the usual plates is 7 inches square arid oneteenths eighth of an inch thick; distance between plates, about three-sixof
an

inch ; the meshes

in the grids

are

one-fourth of

an

inch

square ; weight of a grid, 2.45 pounds ; weight of a plate, 4.36 pounds; the weight of the active material is therefore about 44 per cent of the weight of the plates ; in the bottoms of the glass jars two are

inverted

V~snaPe(l ridges which

The following
are

bottom.
Weight

of cell,complete, the rate of 12 amperes hours at the rate of ; discharge, 133 ampere 34 amperes. Deductions : The weight of the plates was not given, but, assuming it to have been at the most 26 pounds, gives 5.1 hours per pound discharge of 1.3 ampere of plates and rate of amperes per pound of plates ; time of discharge, 3.8 hours ; efficiency

the plates clear from the support the results of the test made for the jury. 40.4 pounds; hours at charge, 185 ampere

in ampere hours, 72 per cent. It will be noticed that the rate of discharge is quite high, being more than one-quarter of the capacity,
as

the discharge An

was

in less than four hours.

The

results

are

fore there-

quite good. interesting novelty exhibited by this same tery a batwas company in which formed the plates themselves the of accumulators The plates are made in the form of truncated cones retaining cells.

closed at the small

end; they

have
on

outside surface and straight

ones

circular horizontal ribs the inside, perpendicular

on

the

to the

ELECTRICITY,

185

the outside and inside with the usual one above the other with the small active material and are piled forms a retaining cell into which the ends down, so that each one leaving a thin layer of the liquid between next one above is placed, forms the positive plate, and the outthe two; the inside of one cone side
others.

They

are

coated

on

the cones are sepof the one above, the negative plate of a cell ; by rubber rings. It is a cheap and simple from one another cirated form and will doubtless find considerable application for stationary The only important discharges. purposes and small capacities and is if the upper edges of these conical cells become objection that is very likely to happen during with the spray, which moistened charge, the cells will not hold their charge. In the accumulators of Paul Gadot (French section, silGadot. ver the grid for the plates is made radically different from
"

medal)

in Fig. 38, the first representing the usual type, as seen form and the second the usual form.

this

new

FIG. 38." Grid

for accumulator

plates, by *"aul Gadot

; in comparison

with

grrid of the usual form.

that in the usual form of grids the holes or meshes largest at the surfaces and become the inside; are smaller toward like the shape something the active material, therefore, having in the grid, but the force of expana sion rivet, is thereby locked
It is well known

halves to the middle and allows the two splits it through in the figure. This is one of the chief faults of drop out as shown To avoid this, Gadot makes the grid of two the ordinary form. flare of the meshes is toward the halves riveted together so that the inside and not toward the outside; the active material is thereby locked in Another
so

that there is no

tendency

are meshes made quite large, He thereby obtains much more ^ He states weight of active material per pound of plates complete. that 48 per cent of the total weight of the plates is active material

for it to fall out unless is that the modification

to split it, and it is almost impossible it is crushed almost to a powder.

being 2 inches by

by i inch thick.

The resulting increase of and 52 per cent is dead weight of frame. He gives as the norcapacity per pound is one of his chief claims. mal discharge 1 ampere per pound of plates, and as capacity rate of

186
3.4 and

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

5 ampere

hours

per pound

of plates, depending

on

the size.

is at the rate of about one-fourth of an ampere per The bar lasts for 240 hours, including three discharges. pound, and ing all the plates of a cell consists of a horizontal bolt passconnecting ferrules of lead alloy through the lug of each plate and through

The

formation

This pressed together by nuts. and replaced without construction enables any one plate to be removed The results of one of the tests made for the jury any soldering. follows: Weight as were of plates, 23 pounds; weight of cell, complete, between

the lugs, the whole

being

34

These accumulators efficiency,65 per cent. are used largely in Paris for lighting purposes. into use Cely. Another of interest which is coming accumulator known as the Sarcia aclargely is that of Laurent Cely, sometimes cumulato
"

ampere of discharge, 8.2 hours;

hours at 10 amperes; charge, discharge, 125.4 ampere hours at 10 amperes. Deductions: 81.9 ampere capacity. :.."; discharge, 0.44 amperes time hours per pound; per pound;

pounds;

Anonyme pour le Travail Elecexhibited by the Socie'te' trique des Mdtaux (French section, silver medal). It is sometimes but as the active material is classed under the Plante* accumulators,

made

of lead, as distinguished from lead electricompounds cally to the Faure type. it belongs more Their properly oxidized, from

the active material chief claim is that by their process of preparing it is made extremely porous without losing its mechanical strength. The 'plates are made of a number of small, flat cakes of active material If by If,by f inch thick, having rounded edges. These are

placed in a mold side by side, short distances apart, into which mold is then cast melted lead alloy, which fillsthe interstices between these cakes, binding them all together in the form of plate three-eighths of an inch thick, having the appearance
a

large flat

of a large The cakes having rounded edges, are, large meshes. grid with very by this process of casting the frame around them, securely fastened in their frame. In the later forms these cakes are grooved on their
into which the molten metal flows, holding them and increasing their an of additional means the lead. The cakes of active material are made by the contact with following process: Chloride of lead is mixed with 15 to 25 per cent
surface forming

with two

straight grooves

of chloride of zinc; this is melted, which requires about 900" F., the it more fusible; it is then cast in an iron mold zinc assisting to make into the flat cakes of the form required; these are then washed very to dissolve any oxychlorides, as also the zinc chloride. thoroughly The density of the lead chloride which remains is from 4. 10 to 3.3G, depending the per cent of chloride of zinc used. on In this form the frame is then cast around described. The a as number of them
then connected to a sheet of zinc and immersed plates in this form are in water acidulated with hydrochloric This reduces acid. the chloride of lead to metallic lead, the zinc being dissolved. The

ELECTRICITY.

187

density of the lead cakes is then 3.09 to 2.50, and it appears to preserve The density of the crystalline structure of the cast chloride. metallic lead is 11.35, which is 3.7 to 4.5 times greater, showing the
For posiThese plates are then ready as negatives. great porosity. tives these lead plates may be oxidized by the Plante process, but they find that the peroxide is mechanically stronger if the oxidation
is performed partially by chemical heating the cakes (after simply of

they

are

forming

consists in which reduction) converted into litharge. They are then peroxidized by the The peroxide obtained by this with a current, as usual. in
an oven a

means.

This

process

density of 3.57 to 2.88, that of ordinary peroxide density is probably meant the weight of They claim as specific gravity. the same volume, and is not the same hours per pound of plates, at a discharge rate to obtain 4.5 ampere Their large plates are 16.5 inches square, per pound. of 0.45 ampere thick, and weigh 26^ pounds each; the large three-eighths of an inch
process is said to have being about 9.

By

cells contain 10 negatives and 9 positives and weigh about 550 pounds, their discharging current being 250 amperes. In the Huber accumulator, exhibited by Cuenod Sautter Huber.
"

plates are made in the ordinary grid form, as usual, with the additional feature that a small hole is pierced The adthrough the active material in the center of each mesh. vantages

"

Co.

the (Swiss section),

claimed for this are that it is intended to allow for the of the material, and thereby avoids all evils resulting expansion from such expansion, such as buckling, falling out of the material, etc. ; also, that it presents more surface to the action of the liquid,
and discharging currents to be greater. which enables the charging Possibly, also, the active material is thereby more thoroughly ized, utilgiving therefore a greater capacity per pound of active material. The results of one of the tests for the jury were as follows : hours, at 16 amof plates, 16.4 pounds; charge, 80 ampere peres; discharge, 64.6 ampere hours, at 10 amperes; deductions, hours per pound of plates ; rate of discharge, 0.6 capacity, 4 ampere

Weight

time of discharge, 6.5 hours; efficiency, in amper pound; pere ampere hours, 81 per cent. Sclioop. In the Schoop accumulators, exhibited by the Oerlikoii Company the chief modification is that the whole (Swiss
"

section),

the space between the plates is filledwith a mineral jelly or gelatine, called a ''solid electrolyte," made by mixing soluble glass The intention is to have it act as a porous parwith sulphuric acid. tition

jarand

the plates, to prevent their touching by buckling or falling out of the material. It is hardly probable, however, that this soft material would not be pushed aside by the great force exerted buckles. improvement is, that in the Another a plate when large positive plates the current is led off from all four corners, and

between

from

the center

of the negative

plates, the intention

being

to avoid

188
buckling by

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OP

1889

AT

PARIS.

distribution over the plates. It is very probable that the gelatine used increases materially the internal resistance and diminishes the rate of charge and discharge. For the Pollak cell,which might be classed among these, Pollak.
a

more

even

current

"

see

under

Plante* type of cells.

OTHER
TYPES
OF

CELLS.

of importance exhibited only other accumulators nier the Reyand not belonging to either the Plante or Faure types were The Reynier is well known, and the copper-zinc accumulators.

Reynier.

"

The

consisting of zinc as a negative and peroxide as the positive plate. It has the advantage of a higher voltage, it being from 2. 3 to 2.5 volts. It has such grave faults, however, that it appears to have been abandoned, and was exhibited only as a voltametric regulator, to regulate the potential to be used in connection with a dynamo, device in case of accidental stoppage of the and to act as a reserve dynamo.
Cadmium.
"

Another

exhibitor used cadmium

and tin, in place of

zinc, but without apparently any great gain. The other accumulator, of a radically different type, Copper-zinc. department, is one exhibited by Elwell " Co. in the French war and It consists of porous sheets of copper as in the French navy. used
"

tinned iron as negatives, positive plates and sheets of amalgamated On the liquid being a concentrated solution of zincate of potash. into yellow and is changed charging, the copper absorbs oxygen suboxide of copper; the zinc is deposited on the tinned iron; the potash is set free. They require no forming, and are said to stand A set of fifty of the smaller cells any rate of charge or discharge. on a street car, was and is stated to have used in an experiment
1,575 watts for 3i hours, and given 45 amperes and 35 volts, making This would make about 100 pounds of is said to weigh 700 pounds. hour. horse-power As a good lead accumulator cells per effective

of the ordinary type will weigh about 110 to 120 pounds per effective less, this new form is not much lighter horse-power hour, and even forms. Their chief disadvantage is their small than the well known is only or about one-third that of the lead .75 volt, To be equally light for the same it must give power accumulator. hours per pound of plates, about three times the capacity in ampere then there will be three times the number of retaining and even voltage, which

It is reported, furthermore, that they that the liquid tends to change charge well and in contact with the air. cells.

do not retain their into carbonate when

This form of accumulator, duced slightly modified, has lately been introinto this country, under the name of the Waddell-Eiitz accumulator: it is also closely allied to the Lalande " Chaproii or the

Edisoii-Lalan.de primary

battery.

ELECTRICIT5T.

189

V."

ELECTRICAL

MEASURING SCIENTIFIC

INSTRUMENTS
APPARATUS.

AND

GENERAL.

ments, instruexhibits of the higher class of electrical measuring but few exhibitors, were though the confined to those of the world, and may the very best makers therefore of products of be considered as representative of the latest and finest apparatus of

The

this class.

of exhibitors, who. though also a number the highest, had excellent exhibits of apparatus not ranking among for research, of certain classes, and specialties, Such as apparatus instruments, instruction, and demonstration, commercial Geissler "
were

There

ments of electrical instruthe principal niaiiwas very good and complete, representing facturers of the world and the latest and best products. The progress shown provemen Progress. was chiefly in the direction of im-

Crooks

tubes, etc.

In general, the

exhibition

"

improvements

in the class of testing and measuring being mainly to facilitate the using

apparatus,

the

forms, though some rather than to develop new has been made in the latter direction also.
Among

tus, of such apparaimportant ress prog-

the

more

important

improvements

are

the Deprez-d'Ar-

the change of the divisions in resistance boxes, sonval galvanometer, forms the newer of electrometers and electrometer voltmeters, the instruments, the Thomson Lippmann balance, the Wimshurst ampere
for research, machine, and, in the direction of apparatus that of Elihu Thomson. Exhibits by countries. The exhibits were confined almost entirely few from the United States. Those to France, England, a and of

influence

"

by far the largest in numbers, and, with the exception Elliott Brothers, the most important also. In the English section of besides Elliott Brothers, who, with Carpentier, are the first there were,

France

were

in the world, a few very creditable exhibits. Those from the United for research of Elihu Thomson States Avere limited to the apparatus

and Edison. Awards.

"

The

importance

from

the principal awards of Paris, and Elliott Brothers

be judged of the various exhibits may pentier given in this field by the jury. J. Car-

very

of grand prizes. (Great Britain),nd Richard Freres a

high

award

both received of London, " Latimer Clark, Muirhead

the

Co.

Dalloz,

Gillet et Guyot-Sionnet,
received being section
prize.

Cooper
coiicours,"

silver medals.
on

in the
a

represented of instruments

gold medals. " Gaiffe et Fils, and Patterson Breguet "hors Besides these, was the jury,and Ducretet was classed
precision in which

(Paris) received

of

he

received

grand

190

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

In Classification.
"

the

exhibits are described trodynamometers, electrometers,

meters,

order: galvanometers, elecboxes, ampere resistance and volt As most meters, of the apand miscellaneous apparatus. paratus is already well known in a general way, no attempt is made
a

accompanying in the following

detailed

description,

the

here known
to
a

to give

thorough

description,

familiarity

with

the well-

apparatus

being assumed.

summary of such points as ratus Appaor of their recent development. or of their importance, for demonstration and instruction has not been included, as it little has undergone recent development.

The description is confined merely are of interest because of their novelty

GALVANOMETERS.

Elements.
may

they of galvanometers be considered as consisting in general of three essential elements, the part through which the current to be meas: first, ured namely in the form turns of wire, a coil of many passes, usually of
"

To

facilitate the

description

the effect,which it or magnifying with the objectof multiplying to the number does in proportion of turns in the coil ; second, a is moved by and in proportion to the maglight movable netic part which in the coil ; third, a directing force exerted by the current
force which gives the movable part direction and antagonizes the force exerted by the current, so that the resultant of the two will In the ordinary well-known indicate the measure of the current. the coil is fixed and must be placed with its axis east galvanometers part is a small light magnet suspended on a and west ; the movable fiber without torsion, or on a pivot, and the directing force is the
magnetism

of the earth which

tends

to hold

the magnet
are

north

and

south.

Definition terms: of
terms

Constant.

"

The

following

used in connection with galvanometers such as the currents for which they are
to
as
a a

the principal to indicate their properties,

"figureof
how small

to be used, etc. The is usually reindicates what ferred merit" of a galvanometer its sensitiveness; that is, it is a constant which indicates current
can

fore gives

number

be measured with the galvanometer; by which different galvanometers may

as

it there,

be compared

the same with each other in this respect, provided deflection has been used. Thejfajftwe merit is defined

of

of the current which will produce one scale. A high figure of merit therefore shows For very small currents; that is, it is very sensitive. will measure this the French use the better term "constant" of a galvanometer, is defined as the resistance, usually in megohms, through which

unit of the reciproca deflection on the unit that the galvanometer

which

one

volt will produce

one

unit

deflection.

It may

readily be

ELECTRICITY.

191

that is, that the shown that the two terms are absolutely the same; is this resistance which is called the constant. figure of merit really This contherefore be used interchangeably. The two terms may stant in which tions the deflecis readily obtained for any galvanometer

Connect a battery to practically proportional, as follows: a through the galvanometer resistance, and read the deflection, motive usually in millimeters; divide the total resistance by the electroare

have

by the deflection; the result is the required multiply figure of merit in ohms; if galvanometer or shunts constant In a large tangent be made. been used, the correction must force

and

deflects it the constant is usually that current which galvanometer the unit of 45 degrees; this is the reciprocal of the other constant; be made, can deflection, however, is different, so that no comparison except with other tangent galvanometers.
Aperiodic.
means
"

Aperiodic

is synonymous

certain class of galvanometers the circuit is closed, the limit only when aperiodic which aperiodicity is the greatest resistance in the external circuit with of to zero; that is, when they will be aperiodic when returning which
are

part of a without oscillating to and fro a number In deflected or when it returns to zero.

that the movable

with the termcfearZ beat"nd to rest quickly comes galvanometer of times, be it when
a

it is

the pointer will not pass by the zero Ballistic. A ballisticgalvanometer

"

part has considerable currents, the principle being that the moving part does not begin to is move current has ceased; the deflection then until the momentary
a

returning to rest. is one in which the moving inertia; it is used for measuring momentary
on

mere

single oscillation. Strictly speaking

"

it

measures

coulombs,

and not amperes. in which is one Astatic. An. astatic galvanometer the directing is made force of the earth's magnetism exceedingly small by having
two

spindle, and turned in opposite needles connected on the same directions, so that only the difference of their directing force acts thereby increasing the relative while the current acts on their sum,
power of the current. The Exhibits.
"

exhibited are, variously, to increase the constants or figure or merit; to increase the aperiofield of the earth, dicity; to make them independent of the magnetic less delicate to iron masses, dynamos, them etc. ; to make moving of objects handle, and to simplify and cheapen their construction. Thomson The well-known Thomson's galvanometer. were and double-coil astatic galvanometers exhibited
"

improvements

single-coil by Elliott

their original makers, who of London, have modified them any; they are too well known

Brothers,

do not appear to tion to require descripa

here.

Carpentiers
the of object

Carpentier modification.
"

exhibited

modification,

which

is to make

all the parts

readily accessible, and

192

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

also to enable the coils to be screws. merely a few thumb

changed,

all of which

is done

with

The plate glass faces Fig. 39 shows the galvanometer complete. be pulled out from the two thumb the top ; by unscrewing can in Fig. 40, containing the front B B, the front plate, shown screws
halves of the two coils, can be removed, with the mirror, damper, and suspension allowing
any

leaving
to be

the needle spindle, exposed, as seen in Fig. 41, made. The

adjustingand

repairing

bolts and

FIG.

39." Modified

Thomson

galvanometer;

by

Carpentier,

France.

arranged and insulated with ivory that the act of screwing on the plate (Fig. 40) makes all the connections required. The rear plate may be removed similarly, and both may be replaced by other coils of a different resistance. The little lozenge-shaped a air damper also prevents the spindle from making lution. complete revoThe form is a very practical one, provement imand is an important
are so
on

nuts BB'

the

dimensions

and

The following original form. constants of the most sensitive one

are

some

made

of the Coils,

ELECTEICITY.

193
diameter,
The

60,300 turns

of wire one-tenth

of

millimeter

about No.

constants vary resistance, 10,130 ohms. gauge; on the top. The to the position of the directing magnet according to rest will increase with the contime of an oscillation in coming stant, For constants of 800, 1,600, but not in as rapid proportion. per millimeter deflection, the time of a single and 15,000 megohms 4i,7, and 21 seconds, respectively. Distance of scale, oscillation was
38 American
1.1 meter.
CARPENTIER'S
THOMSON
OALVAXOMETER.

FIG.

40.

"

Front

plate. of the

carrying
coils.

halves

FIG.

41." The

galvanometer

with

the front plate removed.

Deprez-d'Arsonval. of galvanometers

is so simple and eminently practical, and has such excellent qualities that it will doubtless replace most of the in places besides creating new uses other forms of galvanometers,
where

prez-d'Arsonval of Paris, This instrument

and interesting exhibit was that of the so-called Deunquestionably galvanometer, made and exhibited by Carpentier,
"

The

most

important

the older forms could not be used on account of their being by so many It is alreadv in use surrounding conditions. affected largely in France, and it would doubtless meet with one same very States. The principle is essentially the same a" in the well-known that used Weston instruments. Principle. The galvanometer in Fig. 42, of a, consists, as shown ll. having a small cylindrical piece of soft iron beU-shaped magnet,
"

favor in the United

Ex. 410"

VOL

iv

13

194
tween

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

its poles, secured by means The of a standard in the rear. small, light coil of wire is wound around a small, open, rectangular as frame, and is suspended so that it can shown revolve freely ing around the suspension as an axis, the two long sides of the coil movin the most intense parts of the field. The suspension wires are to be measured the leads to and from the coil. The current passes through

tends to revolve it. precisely as if it were the The, suspension armature of a small motor. wires are soldered at their ends, and their torsion acts to give the coil direction and to be can one antagonize the force exerted by the current ; the upper the coil and

FIG.

42.

"

Deprez-d'Arsonval

galvanometer.

The order of things in the twisted slightly to set the coil to zero. is, therefore, reversed ; instead of having a ordinary galvanometer large, fixed coil and a small, light, movable the coil is here magnet, large and fixed, the is light and movable, made while the magnet force being replaced by the variable earth's magnetic In any galvanometer, reliable and invariable torsional force of a wire. to the product of the the deflecting force is proportional ; in the old form of galvanometers, of the coil and the magnet magnetism

weak

and

the former
the present

form

is great and the latter is necessarily small ; in it is justthe reverse, being made very the magnets

powerful.

ELECTRICITY.

195

Historical.

"

The

suggested syphon
was

by

Maxwell

it having been idea of this disposition is not new, by Sir William Thomson in his and used
we

recorder, but

believe that it was

galvanometers applied to commercial same principle is applied, at present, in a more in the United States in the Weston commercial Properties and
Among advantages. that it is aperiodic
"

until 1880 that it by Dr. d'Arsonval. The

not

compact

form

here

volt meters

peremeters and am-

simplicity, The

are

or

or of the earth's magnetism is so intense that the earth's field produced by the magnets to it, and even is practically nothing compared the presmagnetism ence iron have dynamos or masses of moving of and other magnets
*

the chief advantages, besides deadbeat, and that it is independent bodies. that of surrounding

practically no effect on the deflections. The aperiodicity is due to the fact that the movement of the coil force which tends deflected generates a counter when electromotive to reduce the original, the result being that the pointer or spot of light will
move

and will not rest at its zero,

its point of rest, slower and slower as it approaches to pass it and oscillate. In the same way it will come

is short-circuited so that the galvanometer to allow the current, which is generated by the moving as coil, to flow, and thereby to oppose This aperiodicity is not the motion.

provided

only

when the ordinary

great saving of time, but enables the galvanometer instantaneous be taken, and when, readings must

to

be used therefore,

can not be used. galvanometers The sensitiveness or figure of merit increases with the magnetism on the coil, and with of the magnets, of windings with the number the length of the suspension wires; it diminishes as the suspension

For the same the figure of merit coil and magnets be varied by merely changing the size of the suspension wires. may It can be used with shunts, as any ordinary galvanometer. If used with a spot of light and ordinary scale, the deflections are proportional to the current. The zero depends only on the suspension point fixed if they remain wires and therefore remains unchanged. The same figure of merit or constant can be obtained with a much
wire

is larger.

less resistance of wire than in the ordinary galvanometers, equivalent therefore to a low-resistance galvanometer with figure of merit or constant.
Even

being
a

high

the most sensitive forms, however, do not equal the figure of merit of the double astatic Thomson galvanometer. In the form Constants. frequently, shown in the used most above figure, the ceil has about 200 ohms resistance, the suspension
"

wires
0.006

are

inch

of silver, fifteen one-hundredths of a millimeter, or about diameter, and each about 2 inches long; the con(No. 34) stants from one to four megohms, the limit of aperiodicity vary and
500 to 600 ohms,

is about

that is, when

short-circuited through

this

196

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PATHS.

resistance (oranything back after having been

half

meter

in moving not pass by the zero deflected. The transparent scale is usually tance long, graduated in millimeters, and is placed at a disit less), will

tenths of a millimeter can readily be estimated, to a deflection of the coil of 10 seconds or and correspond three hundred one and sixtieth of a degree. ballistic There were modifications exhibited many Modifications; the form used for a Fig. 43 shows in details for special purposes. The ballistic galvanometer. coil is of
one

meter.

The

"

made very large and with its greatest dimension perpendicular to its axis, to increase itsinertia. The two (J -shaped their like poles together magnets, with form the outside of the galas shown, vanometer
The coil is 50 by 64 millimeters
of 500 turns of one-tenth of a millimeter wire, having a The suspension resistance of 500 ohms. is by means of silver wires of onetenth of a millimeter and 70 millimeters in length. The constant is 100 megohms. It gives forty-three divisions for a discharge of a micro-coulomb. Its limit of aperiodicity is about 6,000
ohms, When

and is composed

which allowed

is

high. exceedingly to oscillate freely its

period of oscillation is about 6 seconds, while when short-circuited it requires

4

minutes

to

return

to

zero,

the

aperiodicity is so timing the moment

Fig. 43.
"

Ballistic galvanometer.

this time
to
a

can

great; properly this short circuit, of be reduced evidently

by

few seconds only; this overcomes in which to thethe objections ordinary ballistic galvanometers, to rest. It is claimed that it will a long time to come needle requires
measure

correctly momentary seconds, as in the case

currents, even of large dynamo

"

if their duration field magnets.

is several

direct reading galvanometer with proportional readings, used chiefly for medical purposes, and graduated in milliamperes, a modification of Figure 42 is used. is connected directly to the cylindrical iron One pole of the magnet Proportional

direct reading.

To obtain

core,

which, in this case, is hollow; the other is connected to an open annular space cylinder of iron encircling this firstpole, leaving an forms the single field. The rectangular coil between them, which is suspended so as to turn the field,while the other
on one

moves

of its sides as in this annular

an

axis, and field. The

not in deflec-

ELECTRICITY.

197

tions

angle of 180", and are sufficiently proportional, They are made to correspond to inilliamvarying only 2 per cent tion shunt coil. For an illustration and descripperes by an adjustable 11, 1889, p. 270. Electrique, May La Lumiere see
are

through

an

If the coil is held at top and bottom by two thin To obviate this the coil is and long wires it is too apt to tremble. by a single long thin wire from the for such purposes suspended by a platinum top only, while the other connection is made wire at is covered with the mercury the bottom dipping into a mercury cup; to dissolve the film of oxide a potassium of solution of cyanide

Sensitive

form.
"

whose viscosity would affect the free motion of the platinum The constant of this is 125 megohms per millimeter deflection; wire. does not compare this however even with the best Thomson, whose

formed

constants When zero

are

as

high

as

15,000
are

to 16,000

megohms

per

also in the form of a differential double, and the suspension being the coil being wound galvanometer, The difficultyin any differential galbifilar both at top and bottom. vanometer is to have the action of the two coils absolutely the same, so that if the same current be passed through both, in series but in
It modifications. is made
"

and figure of merit. Other

alone methods the field thereby

may used the magnets increased considerably,

millimeter. be electromagnets increasing the

opposite directions, there should be no deflection; the difference found in one of these was only one seven-hundredth, which is exceedingly For absolute proportionality to the current in any of these small.

is so arranged the upper suspension that it can be galvanometers turned so as to bring the coil back to zero for every deflection. The it is deWhen sired angles of torsion are then absolutely proportional. to have several spools of a different number ent of turns and differfor the same they are arranged with each Qonstants galvanometer
one on

its own

standard,

standard, which by the act of fastening the standard. The sensitiveness may made or less,the whole also be changed by raising, more standard with its bringing less of the coil into the field. In a form used, coil, thereby

whole

that all that is necessary is to change the the connections being requires but a moment,
so

for measuring

couple

heat, the coil itselfis a single, short-circuited, thermal fiber. The heat to be measured is on a cocoon suspended

the other being covered by the mirror. radiated upon one junction, held in direction by a small piece of iron wire fastened The couple is to it.

and exhibited by Carpentier. A few other makers also exhibited this form, among which by F. A. Claude (French as a relay for a one was exhibited

Claude form.
"

The

above

were

all made

section)

particular system of telegraphy in which the relay must operate for flat:the coil was The single magnet was widely differing currents. a flat ring, in the plane of the magnet and revolving on its diameter,

198

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

which, was perpendicular to the lines of force. A fixed, flat,circular disk of iron inside of the coil increased the intensity of the field the ; formed a very compact whole and simple apparatus.
Deprez galvanometer.
or
"

Another

Deprez
as
seen

also exhibited the ' ' fish bone " galvanometer. in Fig. 44, a fixed coil in the same
so

by

very simple Carpentier was

and convenient vanometer galthat known the as

flat piece of soft iron pivoted coil and between the magnets.

It consists of a magnet, plane with it, and a small its axis inside of the as to turn on This iron.is usually cut on its outer

the backbone its somewhat of a fish, from which edges, resembling When a current through the coil the field produced, name. passes

being perpendicular

to that of the magnets,

changes

the direction of

Fig. 44.

"

Deprez's

galvanometer.

the resultant lines of force, and thereby deflects the iron piece. Its ing advantages are that it is portable and exceedingly simple; the deflectforces are comparatively great, its action being therefore quick and decided. The deflections are, however, not at all proportional. It is particularly applicable when a decided and definite deflection cator is required, as, for instance, in a maximum volt indiand minimum
exhibited, in which a pointer attached to the iron piece moved between two platinum contact points quite close together, so that if the deflection changes one or the other of these contacts would be

closed, ringing an alarm. torsional spring, by which

volts. Its accuracy

deflection is opposed by an adjustable be set to the required number it can of form is said to be within 1 per cent. Another The

ELECTRICITY.

199

authorities exhibited is used by the municipal of this galvanometer It is portin Paris to test the leakage from the incandescent mains. able in a closed box, with a small readarranged ing and conveniently telescope having the scale in the inside. Branville exhibited a galvanometer of galvanometer. type, devised by d'Arsonval, the most important the Wiedemann novelty of which is that the needle with its mirror, copper damper, moved and suspension are all in one tubular piece, which can be readily reWiedemann
"

without suspension examined the galvanometer. in the of adjustments Edison Heat galvanometer. exhibited a deadbeat
"

and the needle

or

any alteration

galvanometer

similar in principle to the well-known it is claimed antedates the latter, having

Cardew

voltmeter, and which

been

invented

in 1880.

It

consists of a iridium wire,

long
one

fine platinumis end of which

is wound fore around a small shaft, which thererotates as the wire expands secured and the other

and

contracts

by

the

heat

of the

the wire. current passed through the pull A spiral spring opposes on a the mirror of the wire, and
shaft indicates the

deflections by

means of a spot of light; the whole is inclosed in a glass tube through

which

and

fused are the terminals from which the air has been
"

exhausted. Pocket galvanometer.

a

Messrs. Woodhouse form

" Rawson

(French section)

ing havvery convenient of pocket galvanometer exhibited in Fig. 45, which the external appearance of a watch, as shown explains itself. The needle is balanced and pivoted with two pivots, magnet. and the field is doubtless an artificialone of a permanent
Accessories;
to galvathe accessories appertaining scale. Among nometers by Carpentier, which are of interest. a few exhibited were scale almost universally used with all his reflecting galvanometers,
"

The

shown
an

extension

one millimeters, instead of in the middle Thomson as the English end. usual with This single-scale system instruments. enables readings to be taken the whole length of the scale,and also enables all deflections to over

in Fig. 46, is of translucent celluloid,supported It is always graduated stand with a weighted base. is usually 50 centimeters long, with the zero at and

on

in

the right

or

left to be taken

subtraction setting for

zero

necessary in a double scale. If the

every time, the without setting to zero in this case being often less troublesome than,
same

deflection isto be taken

200

UNIVERSAL'

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

it is less troublesome, because to both, right and left,to get their mean, in that case no zero reading need be taken at all. This system

Fig. 46." Celluloid galvanometer

scale.

of single scale

and Germany

almost exclusively in both France in place of the double scale or central zero scale used
seems

to be used

Fig. 47." Reflecting

galvanometer

outfit ; Carpentier.

In the figure the littlesquare window largely in England. with its hair, in the screen below the scale, admits a beam, of light of that cross cross section reflected from the mirror, which has a universal move-

ELECTRICITY.

201

of light is seen on the scale in the form of a large, ment; this beam therefore be found or followed quite bright, square, spot, and can readily. The sharp, black line through the center enables the reading

light, and even dark a light from a winthough preferable, are not necessary, as the room, dow, by the mirror, is sufficiently bright to enable the spot reflected is not darkened. if the room light to be seen even The complete of
to be taken

with

precision.

lamp

As a source outfit in its simplicity is seen in Fig. 47. galvanometer flame fixed in position of light, the spring candlestick shown, with a by a proper reflector, is an excellent substitute and surrounded lamp. The brass plate under the galvanometer, for the

objectionable

to be insulated enables the galvanometer and cushioned with rubber, while its position is determined by the always be put back into exactly the same grooves, so that it can

with three radial grooves,

position after having been removed. In the Mudford modification of the scale exhibited by Patterson and Cooper, in the British section, the cross wire is placed between so as not to be the condensing lens and the galvanometer, magnified

by this lens. This is claimed to give a much of this line 011 the scale than if the wire side of the lens.

sharper and finer image were placed on the other

shown, but novel disposition was to save its advantage to protect the see we except space and is placed in the bottom The galvanometer of the galvanometer. by means table or desk, the beam of light being reflected upward of The scale lies flat on the desk over the galvaa reflecting prism. nometer, it makes mirror at an angle of 45" over and a long, narrow

Novel desk fail to

A outfit. somewhat
"

it appear

to be upright, so that it is In another form, Portable

seen a

justas

usual.

outfit.
"

portable outfit,the galvanometer which a small reading telescope having

a

very convenient and compact is in a box through one side of is introduced close to the mirror,

the microscopic scale of 120 divisions in the inside near is magnified so as to be almost as large as a millieyepiece, which meter An hair on the neigha cross scale. window, with boring adjustable the box, and a small side of reflector of white

adjustable

paper, illuminates the whole field of the telescope and shows line, which can be sharply focused by the telescope.
ELECTRO-DYNAMOMETERS.

black

General. between

"

Electro-dynamometers,
currents,

which
come

measure

two

have

lately

into

use

the relative force largely in meters

for measuring and registering the quantity of electric energy supplied is used in these to a purchaser. The electro-dynamometer
meters

in order to take into account both the volts and the amperes that is, the delivered, by indicating or measuring their product they are often, and correctly, called "watt watts, for which reason
"

202
meters."

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1"89

AT

PARIS.

description of those used in meters, see under the heading "Meters." The Thomson balances. Thomson electric balances, which are also were not exhibited, but they will be mentioned electro-dynamometers, the heading "Ampere meters." under

For

"

For
a

Telephone Company exhibited for measuring the very small currents small electro-dynamometer in a telephone. It consisted of two small, vertical, circular telephone currents.
"

The

French

inch diameter, one coils of three-fourths of an other was movable, being attached to the end of

was
a

fixed and the small horizontal

by a single cocoon lever of 1| inches length, which was suspended fiber so as to turn about this as an axis. Contacts to and from it The torsional force of were made by wires dipping into mercury. the fiber opposed the repelling force of the two coils and thereby

indicated the strength

of the current.
ELECTROMETERS.

appear to be coming into use gradually, Their unin practice, as distinguished from scientific research. doubted is being appreciated in certain special cases superiority more as, for instance, for alternating potentials, for very and more,

General.

"

Electrometers

high potentials, or for measuring rent potentials without causing a curhas therefore been to to flow. The direction of improvement in as practical form as possible, rather than to try construct them latter has to improve the general principle of their action, which
Thomson's as original suggestion, absolutely the same lateral attraction of two electrified plates to a third namely, the between They them are one, moving and electrified oppositely. voltmeters for already used in a very simple form as commercial

remained

high potentials above 500 volts,' such as in arc-light circuits. improvements One of the most important Carpentier's form. in the form exhibited by Carpentier. The directing and shown was deflecting forces in an electrometer being necessarily very small, the
"

needle in the usual forms is very time, which

instrument.

The

object

slowly and for a long and objectionable often prohibits the use of the of the present construction is to overcome

will oscillate very

This is done by developing an intense this and to make it aperiodic. fieldin the space through which the movable part oscillates. magnetic This develops Foucault currents in the moving parts, which oppose its movement in the slightest way affecting without and check
the deflection. resembles The
form

of the instrument

is

in external appearance somewhat described above (Fig.42). The electrified quadrants galvanometer tudinally of the electrometer are made in the form of a cylinder, split longiinto four parts, a form adopted a number of years ago by

in Fig. 48, and the Deprez-d'Arsonval

seen

Edelmann,

of Munich.

similar split cylinder is in the inside and

ELECTRICITY.

203
a

concentric with

movable part is in the form of metallic frame, like a shallow box without top num. and is usually made of alumiIt is suspended by torsion
it.

The

light rectangular bottom, or

wires,
can

as

seen,

so

that it

revolve, its long slides through the annular moving space between the quadrants.
The quadrants
are

and

movable
as

electrified, usual, by the potential which either is to be measured or by means

of

frame

high potential battery in In the former the addition.

a

deflections are proportional to the square of the potential: in the latter they are simply proportional to the potential. The torsion of the suspension force: the is the opposing are magnets merely for making
the movement aperiodic. have no other function: and they therefore do not affect

The most delicate the constant. form is said to give a deflection Of 3 millimeters for
1 volt with
a

FlG"

*"

-Carpenteifs

quadrant

electrometer.

100-volt charging battery, and 25 centimeters for 70 volts The same form, except that the cylinder without a charging battery. is horizontal and the counterforce gravity, is made in the form of a
volt-meter,
3,000 volts.

which

see

under

that heading.

These

are

made

up

to

Mascarfs
was one

Thomson

electrometer, exhibited by Carpentier, devised by Mascart. It is in general like the well-known electrometer, but is modified in details of construction quadrant to bring it into a more form. It is princiso as pally practical

form.
"

Another

for laboratory

purposes,

and

is used

chiefly for measuring

electrification. atmospheric interest is that form Blondlot " Curie form. Another of some by Messrs. Blondlot " Curie, and exhibited by Ducretet devised like the Thomson form, except (French section).It is somewhat that it has only two sets of ""quadrants." instead of four, in this case
"

in the form

by

round,

and moving These fixed semicircles

The "figure-8" needle is replaced of two semicircles. light disk of aluminum, also cut into two semicircles, between the upper and lower plates of the semicircles.
are

magnets,

so

as

to act at the

same

time

as

204
dampers,

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

The central moving to make the motion plate aperiodic. ter, by long torsion wires, one-fiftieth millimeter in diameis suspended It may be used as in the Carpentier form, acting also as leads.

battery. In the former case the two with or without a charging halves of the moving part are connected to the charging battery and the others to the unknown potential; in the latter case the semicircles connected in pairs. For further description, Electrique, October 23, 1886.
are

see

La Lumiere

both exhibited the Lippmann appears to be coming capillary electrometer, which It is limited in its application, but is a very into use gradually. instrument in its field; that is, to measure potentials less than good

Lippmann

capillary

form.
"

Bre*guet and Ducretet

one

volt down

to

one

ten-thousandths

of

volt.

Its principle is that

the surface of contact between mercury and acidulated water in a its place in the tube when the two liquids capillary tube will change It is prompt are electrified. Readings are made with a microscope. and

aperiodic, and is said to be used in anatomical researches to the variation of electrificationaccompanying measure tractions muscular conIt is used in electrical laboratories for standardizing by
certain

methods

in which

potential measurements further description, see

Voltmeters.
"

only very small differences between two to be detected or measured. For a are Vol. 2, by Mascart. Traite* d'electricite*,
are

voltmeters,

see

For electrometers which under that heading.

RESISTANCE

arranged

as

commercial

BOXES.

General.

"

Resistance

boxes

the finest were

unquestionably Carpentier, of Paris. and of littleto be described. noted below, there was

exhibited by many makers, but those of Elliott Brothers, of London, With ments the exception of the improvewere

Legal ohms are by French makers, while English makers adopted universally still use the B. A. unit largely, though all Elliott coils are made for either.

German-silver
while

which Division

wire is stillused almost entirely for the French coils, the Elliott coils are largely of platinum made silver alloy, has a lower temperature coefficient.

of coils. One
"

of the principal

to be coming into use in the Elliott box, Fig. 49.

and

replacing

pears modifications which apthe older form is shown

of ten equal coils, one group of units, one greatly facilitatesplugging in readings; it has the additional feature that errors and avoids the number of plug contacts (four in this box),and therefore their is not the case in the old resistance, is always the same, which form, in which the number varies with every resistance unplugged. On the other hand, it increases both the size and the price of the box,
coils
are

The

arranged

in groups, each tens, etc. This very of

as

there must

necessarily be two

and

half times

as

many

coils

(as

ELECTRICITY.

ten is to

four)for

the

same

range

of resistance.

In another

is Elliott, Fig. 50, the convenient adjusting even more levers and sliding contacts shown. means of the

box of and rapid, by

FIG.

49." Resistance

box with

plugs

; Elliott Bros.

These
next

contacts

are

coil before they

arranged that they make contact with the leave the previous one, so as not to open the
so

FIG.

50." Resistance

box

with

dials and

sliding contacts

; Elliott Bros.

circuit; one revolution on Brdguet exhibited next.

one

one

corresponds to similar to this, with

box

one

step

on

the

the additional

FIG. 51." Carpeutier's dial resistance

box.

206

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

feature that every complete revolution of the right-hand lever will In the Carpentier box, forward one the left-hand one move step.

Fig. 51, the

same

arrangement

have

four groups,
as

ten each, arranged

in Fig. 50, is modified so as to namely, units, tens, hundreds, and thousands, of in four semicircles, and with four levers; this is
as

not quite

convenient, but is much

more

compact,

as

there

are

only

FIG. 52." Compact

form

of resistance

box

; Elliott Bros.

forty coils,while in the other, Fig. 50, there are two hundred for the same range and degree of adjustment. All these are less reliable and accurate for very exact work, A somewhat similar but much more compact form, made by Elliott, in Fig. 52, and is used exclusively for telegraph work, is shown Edison exhibited one for a chiefly for balancing a duplex system.
,

FIG. 53." Carpentier's

resistance box

with

plugs.

consisting of disks of silk, saturated with a sizing one mixed with plumbago, which after being dried are placed over by a screw vided another forming a pile which is compressed with a di-

similar purpose

head.
Plug

enge heads of the form shown in Fig. 53 have replaced the old lozform altogether in the Carpentier boxes. They are much more

ELECTRICITY.

207

in and do not break like the old form, which is very weak that in plugging, the middle; they have the additional advantage box, one is not so apt to loosen the neighboring in a compact plugs
convenient,

by accidental pressure from was that the boxes were with

a

the fingers.

Another

improvement

noticed

binding

screw

by plugs fitted sometimes accompanied at the top, to enable a wire to be connected to

any special one Legal ohms.

of the coils.
"

standard
mercury

ohm)
ohms

maker of the French national exhibited standard ohms in various forms, including In connection with standard ohms he in glass tubes.

Carpentier

(who is the

exhibited also
of standard

large, massive
Latimer

Wheatstone

bridge

for comparison

ohms. lines. Artificial

"

Clark, Muirhead

" Co. exhibited their

combined

of resistance coils and condensers, the object which is to lines, having both capacity and resistance artificial make adjustable They are to their length. in proportion made of strips combined

that they of tin foil which are so proportioned in size and so wound have both capacity and resistance in the same ratio as the lines with The transatlantic cables are duplexed which, they are to be used.
lines. with these artificial
AMPEREMETERS AND

VOLTMETERS.

of different systems of amperemeters and voltmeters was as great as the number panies exhibited of electric lighting comabout tem. sysmakers and instrument combined; each one had his own

The

number

appeared to be sufficiently good as ordinary for which intended, they were apparatus, the purpose commercial but few deserved to be ranked among ing reliable and accurate measurMost
of them
instruments.

electro-magnetic piece of iron or

The underlying principle of most of them was through a coil of wire action of the current A few of the more important on a magnet.

the
on a

ones

below. The only ones differing radically were will be mentioned the Lippmami the Cardew voltmeter, and the mercury amperemeter,

Edison volt indicator, which is on the principle of a Wheatstone bridge, and the volt meters on the electrometer principle. The introducti tant the latter, in a practical form, was the most imporof improvement in voltmeters. The most important amperemeter
for accuracy, reliability, and constancy is unquestionably son the Thombalance, which was Almost be the same not exhibited. may the Westoii voltmeter, which was All said of not exhibited either.

but direct reading instruments Among Deprez-Carpentier.

"

seem

to have

gone

out of

use.

commercial forms not differing essentially in their general principle may be mentioned the following: The one meeting with most general favor, judging from
the
ordinary

the frequency known

as

it used in France, is the form one sees which It the Deprez-Carpentier, and exhibited by Carpentier.
with

208
is merely
a

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

sort of galvanometer with, an artificialfield; that is, it consists of a soft iron pivoted needle under the combined action of its axis slightly inclined to the usual a magnet and coil,placed with to the field, to obtain a better deflection. position perpendicular

They

with

form, and are neat, convenient comparatively be supplied cheap, costing only $10. The amperemeters may is, crease (that conveniently arranged "reducers" which inare

arranged

in

shunts),

fixed proportion the value of the readings. Similarly the voltmeters may be supplied with an extra resistance (inseries) to increase the value of their readings.
in
a

Desruelles. the form

a
a

"

of

weather

vane

exhibited by Desruelles the needle is in flat piece of soft iron pivoted so as to move like small It moves in or a flag against the action of a spring.

In the form

cylindrical space in a coil,which is lined with a thin sheet of soft iron in the shape of an isosceles triangle bent around so that its apex The attraction of the needle to the conalmost meets the base. stantly iron opposite to the end of it gives a increasing amount of deflection through They almost 180 degrees. nearly proportional
of their cheapness. Among the exhibits of Patterson and Ayrton Perry voltmeters the well known Cooper were original and field are which merely galvanometers and ammeters, with an artificial form of these is arranged with a and a double-pivoted needle; one
are

of interest on Patterson and

account Cooper.

"

commutator cell. They

standard tor" indicaor engine-room also exhibited an amperemeter for large currents, consisting merely of a small magnetic needle horizontal pivots and weighted so as to give it a direction on pivoted to a thick bar of copper through which the parallel and quite near deflects the needle current flows; the direct action of this current
* '

attachment

so

that it can

be recalibrated with

is the action of gravity; the counterweight enabling adjustable, the readings to be varied; in another form it is replaced by a One of these was as a registering instrument, shown chiefly spring. The same for central a small makers also exhibited -station work. type, having the outside magnet pocket voltmeter of the permanent G ounces. appearance and size of a pocket watch and weighing The same Cardew. Cardew voltmakers exhibited the well-known meters, against
"

measures

in which the the current.

here.

wire of .0025 before calibration, to insure its remaining protected by a very fine platinum wire fuse.

stretched wire by the current tion They are too well known to require descripIn the later form the fine, stretched platinum silver inch diameter is heated by the current for many days
of
a

heating

constant.

The

wire

is

for 120 volts, reading through the few voltmeters which are for alternating
currents,

usually made the dial, and are one of of applicable alike for continuous and be left in circuit continand which can uously.
360 degrees

They

are

ELECTRICITY.
Ayrton
"

209

Messrs. Latimer, Clark, and Perry spring instruments. Ayrton Muirhead " Co. exhibited the well-known and Perry spring instruments, in which the underlying principle is that a small axial

pull of a solenoid on a special form of spring will result in a greatly The spring conincreased rotary motion of the end of this spring. sists long a flat band a helix made a of steel rolled around of of cylinder. Alioth.
"

Messrs. Alioth
in which

"
a

Co.

(Swiss section) exhibited

core

ampere
a

was curved sucked curved and volt meters, is quite similar in principle to the The construction solenoid. The core described and illustrated below. is pocket amperemeter

into

in the form
moon,

of

pivoted
enables
a

thin sheet of iron cut into a form like half of a new directly to its pointer, at its center and connected

which

deflection of

more

than

180 decrees

to be used.

Fig. 54. Pocket amperemeter; Woodhouse

Fig. 55.

" Rawson.

Pocket amperemeter.
a

"

Messrs. Woodhouse form

" Rawson

(Frenchsection)

ing havvery convenient exhibited of pocket amperemeter, the external appearance of a pocket watch, as seen in the adjoining illustrations, Figs. 54 and 55, which ternal show the face and the inIn principle it is the same mechanism respectively. Alioth form just described, the pivoted, crescent-shaped H. Ex. 410" VOL iv 14
as

the
at-

core

210
tached

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

pointer being drawn into a curved coil, the counter Although probably not very accurate, action being a hair spring. it is very convenient, and will doubtless meet with favor for certain
to the classes of work.

It may,

of

course,

be made

equally well

as

meter. volt-

Edison exhibited a form similar in principle, but used for very great currents. The core is a round iron rod bent chiefly izontal around in the form of a quadrant of a circle, and is pivoted on horby a pivots at the center of this circle -and counterbalanced The fixed coil consists of a very coarse spiral of a few weight. bent around in the form of turns of thick, bare copper wire, also

Edison.

"

quadrant,

so

that the curved

core

moves

axially through
currents

it.

Its

construction

is certainly very simple, and for strong

is probably

very good. Carpentier exhibited also a very simple form devised De Lalande. by Lalande and called an electric hydrometer, consisting of a long vertical solenoid filledin the interior with water, in which sinks an
"

is a bundle in the inside of which of iron ordinary hydrometer, core against which is sucked down wires ; this acts as the movable the buoyant action of the water, which replaces the spring used in instruments. The range is Kohlrausch the similar well-known quite large and nearly proportional in the portion most frequently
to prevent its attaching itself The guide for this hydrometer, used. the friction is to the side of the coil, is under the liquid, whereby be nearly aperiodic (dead is claimed It to said to be eliminated.

beat).
TJiomson-Houston
Houston

Company

form. In the one usually used by the Thomsona (United States section) small U-shaped piece of
"

the center of a coil having a square cross soft iron is pivoted near by the soft iron section are embraced section, three sides of which piece. The tendency of the coil is to draw this piece closer to it, which it is enabled to do through a great range by the fact that the The counter force is gravity. iron piece is pivoted eccentrically. this coil is a circular piece of cast copper cut at one part and provided there with terminals. A curious form devised Thomson' s form for alternating currents.

In the amperemeters

for great

currents

"

by Elihu

Thomson,

of copper turning on

for alternating currents, consists of a solid ring situated in a coil, slightly inclined to it and capable of diameter. The currents induced in this the common

the ring into a position perpendicular to the coil. ring tend to move Gravity is the counter force. It is probably only experimental. improvements is Electrometer form. One of the most important
"

the application of the electrometer principle to commercial ters. voltmein Figs. 56 and 57. by Carpentier, is shown One of these, made The movable part, shown enlarged in Fig. 57, is made in the form

of

light rectangular

frame

of aluminum,

rocking

on

knife edges

ELECTRICITY.

211

between the sides move four inside and four outside. The four eight cylindrical segments, on a vertical diameter are connected together as well as to the needle in and form one pole; the four others form the other pole. When operation, the needle is repelled by the former and attracted by the
so

in the interior; it rotates

that

its long

shoe of the horseis merely to create an intense field through magnets shown frame moves the aluminum ened which and by which its motion is dampthat it is practically aperiodic. so It is limited, however, to high voltages, from voltmeters the Thomson nearly Elliott and Bre*guet also exhibited commercial this electrometer principle, resembling more on electrometer, but with its axis horizontal and a
500 up.

latter, the count erf orce

being gravity.

The

function

FIG. 56.

Electrometfc

voltmeter

; Carpentier.

attached to its "figure 8" needle; these, however, are is an important as not aperiodic, which objection, they oscillate a long time. Those of Elliott are made for as low a voltage as 40, the
long pointer
range

may

The advantages ters of such voltmeof this one being 40 to 160. that their constant is fixed and does not change, that they are be kept in circuit continually, are independent of temperature,
are

and

equally applicable standard balances were

for alternating The

and

for continuous

currents.

standard of too great to be passed by here without a short description. The by devices which recurrent main objectof the instrument is to measure independent of any surare absolutely constant, which entirely
"

TJiomson

balances.

Sir William
They
are,

Thomson

ampere importance

not exhibited.

however,

212
rounding in fact, a
or

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

It is, variable conditions, and which are transportable. transportable standard amperemeter, and belongs to the instruments the standard ohm, the standard cell,and as same class of The principle is that the attraction of the absolute electrometer. The the current to itselfis measured by being balanced by a weight. of these The current passes there is a fixed coil, axial with the one above. two of the coils repel through all in series in such a direction -that each other and the other two attract, thereby turning the balance. by an This force is exactly counterbalanced weight sliding
apparatus consists in general of coils in place of the scale pans.
a

pair of balances having Immediately below each

two

flat

adjustable

this force and therefore the Their chief commercial is to serve use as a standard exact current. in calibrating (by means the of a standard resistance) ampere and They are not intended to replace these. volt meters of commerce. is 100 times the In the newest forms, the range of each instrument smallest unit. The smallest is for 0.01 to 1 ampere and the largest
on

the beam;

its position

measures

from

25 to 2,500 amperes.
"

Converter-voltmeter.
electrometer
was

Their prices Elihu Thomson

are

about

$150.

voltmeter former connected to the secondary circuit of a small transin which the low potential was converted into one sufficiently This is for alternating curhigh to be measured by the electrometer. rents.

also exhibited an experimental for low potentials, in which the electrometer

For direct currents the transformer was made of a series of Plante* experiments, condensers like those used in the well-known in multiple arc and discharged in series by means are which charged
"

of the usual cylindrical commutator, which is rotated rapidly. Edison voltmeter. The portable voltmeter used and exhibited by Edison differs essentially from most others. It is in principle a potentiome is, one in which the difference of potential is comthat pared
in terms of that cell, with a standard cell and is measured which is contained in the voltmeter as part of it. It consists essentially to the two points a high resistance whose are connected ends of

difference of potential is to be measured. A standard cell in is connected, as a shunt to a small series with a small galvanometer portion of this resistance, by a sliding contact moved until no current The required voltage is then a cerflows through the galvanometer. tain whose multiple of that of the cell. The graduations so calibrated as to read directly in volts. are
at the sliding contact The standard cell

is a Daniell, made in the form of a small [J-tube,aving the bend h filledwith plaster of Paris, and the metals with their respective solutions in the two limbs. The plaster acts as a porous diaphragm and It is prevents the mixing of the solutions for three or four months.
one air-tight and cheap and is replaced by a new when used up. They are also made with Clark cells,which appear to be better. The same apparatus is arranged to enable currents or high insulations to

ELEC1RICITY.

213

strument for calibrating all their inwith it. Their standards Clark cells (1.435 legal the Daniell and the Latimer are volts at 15" C.) and the legal ohm. The Edison volt indicator differs also in Edison volt indicator. the principle being that the principle from the usual instruments, ment by the change of resistance of the carbon filapotential is measured It is used in the current passes. which of a lamp through distribution merely to indicate the normal potential and multiple arc it. a few volts on either side of instruments, It belongs to the class of "zero" and consists, essentially,

be measured

"

in the of a sort of Wheat stone bridge, as shown illustration, Fig. 58, in which an incandescent lamp forms arms of the bridge, the three ordinary The usual coils. resistance by the leads battery is replaced the potential is to be at which

adjoining
one

of the

other

arms

being

measured.

A
an

small

(soas

with to be independent

nometer galvaartificialfield of the is contained

FIG. 58." Edison's
volt indicator.

earth's has
disk
even
a

magnetism)
in

and long pointer with a black its end moving over on at a distance.

the apparatus

the scale,

so

that it is readily visible

system is so arranged that at the normal voltage it is balanced as the normal points to zero, which is marked and the galvanometer If the voltage changes, the current through this lamp potential.

The

its resistance correspondingly, in turn changes will change, which needle. alters the balance of the bridge, and deflects the galvanometer

change of one vo]t from the normal may be made to deflect the end of the needle half an inch, which can therefore be A small seen great distance. ance resistat a comparatively By
this
means
a

adjustable

is added

so

that the instrument

voltage as a normal. the resistances being

copper
so

to may be adjusted any desired It is to be kept in circuit all the time, one of

silver and partly of partly of German made that as they heat up the balance is still maintained. proportioned is, that the current reAn to these instruments quired

objection

by them
the pressure Compound

is great enough wires leading back

"

voltmeter of purpose : In multiple-arc distribution in which special ure, mains are led to a central point of distribution it is desired to measin the station, the potential at this distant point, thus eliminating This is usually done the variable loss of potential in the mains.

voltmeter. exhibited an ingenious

affected by the resistance of from the points of distribution. Sautter " Co. (SwisssecMessrs. Cuenod
to be
some

tion)

interest, for the following

214

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

by running small potential wires from tliis point back to the station. insignificant first cost and cost of maintenance. These involve no The of this voltmeter is to dispense with these, enabling the

object

desired potential at the far ends of the mains to be read directly from It consists of an ordinary voltmeter which has their dynamo ends. in addition a coarse coil for the main current, the magnetism of which
that of the fine wire coil and reduces the deflection by an amount which corresponds to the number of volts lost in those mains. to the current As the magnetism of this coarse coil is proportional the deflection will be reduced correspondingly for any current in the
opposes

be for It must, of course, adjusted the particular mains for which it is to be used, and it can not be used for any others. The amperemeter Lippmann someof Lipprnann, amperemeter. times " by Bre'guet, differs the amperemeter," mercury exhibited called
mains.
"

some

entirely in principle from the ordinary amperemeters, made in a commercial very good features. Although

and has form, it

but for special will hardly replace the ordinary cheaper amperemeters, ithas very great advantages. The scale is absolutely proporcases tional, there is no heating error for large currents, and it is aperiodic. in

The principle is that a conductor traversed by a current and situated field, in a a magnetic normally to the lines of force, will be moved

direction parallel to itselfand perpendicular to the lines of force, and sity with a force proportional to the product of the current and the intenof the field. In so far it is similar in principle to the wires on an
The application of the principle, however, armature of an ordinary motor. is quite different. A |J tube partially filled with mercury -shaped is placed with the bottom part of the bend between the two poles of a is perpendicular to the field of which powerful horizontal magnet, in that part of the tube. The current is then the column of mercury through this portion of the mercury pass transversely to both the the column that is, across column perpendicularly field and the axis of the horizontal column The at this point. to be displaced the mercury repelling force of the current will then cause
made
"

to

in the direction of its axis, making it rise in one arm of the fall in the other. This rise or fall will be directly proportube and tional to the current latter is throughout the whole range, which

limited only by the heating of the small section of mercury through which the current passes, and which, in practice, is made in the shape two sides by the poles on of a small parallelopipedal space bounded the magnet on the other two by the platinum of contact plates and for the current.

If the strength of this field is known the displacement per ampere be calculated and the instrument placement can thereby calibrated. This disin centimeters is equal to the product of the current in amperes, and the field intensity in c. g. s. units, divided by 133,416
times the thickness
in centimeters

of that part of the mercury

col-

ELECTRICITY.

215

umn

in the direction poles, measured which is between the magnet line of force. It is independent mensions of all other factors and diof the With a millimeter a thickness the greatof one-tenth of est

14 centimeters the field per ampere, sensitiveness produced was being 18,678 units. Ordinarily the sensitiveness is from 6 to 12 centimeters to read up to 1,000 Others have been made per ampere.

amperes,

the

permanent

magnets

being

replaced
a

by

an

magnet. electro-

Maximum

and
'"'

voltmeter,

minimum Deprez see

voltmeter.

"

For

galvanometer,
"

maximum mum and minithe heading " Galvanometers under

Recording

ampere

and

voltmeters.
a

Richard

Freres

(French section,

number of their registering ampere to be coming into use quite largely. and volt meters, which appear They are very convenient and quite simple in construction; though sufficiently so for many not very accurate, they are purposes and

gold

medal) exhibited

they

will doubtless find great application. in the for strong currents is shown

adjoining

registering amperemeter illustration,

Fig. 59.

BBI
FIG. 59." Registering amperemeter.

galvanometer crude construction; the part is of somewhat like a butterfly, two-winged, soft iron armature, shaped somewhat is pivoted on horizontal pivots and is connected to the pointer; it is
so

The

and bent that the deflection is as nearly as possible proportional the greater part of the range of motion; gravity is the within opposing force. The end of the pointer carries the ink in a small The revolving cylinder receptacle, the point of which acts as a pen. shaped
in twenty-four contains its clock and turns once it being printed with the required curved cross

hours, the paper for hatchings and duly

216
numbered

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

It is not necessary that the galvanometer needle be moved with great force, as the fact that the the friction at the pen, paper moves enables the pointer to overcome even though the force is small, only it will not act as promptly. The

with

hours

and

amperes.

same

recording

is used by these makers in many of their meteorologi instruments, which for a more see recording complete
"

drum

description.

References. For
Deprez

voltmeter

and

d'Arson val galvanometer

METERS.

see milliamperemeter, also " the heading ters." Galvanomeunder

not exhibit of meters, though be desired, was fairly good, but it can
were

The

as

full and complete as might a fair not be said to be even

representation of the present state of the art. Most of the meters French arid were construccharacterized by their complicated tion, them are doubtless very good notwithstanding. though some of There were two from the United States and one each from England

the exception of the Edison meter, they to five years back; this branch may, mostly new, therefore, be said to have developed almost entirely within the past few years. The simply ampere-hour of majority the exhibits were and
were

Switzerland.

With

from

four

meters,

incorrectly called watt meters, their conare though many stants being determined for a certain potential which is assumed to
meters

remain constant. Among the French

shown. the difficultiesencountered in designing meters that, are for small currents, and often for no current at all,the meters record inaccurately,; although the current is small yet the time of these
Among

exclusively as the measuring novel or interesting points were

is used almost the electro-dynamometer instrument. Among the rest only few

in most cases covers the greater part of the day; the the two is,therefore, not always insignificant. The writer product of has noticed one of the best meters exhibited, record current when the

small

currents

Another difficulty is in the clock mechanism open. A wound-up spring or weight represents so very little when used. be used for no work that it can a dulum energy penother than to run if more is required of it, it either needs to or escapement; circuit
was

be wound be impractically large. up very frequently or else it must It is,therefore, often replaced by an electric-motor device, but this introduces make-and-break is contacts, and it is a question which
at present good meters in the field,yet none of them combine all the desired qualities of simplicity, reliability, to be There is, therefore, much accuracy, and cheapness. looked for in this branch.
worse.

Although

there

are

In the following description

they

(true), ampere-hour

meters,

divided into watt-hour and time meters:

are

meters

ELECTRICITY.

217
METERS.

WATT-HOUK

Cauderay-Frager.
teurs

"

The Corapagnie

section, silver medal) is perhaps one of the best known meter, which and most frequently is a watt meter, for alternate as well as It used meters in France. In details it appears to be altered frequently, currents. continuous descriptions and models differ ; the general principle, however, as is about the same. The following description is that of by current and potential are measured
one

(French

la fabrication des compexhibited the Caudray-Frager

pour

of the latest forms

The

an the electro-dynamometer, for the potential, and the German fine wire, movable silver coil of The movable coil is suspended large coilencircling it for the current. by a torsion wire ; the true values corresponding to the deflections are

The counter every 100 seconds, as will be described. is here replaced by a sort usual clock work for determining the time of which is to turn a horizontal disk conof electric clock, the tinuously recorded
on
a

object

hundred

from the shaft arm depressed it engages a catch, and when of the counter; this arm these teeth and is carried around with the revolving disk ; thus, with long as this catch is depressed the shaft of the counter is being as
over

counter, teeth around

one revolution every vertical axis so that it makes This disk is concentric with the shaft of the seconds. but is not connected to the same. It has numerous ratchet
on a

its circumference

which

is

an

has

turned

with

recorded on The remaining

the disk, and the counter.

corresponding

angular

movement

is

to depress and part of the meter has for its object hold down this catch for a length of time corresponding to the true at that moment. value of the deflection of the electro-dynamometer This is accomplished follows : A portion of the revolving disk is as

raised slightly above the rest; this portion may, at present, be assumed to be a sector of the disk, with straight, radial edges ; the end of the is directly pointer of the electro-dynamometer which is free to move, deflected is from the this disk, and its movement when being its zero center to the circumference of this disk, the former position and the latter the position of greatest deflection ; when, in
above
the

the end of the rotation of the disk, the sector passes under it raises it slightly, and, by a simple spring lever, depresses pointer locks the disk to the shaft of the catch above mentioned, which
counter
; the

of the disk is therefore recorded on the is moving as that sector as long counter under the pointer, which length of time will evidently depend 011 whether the pointer is near to the small end or to the large end of the sector. As soon as the the
turning

edge of the sector has passed from beneath the pointer, the latter as of the counter well as the lock catch are released, and the moving
is stopped ; this takes place
once

in every

revolution

of 100 seconds.

218
It
was

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

assumed edges ; this would

pointer were the sector is made with the outline of one edge curved, the nature being such that the width of the sector at all points is of the curve proportional to the true value of the watts for the corresponding This curved the pointer. edge therefore in the proportionality. It therefore error admits of correcting any coil at an angle, for its admits of placing the electro-dynamometer zero position, in order to increase its sensitiveness ; the best angle is position

above that this raised sector had straight radial if the deflections of the be the case approximately to the watts ; but as this is not the case, proportional

(deflection) of

said to be half that of the angular range of deflection allowed. The electric clock mentioned part of the above is an important It consists essentially of a large, heavy escapement meter. wheel to the on a vertical shaft, turning alternately and spiral spring, left, and beating seconds. The vertical shaft of this right and flatbar of iron, which turns on its axis between electromagnets, it forms the armatures. Momentary currents in of which these magnets, properly timed, will.turn this iron armature when The connections for wheel. and thereby oscillate the escapement wheel
is
a

these momentary which

not

currents

are

made

by

means

closes a contact only whon needed; its full oscillations of half a turn. making
contacts aro double, in multiple means of the othor, by which
arc,

of a peculiar device, that is,when the wheel is being slightly in advance them always remains of the one that opens first;
one

The

one

clean, as there are no sparks produced on besides this there is a slight friction produced
contacts.

at each closing of the

had a case of state that during the past year they have never 250 meters. stoppage due to unclean contacts among The following figures given by the makers may be of interest: The
They wire bobbin is 2,800 ohms ; the temperature resistance of the fineThe total maxiis less than 1 per cent for a range of 20" C. error mum the whole meter is said to be 3 per cent, while the error of is about 2 per cent. Below one-tenth of the maximum error mean larger, it being 35 per cent becomes current of the meter the error for a current equal to one one-hundredth of the maximum. is given as follows : In the by the meter The energy consumed fine coil, 3.5 watts ; in the clock, 1 watt; together, equal to one onethousandth
of the total capacity;

that in the

at the maximum

a current, making for the clock is required only every per hour. of a second, requiring therefore 9 coulombs for four years, and They have had their meters in use

coarse coil is 5 watts, The current 9.5 watts. total of 10 to 12 seconds, for one-quarter

at present

have

five hundred

in

use.

The

sales during

amounted

to $20,000, and

their monthly

years have to sales at present amount

the past two

$3,000.

ELECTRICITY.

2 1 9*

The Blondlot meter (French exhibited by Henrion is a true watt meter for alternating or continuous currents. section), It is simple in both principle and action, and belongs among the better ones of its class.
"

Blondlot.

an the series coil electro-dynamometer is quite large so as to produce a uniform fieldat its center. of which The deflections of the finewire coil are made proportional to the by means its on of a cam product of the current and the potential,

The current

is measured

in

axis, over

The curved which passes a string with a counterweight. is such that the angular deflection will be prosurface of this cam portional to the watts. back to zero by an electro-magnet, at The deflected coil is brought by
a

regular intervals of time determined magnet circuit. The angles through

closes the clock which it is moved back are which follows: The main axis of the counter is recorded on a counter, as directly opposite to and in line with that of the movable coil of the but normally it is not in contact with it. On electro-dynamometer, is on the shaft of the counter is an electro-magnet whose armature so secured as to allow it to the end of the electro-dynamometer axis, is excited the twotoward the magnet; when this magnet The current for this magnet shafts are thereby coupled together. is closed during the interval when themoves the other magnet back to zero; these angles are thereby all coil electro-dynamometer up on the counter. recorded and summed There were a number of others, such as the Clerc, Gravier, Milde*,

approach

similar in principle to thesein which zero some with self-winding clocks ; some readings only No good description of these could be obtained. were used. Brille. The Brille meter, exhibited in the central station of the and Chambaud,
which
were

somewhat

"

is a true watt meter for continuous currents, and, it is claimed, may be arranged for alternating currents also. It is simple in principle "but somewhat complicated in construction,, to be likely toits complication is not of such a nature as though French

Edison Company,

make it unreliable. In its principle it belongs

exhibited. here in principle only. The current and potential are measured fixed coil of which is for by an electro-dynamometer, the coarse the main current, and the fine wire movable coil for the potential,. the counter force for the latter being obtained from a special spring ;
Every 36 secthe deflecting force is proportional to their product. onds (one-hundredth an hour) the deflected coil is moved back toof by turning the torsion head or free end of the counter-spring, zero

Owing

the better class of watt-hour meters among it can be deto its complicated scribed construction

the angle
counter

through which with dials.

it is turned

being

recorded

on

suitable

rest of the apparatus consists of a clockwork which starts the the coil back every 36 seconds, and a motor which moves mechanism

The

220
to
zero

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

after every reading; an adand which rewinds the clockwork ditional device starts the pendulum of the clock should it have come The motor to rest by a stoppage of the current. consists simply of having three iron armatures, for moving the an one electro-magnet for rewinding the clockwork, erating and one for opis put in circuit every 36 seconds This magnet a contact. by the clockwork and is cut out when the whole cycle of operations by several sets is finished. The various operations are determined

coil back to

zero,

one

wire current. of contacts which make or break the fineThis is probably the weak point of this meter, as a current of such high voltage and with such self-induction coils in circuit can not but give a spark, which in time must affect the contacts and require them

In order to properly measure and integrate the angles through which the spring of the coil is turned to bring the coil back to zero, the lever arm with a constant which turns it must move by a fan escapement velocity; this is accomplished and an ingenious
to be cleaned.

ment the parts, the constant of the instruis readily made unity so that the reading is direct in watt hours. It will be noticed that in principle it is a true watt meter, and that are practically eliminated. such factors as friction and temperature

friction governor. By properly proportioning

the clocks of all meters in a plant by a also to run special circuit, in which case the apparatus is simplified and it may then be used for alternating currents also. A very good illustrated description will be found in La Lumiere Electrique, August 18, 1888. for continuous Aron. The Aron currents, exhibited by meter
"

It is suggested

Danzer
clocks
one

(Frenchsection), consists
with independent The
works
current

essentially of two 40-day pendulum to run pendulums and

adjusted

absolutely alike.

retards

pendulum while the other moves in the running of the two clocks, which difference is measured by a simple five-dial counter, the readings of and recorded

accelerates the motion of ference a difunobstructed ; this causes

or

which are said to be proportional to the quantities to be measured. The counter is operated by a planet movement, and registers only the difference in the running of the two clocks. The electrical part is different, depending
meter
on

pendulums to and fro over a fixed solenoid through moves of the pendulum, the main current passes ; the relative action is an attraction, which causing a corresponding which accelerates the oscillations of that pendulum,

watt-hour has at the bottom a

or

whether it is an ampere-hour In the former, one of the meter. which, by the oscillation steel magnet,

difference between

it and the other.

It

can

evidently be

currents. used only for continuous For the watt meter, the bottom of the pendulum carries a fine-wire the mains ; this moves axially solenoid, connected as a shunt across to and fro through the interior of a large fixed solenoid through

ELECTEICITY.

221

The mutual action between the two the main current passes. to the watts ; the effect on the pendulum will coils is proportional depend on both the volts and the amperes, is said to therefore and be proportional to their product, the watts.
which The

readings of the counters are said to be proportional to the hours or watt hours, but they must be multiplied by an emampere pirically to reduce them to ampere determined or constant watt
appear simple and reliable, but it is a question whether the readings are truly proportional for wide ranges of current. Boiron and Cozetie. In this meter (French a section) small shuntdrives a fan escapement. A set of dials integrates dynamo wound

hours.

They

"

It is called a watt meter. of revolutions. and indicates the number the armature, the main current passes through Apparently and the potential current through the field. It is probably only experimental. For other watt-hour below.
meters,
so

called, see under ampere-hour

meters

AMPERE-HOUR

METERS.

Any
meter
case
or

ampere-hour by assuming

the meter may, hours or current quantity. energy, in place of ampere classification like the present, however, they belong
meters,
"

be, and often is,used as a watt-hour meter may that the potential remains constant, in which too, be made to read in watt hoursand correctly In
a

technical

ampere-hour Hookham.

The

and are Hookham

therefore classed under

meter
was (English)

strictly to this heading.

Compagnie

Electrique

(French

section). The

follows: The as simple and drives a small electric motor which moves field which therefore a through magnetic counterforce. tend to move,
stronger but at the same

is essentially

exhibited by the principle is exceedingly to be meascurrent ured

per solid disk of copacts as a brake or
a

The

the current, the faster the motor will time, the greater will be the counter-

force of the brake. The conditions are so chosen The speed will be proportional to the current.

shaft
an

simple counter for continuous meter ampere-hour to read directly in board of trade made

are

transferred to

that the resulting revolutions of thewith dials. It is therefore currents only, but it is
units

hours)by (kilowatt

difference of potential of 110 volts for instance. a constant assuming is in The construction is quite simple and ingenious. The armature form of a thin flat disk of solid copper, on one side of which are the secured the radial armature windings, interconnected at their outer
and inner ends so as to form forms a thin flat disk. The by
means a

The whole simple armature winding. current passes through these windings

in two mercury or collectors revolving of two commutators The solid copper disk revolving with it,generates in itself troughs. Foucault currents which oppose the revolutions, thereby acting as a If the field is constant, this opposing force varies as counterforce.

'222

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

the velocity, while the force to turn the motor varies as the square of the velocity. The resulting velocity will therefore vary as the current, and may therefore be used as a measure of the ampere hours. is a permanent The field magnet magnet made of bars of steel and

brass tube and secured to two pole pieces, between The field,or space between revolves. which the armature disk armature is very these pole pieces, through which the moves, or thin in order to keep the field as strong and as constant as ;short possible, as the principle of this meter depends on the constancy and this field. These magnets are made with great care, and .strength of they are said to have been found to remain constant in a large number It is said that they are made of use. of meters after fifteen months
tungsten

inclosed in

constant by magnetizing by about 10 per cent, so rather than to weaken.

and then reducing their magnetism that their tendency will be to strengthen The conditions are so chosen that the effect

them

forces may be neglected. The armature revolves "of other retarding There is no oiling necessary, as the shaft rolls on disk quite slowly. wheels, which themselves roll on others, which again roll on a third
set.

If the proportionality of the current to the revolution, and if the field are what is claimed, it appears to be a very ^constancy of the for the purpose for which it is intended. ;good and simple meter, The Jacquemier Jacquemier. meter exhibited (French section, is an ampere-hour It currents. meter for continuous .silvermedal), is too complicated to be described here, except in principle. It contains
"

many
nature,

levers, springs, gears, etc. of which is one of its weak points.

,

complicated

and delicate

the fine wire electro-dynamometer, movable coil of which is an electro-magnet and is in shunt circuit to is assumed to be constant, and the apparatus "the mains ; its magnetism is therefore a galvanometer. This coil is deflected against the The
current

is measured

in

an

spring, a light one for small displacements and a strong spring for the larger ones. for deterfifteen days, one mining There are two running clockworks action of
a

double

"

the intervals of time of five minutes at which the measurements are the other to do the work made, and of recording the deflections. Every five minutes the former starts the latter, which toward operates a delicately-balanced searching lever, which moves

the lever is the second clockwork thereby stopped at its fan escapement eled ; the path which it has travbefore it touches the pointer is registered on by the counter After this the clockwork brings the parts back to the clockwork.
the deflected pointer of the galvanometer touches it, it is thrown out of balance and
; the

moment

their normal position. The deflections are not

apparatus

by

istering proportional ; this is corrected in the regtrain of gears, two of which are not circular,

ELECT

PwICITY.

223
are no

"but have
Aron.

There irregular periphery. feature. "broken, which is a favorable

an
" "

contacts

made

or

See under the watt-hour meters. to need description The Edison meter is too well-known Edison. It is essentially a zinc voltameter and measures here. coulombs, or For a well-illustrated hours and is for direct currents only. ampere
see that of W. J. Jenks, American paper on this subject 18, 1888. Electrical Engineers, December

Institute of

Alioth.

"

The

solenoid. A through a simple intermediate mechanism which depends on counter is in the solenoid. The farther the core the position of the core drawn into the solenoid the faster the counter is driven by the clockwork.
A
core moves
a

Alioth meter vertically in

measures (Swisssection),

hours. ampere 40-day clock drives the

The inequality in the proportion of the current to the movement is corrected by a corresponding the core curved piece in of this intermediate mechanism. An Heinrich " Mulberger.
"

on

electric clock drives a train of gears ; for the main Deprez galvanometer, current, operates presumably by means a string a pulley of this gearing of and weight which
as a

act

variable

brake.

Presumably

the

difference between

the

normal
ampere

speed and the retarded speed of this pulley integrates the hours, which indicated on dials. It is probably only are
the apparatus among of Prof. is (United States section) for alternating currents only. in the meter; the through a transformer current passes is the one in the current of this transformer measured
"

experimental. Thomson. Thomson The

main

The

meter

exhibited

secondary
meter.

consists of a horizontal glass tube with two vertical its ends like a so-called "pulse glass." This rocks about bulbs at like a scale beam. The tube and bulbs are partially filled a center with a volatile liquid; above the liquid in each bulb is a small coil

The

meter

is thereby heated. passes and which by the current, which then causes First, one the into the other bulb; this causes liquid to move the beam to tilt over to the other side, which then switches the current by means of in turn forces the liquid to the other coil, which mercury contacts

through

the current which of these is heated

This rocking of the lever is registered 011 suitable dials,which read in watt hours. In the transformer minals there is an additional coil of fine wire, the terback

and

causes

the beam

to tiltagain.

the current in which is therefore The function of to the potential of the mains. proportional this is presumably the meter the volts also, measure either to make duce and therefore the watts, or else, and more probably, it is to introforce to overcome a constant the friction and similar losses in of which
are across

the mains,

the apparatus,

the potential being assumed

to be constant.

224
Borel.
"

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

(Swiss section, bronze medal) is an meter for alternating currents only. In the latest form hour meter ampere it consists essentially of two flat bobbins in multiple arc, whose core These are section of a flat,oblong rectangle. space has a cross
The Borel
axis. In the flat side, so as to have a common is a thin flat disk of iron capable of revolving rectangular core space to the two about a vertical axis and acting as an iron core common the through coils. There are also two straight iron bars running two coils parallel to the axis, and almost tangential to this disk, but

mounted,

side by

not

bent over. it; their alternate ends and are project These iron bars and the iron disk are both magnetized by the alternating but owing to their shape, position, the Foucault currents current, in them, and hysteresis, the magnetic phases will produced
touching
a

to produce a continuous repulsion and consequent direction; this rotation is used as the disc in one rotation of the measure of the current and is transmitted to a counter with

differ in such

way

as

axis are secured a set of four fans which act as Their resistance in the air is proportional to the square of the velocity; the rotating action is said to be approximately On account of the want proportional to the square of the current. of true proportionality, two of the four fans are hinged at their top

dials. On the same the opposing force.

edge
a

to offer less resistance as the speed increases. In this way is said to be secured between certain limits. proportionality
so
as

published results it appears that it is not very reliable and dred It is said to be used at the Ferranti Station. Two hunaccurate. for a year. A good and are said to have been in use in Nancy
From
well illustrated description of an earlier form Lumiere Electrique, July 14, 1888, p. 53.
TIME

will be found

in La

METERS.

Aubert. simply during

a

"

The

Aubert

meter

(Swisssection,

honorable

mention)is

time meter, to measure and integrate the number of hours has been turned on. It is of use merely which the current for constant currents, but for such it appears to be good, simple, and

It consists of a clockwork running It indicates 200 hours. cheap. four dials the minutes, hours, tens and hundreds of hours. on It is a simple clockwork, the escapement net of which is released by a magwhen thousand
as

is started. There are said to be the current in use. It sells for only $7. It is equally good for continuous currents.
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS AND

over

two

for alternating

MISCELLANEOUS

APPARATUS.

(UnitedStates seccell. In the educational department tion) was shown a standard Daniell cell devised by Carl Hering, the of object which is,to have a simple form of cellwhich is always ready without being refilled every time it is to be used, and in which the
"

Standard

ELECTRICITY.

225

liquids, which

drained off are necessarily mix at their junction, faster than they can mix, thus preserving the two at their junction is shown in the The arrangement liquids absolutely pure. ing adjoinillustration, Fig. 60.
must

It consists of two bottles containing two liquids and their the respective electrodes. They are

joinedtogether
means

at the bottom

by ing hav-

of

three-way

tube

containing and stopcocks filtering paper or other too to prevent material porous
some

rapid third

with from the junction and the air through this the mixed liquid at the junctionis drained off drop
by drop When turned The faster than
use not to prevent

flow of the liquids. tube communicates

The

in

it can mix. the cocks are waste of the

FIG. 60." Bering's

standard

cell.

liquids. electromotive
zinc

and

force of such a cell, with solutions of pure copper a sulphates, both having specific gravity of 1.20 at and pure amalgamated
devised

about 60" F., using pure electroplated copper zinc, is 1. 105 true volts.
Pyrometer.
"

Carpentier

exhibited

an

electric pyrometer

ment, by M. le Chatelier, which appears to be a very satisfactory instruis said to be used largely; it is very conveniently and which

and range. arranged, considering its accuracy directly to a galvanomeIt consists of a thermo-couple ter. connected The electromotive force of this couple increases with the temperature; is,therefore, a direct the current through the galvanometer
measure

of the temperature. and

The

thermo-couple

is made

of platinum

results up which it is introduced Deprez-d'Arsonval

in

gives good alloy of 10 per cent, which platinum-iridium to 1,200" C. or 2,200" F. ; it is at the end of a long rod by into the furnace.

The

galvanometer
as

is of the

form

(which see
one

under
and

arranged galvanometers)
to be portable; it the galvanometer

a very practical form with lamp is in the form of two flat boxes,

scale, so

containing the other the lamp and scale; to use it, these two boxes are hung and tion The apparatus the side of a wall one meter apart. on gives a deflecfor 1,000" C. (1832" F.) of 10 centimeters (4 inches),

For

an

illustrated description

see

La Lumiere

filectrique,une 30, J
references

1888, p. 604, which

article contains

also descriptions and

to descriptions of other pyrometers. H. Ex. 410" VOL 15 IV

226

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAJHS.

Photometer.
a

"

Messrs.

Patterson
by

"

Cooper

in the following points: That photometer the paper with the grease spot is replaced by two disks of plain be seen at white paper at an angle to each other, so that both can being illuminated by the candles and the time, the one the same other by the light to be measured ; the screens and the lamp two candles are and the candles moved; used to eliminate in the candles. the errors It is arranged in the scale being
very
are

photometer differs from the ordinary

devised

Thompson

(British exhibited section) It Starling. (S.P.) and

fixed

partially

mirror which by the constructor in fixing the space between the lamp and screen. The whole is very convenient, but arrangement of the photometer its accuracy is as great as in the ordinary it is doubtful whether

The

candle correction for

high

form so convenient that the readings so spaced the only reductions powers;
a

very

as

to facilitate readings, direct, even for are

are

is used

for bright

multiples of 10. lights is made

form,

as

number

of slight

errors

appear

to be introduced

by this

his magnetic bridge, -Edison exhibited the the magnetic of properties object which is to enable one to measure iron to be used for dynamos. of samples of It is based on the principle of the Wheatstone bridge, in which the
"

construction. Magnetic and

bridges. fluid

is replaced by the magnetic flux. The battery is electric current is replaced by a replaced by a large magnet, and the galvanometer is situated between the two points where magnetic needle, which balance is to be reached. The three arms magnetic of the bridge

of fixed pieces of iron while the fourth is made of the sample to be tested. No means are given for bringing the needle back to zero, balance. The samples that is, for producing so of iron are short
are

that the magnetic

resistance at the two contacts forms perhaps the it is While greater part of the whole resistance to be measured. in principle it is probably ingenious of little use in practice for the
reasons

given.

to also exhibited a fluid bridge, the objectof which was the resistance of liquids, the principle of which was measure also bridge. longer new. Both of these are that of the Wheatstone no Taximeter, etc. Edison for a exhibited of instruments number

Edison

"

depend for their action 011 the change which of button under variable pressure, this variable resistance of carbon being produced by different substances. In the tasimeter, pressure
a

different purposes

piece of hard rubber, and was used as a means of measuring very small differences of temperature, for instance, that of the heat from a star. The expansion as, of the
was

for

instance, it

produced

by

hard

rubber

compresses

the button.

In

hygrometer

this

was

made

of gelatine which

expands

by absorption

of moisture.

ELECTRICITY.

227

far the most interesting and novel demonstrations for scientific was the alterresearches and apparatus nating Prof. Elihu Thomson (UnitedStates current apparatus of It attracted very great interest among tists sciensection, grand

Thomson's

apparatus.

"

By

prize).

to the striking phetechnical engineers, and owing nomena to the general public. interesting even The apparatus have been so thoroughly described though new, and the phenomena, in the American t scriptio techical journals,hat it is needless to repeat a deas

among it was

here. which main phenomenon, follows : If notice, is briefly as

ring, sheet,
an or

The

Thomson
a

no

doubt

was

the first to

other

mass

alternating current is induced in this mass is, briefly, that a current The explanation instant is attracted and at another instant of copper which at one from These attracis repelled the original or primary current. tions be equal and would therefore balance and repulsions would if the secondary current flowed without retardation, but owing to the fact that the secondary current is retarded in its flow by self induction, the repelling force becomes greater and the attracting force less, of the former, or in technical terms, and there is therefore an excess the waves of the two currents differ in time by a fraction of a wave length, thereby causing a preponderance of the repelling force over

closed metallic circuit, such as a a coil in of copper, be brought near which it will be repelled from the same. passes

A shown by several striking experiments. the end of an alternating-current magover solid ring of copper kept floating in the air above the magnet by this force. was iiet When forced down the magnet over and then released it was pro-

the attracting force. This phenomenon was

held

jected
a

up into the air.

was

A hollow

sphere

of copper

was

floated in

tank of water placed over this magnet, and when a sheet of copper between half of the magnet the ball so as to cover placed and the end of the magnet, the ball would rotate rapidly and with considerable from
to cut off the action the copper sheet acts as a screen half of this sphere, the other half being continually reone pelled, causes the sphere to revolve.
;

force

A number
one
ik

of applications of this principle of repulsion

was an

were see

shown, under

of which Dynamos." Another

alternating

current

motor,

which

inwas an apparatus of interest exhibited by Thomson for studying the waves It consists strumant of alternating currents. iron diaphragm, an essentially of opposite to an electromagnet,

through

is communicated to a small mirror by a lever, which also enlarges the A beam light is reflected from to a this mirror on motion. of ground-glass plate, on which, therefore, a line would be produced,

which

the current

to be studied passes.

Its motion

when

the mirror

oscillates,by the action of the alternating current.

228
This

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

line becomes

apparatus,

the whole when shaped diagram is moved to and fro by except the glass plate, rapidly
a

"figure-8"

the mirror is under the action of two magnets, to it a motion in two directions perpendicular to each other, giving by which the relative action of the waves of two currents, primary and secondary, for instance, can be studied. Influence or induction machines for generating high tension and small quantity, often called of electricity very They were were static electricity, exhibited by numerous makers. allof the "induction" type, in which the electricity is generated by

hand. In another form

Influenceachines. m

"

the static induction of one guished electrified body on another, as distinfrom the original Franklin friction machines, which exist Most of them were now only as historical apparatus. of the well Wimshurst known type and a few of the less frequently used Holtz The former seem to be replacing the others rapand Carre type. idly, in simplicity and in their they have numerous as advantages action, being, it is said, affected less by humidity, and will not lose
their charge, like the Holtz type. The finest exhibit of a Wimshurst that of Ducretet machine was ter, (Frenchsection), which had twelve glass plates, 26 inches in diamelong, at the rate of one or two per secgiving sparks 16" inches ond. It is said to be the largest one ever built. The finer ones are
In some the glass plates are cases always inclosed in glass cases. durable, as the glass more replaced by hard rubber, which is much tion is likely to crack and burst. They are used chiefly for demonstrainto use largely for testing purposes, but they have lately come They are also used largely for cables during their manufacture. medical purposes. G-eissler" Crooks tubes. The principal exhibits of Geissler "
"

Crook's tubes were bronze and medal),

"

those of V. H. Seguy et Fils (Frenchsection, M. Anselme (French section, honorable men-

tion),

both of which were very creditable exhibits. Speed register. Breguet exhibited a speed register of Duveau. Its description does not belong here, as it is not electrical,with the
exception of one feature of particular interest, which is applicable This is a small also to other apparatus, notably to chronographs. electric motor, whose speed is absolutely constant, no matter how

the current which drives it varies. It consists of a small fourThe current driving it is pole frame and a Siemens H armature. is kept a tuning fork, which of contacts on alternated by means much

vibrating
must

by the usual electric apparatus. The speed of the motor the alternations of the current, as synchronize absolutely with
run

it will

As these alternations are only under those conditions. produced by the tuning fork, the speed of the motor is as constant fork, and is entirely independent of as the vibrations of the tuning

the strength of the current.

ELECTRICITY.

229
some

Binding
posts

posts.
see

"

For
"

under
VI."

description and illustration of Accessories," p. 87.

a

ing bind-

THERMO-GENERATORS.

for obtaining electricity directly from from heat by means heat, or obtaining power there of magnetism, developments some new was almost nothing of interest, although have been made within the last few years, none of which, however, have advanced farther than the laboratory. General.
"

In

apparatus

the pyromagnetic son. motor of Edionly novelty exhibited was to be the only converter The thermopile seems of this class it appears that has developed to a commercial apparatus, and which ment this, like the steam engine, has reached a practical limit of developinefficientconverter of energy. which, at best, leaves it a very The This field, which ranks among time one of the most the same Besides the Edison motor thermopiles field.

the most

important few

in science, is at

undeveloped.
a

mentioned, constituted all that there was

"

slightly improved tant exhibited in this impor-

Chaudron.
a

J. B. Chaudron

(French section,

bronze

hibited medal) ex-

the chief claims for which are its details of It does not, however, differ greatly from the usual construction. forms. The elements are tinned iron for the positive pole Clamond
thermopile, metal, consisting of two parts antimony and electrode, and Marcus one part zinc, as negative pole electrode. They are arranged in circular layers as usual, with ten couples per layer. The interior cylindrical is lined with a tube of refractory material ; the hot space
gases

from

Bunsen

The
and

with numerous temperatures

on (176"F.)

burner pass through a concentric tube perforated holes which distribute the heat more evenly. are F.) on the inside said to be 350" C. (662"

difference of 270" C. the outside, making a force of each element as measured by F). The electromotive (486" Hospitalier is 0.061 volt : for a battery of 50 elements it was 2.9
80" C.

peres, volts, internal resistance 0.38 ohms, current on short circuit 7.4 am= by 7.4) 5.4 watts ; energy one-fourth (2.9 maximum available This correconsumption of gas 200 liters (7.06 cubic feet) per hour. sponds
to 1,060 cubic feet of gas per effective horse-power hour, which hour. at the rate of Si.80 per 1,000 cubic feet, is SI. 90 per horse-power horse-power hour from batReynier and Fontaine give the cost of a teries,

that the cost of power from this thermopile is not much greater than that from some poor batteries. In its application, however, the great convenience of a thermopile as to a battery, is of great importance. Besides this the compared
40 cents to 81.60,
so

from

waste

heat
can are ;

which They

the thermopile may be considered as a by-product be used for heating in winter and ventilating in summer. tories said to be used chiefly for galvaiioplastics. and for laboraa

from

also in

few

cases

to charge

accumulators.

230

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

Carpentier Clamond-Carpentier. form of Clamond thermopile, which described above. details to the one
"

(French section) exhibited a is quite similar in most of its The metals used are iron or

nickel, and an in a convenient the

one

antimony-zinc alloy of equal parts. It is arranged form with a burner and refractory lining similar to For illustrations of this pile, as well as a described above.
see

description of several others,

1888.
"

La Lumiere

Electrique, April 14,

tery" bata Chalk battery. In the Edison exhibit was "chalk shown in which two palladium-faced springs slide on a cylinder of its brass mandrel on respectively; on revolving the cylinder chalk and In the appended by hand a current is said to be produced. description it says "it has as yet been undetermined as to what this

is due to." thermal.

It has

been

classed here,
In the Edison
was

as

its action may exhibit

was

possibly be
small exhibited for
a

Pyromagnetic pyromagnetic

motor.
motor,

"

shown

which departure new energy obtaining mechanical Though from the well-known a commercial cess, sucnot yet methods. directions of deit at least represents one of the very few new velopment in this most important and poorly-developed field. fact that iron loses its magnetic It is based on the well-known
A cylindrical iron armature is supported qualities on being heated. between the poles of on a shaft to allow it to rotate, as in a dynamo, Hot gases are passed through this armature so as to heat a magnet.

the only apparatus from heat which was a

that portion through which thereby deflected into the

attracted to the magnets Although the armature a continuous, the morotary motion. tion is necessarily slow, the force developed be quite great. may For a history of what has been done in this field prior to Edison's
application of this principle, 1887. Pyromagnetic A generator.
"

the lines of force pass ; these lines are colder portions which are thereby adjoining in turn become heated, and so on, givand ing

see

Franklin

Institute Journal, October,

son similar principle was applied by Edito a generator of electricity, in which the lines of force in being deflected, passed transversely over a series of wires in which, fore, thereis produced. The difficulty,however, which was a current the that in prime cause generator, was of its failure as a commercial order to develop a moderately high electromotive force the rapidity too great to be practicable. The of the heating and cooling was
generator
was

not exhibited.

VII.
General.
"

"WIRES,

CABLES,

AND

CONDUITS.

The exhibits of bare wire were confined almost entirely to the French section, and were in general very creditable, showing fineness of work and results of considerable and apparently success-

ELECTRICITY.

231
strong

ful research to obtain for line wire.

High France

mechanically

wire of high conductivity

insulation, water-proof wires were equally well exhibited by and the United States; in the former the insulation used was

in the latter almost entirely of soft rubber and gutta-percha, while it was principally paraffin and rubber compounds. The cable exhibits were panies confined to a few large, well-known comThe cable industry in France from France and England. has developed almost entirely during the last ten or fifteen years, before which
time

their cables

were

made

almost

land. entirely in Eng-

few insulated wire exhibits from Russia, Japan, and elsewhere, but without particular interest. a sample of an unthe historical exhibits was Historical. Among derground in 1844. Baltimore and Washington laid between wire

There

were

"

It consisted simply of a copper wire, about No. 18 B. " S. gauge, covered in a lead tube. It and inclosed with an insulating compound Electric Company. by the Western was exhibited
BARE

WIRES.

wires of the firm of J. O. Mouchel (French the finest of its kind and was section, gold medal) was undoubtedly particularly interesting on account of the fineness and regularity of their goods, as also on account of the very elaborate researches made by them with different alloys, to obtain great tensile strength combined The

exhibit of bare

conductivity for lines wires, and to obtain great coefficient for resistance coils. resistance with small temperature These are probably the oldest wire manufacturers in France, dating with

good

at present 200 hands (of employ been there more 120 have than ten whom years) and 450 horse Their specialty is fine,delicate work, purity of alloys, length power. of pieces, and regularity of diameter.
as
as

far back

1709.

They

table gives the results of purities their elaborate experiments made in 1884 to study the effects of imof small quantities of foreign metals alloyed with copper:
"

Impurities

in copper.

The

following

232

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

different effects of different proportions are in the two following striking examples : one tenth of 1 per cent seen of phosphorus reduces the conductivity of copper to 54.30 per cent, With arsenic while 5^ per cent reduces it only to 10.079 per cent. Alloys

of copper

"

The

one

tenth of 1 per cent reduces copper to 77.96 per cent, while 5 per cent reduces it to 5.72 per cent. Pure copper. They exhibited also a pure copper wire, the conductivity from measurements of which is 104.69 per cent deduced
"

Exposition which were controlled at the Vienna and certified to by Messrs. Blavier, Stefan, and Discher. This very high conductivity
of copper, which is doubtless correct, simply shows that the generally for pure copper is too low. Next to this exaccepted value hibit high by way of there was of remarkably shown,

conductivity

high resistance of remarkably having a resistance an made of alloy of copper and arsenic, 2,335.50 ohms per kilometer, which is equivalent to a conductivity of of 3.48 per cent, or about double the resistance of German silver. Commercial Their regular copper telegraph wire, ancopper. nealed,
contrast,
a

similar wire of 0.50 millimeters

"

conductivity of 102.5 per cent, an elongation of 35 to 38 per cent, and a breaking strain of 20 to 25 kilograms per square to depending on (28,000 35,000 pounds per square inch), millimeter
a

has

the degree

The coefficient of temperature is 0.40 per of annealing. degree centigrade. cent per Bronzes. Their two principal bronzes have 98.5 per cent with 45 kilograms (64,000ounds per square inch), p and 34.6 per cent with 75 to 90 kilograms to (107,000 128,000 pounds per square inch)as con"

ELECTRICITY.

233
These
can

strain respectively. diameter without around a wire of their own in bendings twenty The former will stand

ductivity

and

breaking

showing
a

be wound any breaks.

the latter have

vise, and

thirty to thirty-five. bronze. Magnesium

given very

"

Their

experiments

with

magnesium

with

good

interesting results, showing The following conductivity.

great strength combined figures show some of the

results:

They

find it impracticable

above 70 kilograms of line wire they have

to go below 50 per cent conductivity, or breaking strain. For exceptionally great spans

ductivity with a conarrived at 100 to 110 kilograms as those These figures are nearly the same 21 per cent. of the silicium bronze wire exhibited by Weiller, described below. of Their German Resistance wire. silver resistance wire has a conductivity They find that while all known to 4.40 per cent. of 7.35
"

alloys increase in conductivity on being annealed, the German the proportion of nickel is greater than will decrease when
cent. Their
new

silver
10 per

high
a

resistance arsenic

alloy, containing

10 per cent of
a

arsenic, has

conductivity

of only

3" per
per

cent

and

temperature

coefficient of only 0.0258 per cent German silver being 0.0393 per

cenligrade (thatof This alloy is very difficultto cent). but in spite of this they exhibited it drawn to the remarkably work, thousandths of a millimeter, or 0.00067 small diameter of seventeen The inch, or about one-tenth as fine as No. 34 American gauge.
resistance of this wire is 2,052 ohms per meter. is a coil of telegraph Another they have made curiosity which 660 pounds. weighing wire in a single piece (withoutany joints)

degree

This

was

(French section, gold fine exhibit of bare wire, chiefly of their patent Silicium medal) They bronze, which appears to be their specialty. claim as advantages for this line wire, over the usual iron or steel wire, that for the
"

Silicium

before electric welding came bronze. Lazare, Weiller

a

into

use.

"

Co.

had

same conductivity the weight per mile is several times as small; that, therefore, it is much easier to run; that it diminishes the dimensions of poles and insulators; and that, owing to its increased and number

234

UJSTIVEKSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

also strength, there is less danger of rupture from wind and snow; that it is absolutely inoxydizable. The following figures taken from their tables show Properties. For long telegraph lines a siliciumthe most important properties.
"

i telegraph wire of 2 millimeters diameter (0.079nch, or about No. 12 B. "S. pounds weighing 28 kilograms per kilometer (100 bronze

gauge)

per

mile) has the

same

resistance

iron wire galvanized No. 4 B. " S. pounds

millimeters

and can in diameter

as,

meter of 5.40 ohms per kilolines, a silicium-bronze inch, or about No. 17 B. " wire of 1.1 millimeters diameter (0.043 S.)weighing 8.45 kilograms per kilometer (300pounds per mile)has the same replace a steel wire of 2 millimeters resistance and can inch, or about No.. 12 B. " S. 25 diameter (0.079 weighing
resistance telephone

gauge) weighing a per mile)and having For (8.7 per mile). ohms

155

replace, the usual 1 (0.97 inch, or about kilograms (550 per kilometer

gauge)

kilograms

pounds per mile) and having a resistance per kilometer (89 of 40 ohms per kilometer (64pounds per mile). The conductivity and tensile strength may be varied at pleasure, for different purposes ; as one quality increases, the other diminishes. the properties, are taken from their The following figures, showing

tables, and

are

here reduced

to

our

units:
or

Size of silicium-bronze wire 1.5 millimeters,

0.059 inch,

or

No. 15 B. and

S. gauge.

Bi-metallic.

exhibited

a
a

Charles Martin " Co. (French section, bronze line wire called "bi-metallic," consisting of a
"

medal)
core

steel, and The proportions

thick solid layer of copper

around

of copper and steel are about for telegraph and telephone lines but also for the not only made transmission of power and light, as well as for electric bell circuits.
copper wire would price, and the fact that,
spans,
cross
or

of it and united to it. half and half. It is

Pure

be best for lines

as

were

it not

for the

high

to elongate by section and increasing

it is so soft, it is apt to tear when in long its own its weight, thereby diminishing

wire

is to combine

its resistance. The metallic objectof this bitensile strength with good congreat ductivity

small weight,

and cheapness.

ELECTRICITY.

235

and silicium bronze claimed over the phosphor advantages that the latter are brittle and will not stand bending or wires twisting, and that in course of time they become granular or crystalline,

The

are,

of object the bi-metallic the good conductivity of copper with the tensile time use the copper sheath to protect strength of steel,and at the same the steel from the action of the air and water. The process is not described, being apparently a secret. The two

and

that they

are

expensive.

The

wire is to combine

welded. metals are firmly united, as though they were The weight and diameter are evidently less than that of a steel conductivity would be, and it is claimed to resist a wire of the same It is claimed to resist perfectly greater tensile stress than copper wire.

and torsion, and that it is quite flexible and elastic. The selling price, for 1 millimeter diameter and over, is given as 150 francs per 100 kilograms, which is equal to about 13 cents per pound. There is a disadvantage in its use, however, namely, that if the steel should be exposed anywhere, the action of moisture will be to destroy the steel at that place much more not rapidly than if it were
bending
cuited covered with copper, because the steel and copper form a short-cirthe iron the action of which is to decompose electric couple In galvanized iron wire this electricaland and to clean the copper. it keeps the iron clean at the as the reverse, chemical action is just
expense
a

in the United States more than It was by electroplating made object. But it was the iron wire with a thick coating of copper. found that the iron wire appeared to absorb in its pores some of the liquid of the bath, which in time destroyed the iron completely by

of the zinc. Copper-covered iron wire was dozen years ago, and for the

made

same

had to be replaced, All the lines run the action described above. It is presumed, and the extensive wire works had to be abandoned. In one specitherefore, that the process of Martin is not the same. men in Martin's exhibit, the steel was inches in diameter, and the l"
copper three-eighths of an inch thick. Properties. The following figures give
"

tests the results of some Laboratoire Martin bi-metallic wire. They were made at the of the Centrale d'Electricite of the Societe Internationale des Electriciens:

Nos. 8 and 9 B. " S. Ultimate tensile strength, 388 kilograms, or 55 kilograms gauge. (Thatof per square millimeter ; or 78,000 pounds per square inch. is about 26 kilograms per square millimeter, or 37,000 pounds copper of times it could per square inch. ) Elongation, 28 per cent. Number bent through a right angle alternately in opposite directions when be Resistance per kilometer at held in a vise, twenty to twenty-four.
External
diameter,
3 millimeters,
or

between

14" C., 3.91 ohms,

same

diameter
an

That of
or

or 6.3 ohms (Thatof copper wire of the per mile. is 2.35 ohms per kilometer, or 3.96 ohms per mile. iron wire of the same diameter is 14.05 ohms per kilometer,

22.6 ohms

per

mile.)

236
From

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

may be made : Its conductivity is 60 per cent of that of copper, and 360 per cent of that of iron wire of the same diameter. The size of a copper and iron wire resistance would be 2.33 and 5.7 millimeters, or about of the same Nos. 11 and 3 B. " S. gauge, respectively. The weight of the bimetallic wire is given as 62. 5 kilograms per kilometer, or 222 pounds per mile. That of the iron wire would be about 200 kilograms per kilometer, or 700 pounds per mile. For the same weight of wire on the poles, the number of lines of the same resistance could therefore

these figures the following deductions

be tripled, as compared with iron wire. Or, for the same weight as the iron wire, the size of the bi be 5.4 millimeters -metallic wire would Nos. 3 and 4) and its conductivity increased 3.2 times. (between Another test made by the same parties gave the following results: Diameter
1.29 millimeters, or No. 16 B. " S. gauge. tensile strain, 84.5 kilograms, or 65 kilograms
or

Ultimate breaking

92,000

pounds

be bent backward and diameter, fifty to sixty. Resistance, 19.61 ohms per kilometer, or 31.6 ohms per mile. Resistance as compared with copper wire of diameter, 66 per cent. the same
INSULATED
WIRES.

per square millimeter, Number per square inch. of times it could forward over a bar 10 millimeters (0.4 inch)

Fortiii-Hermann (French section, gold medal) insulated wire, made of a bare copper wire, on which exhibited are threaded small, short wooden beads, quite close to one another, the whole being afterwards covered with a lead pipe. It is, therefore,
"

Wood

insulation.
an

insulated wire made in the United States six eight years ago, in which the beads were of porcelain, instead of wood. The porcelain had the advantage that the beads large and have numerous holes, so as to contain could be made a in the same lead pipe and insulated from one of wires number
an some
or

quite similar to

another.

In the case of the Fortin-Hermann multiple- wire cables, is first covered with its beads, and these are afterwards each wire bunched and covered with lead, making, however, a rather bulky

cable. The claims are that it is cheap, that the insulation is very high, and that the specificinductive capacity of the wooden beads is much less than that of porcelain, and that therefore the static capacity is
lower than in aerial very low, being for underground wires even lines, and as the air inclosed in the lead remains the insulation unchanged It is used largely in Paris and capacity remain unchanged.

telegraph and telephone lines, has given -and for telephone lines. The following good results, particularly to was (reduced given:

for underground

very

data

miles)

Insulation, per mile Conductivity, per mile

megohms
ohms.

900 to 6, 200
10. 3 to 18.8
.

Capacity, per mile

microfarad.

068 to

060

ELECTRICITY.

237

cables, included in the exhibits cables. The Patterson Electric Company (United States section, gold medal, of the Western besides tho Okonito for collective was, exhibit, the only Patterson
"

exhibit)

United
They

States exhibit of cables

consist of groups

containing

with paraffine, and of cotton or by a pipe made some composition of resembling a lead protected is said to withstand the action of the water alloy. This composition It is harder where lead would be destroyed. and gases underground, being any less flexible. The space and tougher than lead, without
windings

of conductors, or jute, both, saturated

small conductors. each covered with two or more

many

between

the conductors and the pipe is filledwith hot aerated paraffine, introduced under pressure, together with free from any oil,and tered carbonic acid gas (CO2). The almost invisible globules of gas, scat-

through the mass of paraffine, renders it elastic, so uniformly that the natural shrinkage of the paraffin in cooling is compensated tion for by the expansion the formaof these globules, thus preventing

which water would of cracks and longitudinal fissures through in case flaw or Any indefinitely of a break in the pipe. penetrate leaking jointin the pipe is detected by the process of filling under be made in lengths of 1,500 feet and the The core may pressure.
function of the occluded pipe in lengths of 80 to 140 feet. Another gas is to diminish the specific inductive capacity of the paraffine; it is claimed to diminish it 15 per cent below that of pure solid paraffine,

and this, they than if gutta-percha

claimed to prevent, due to the condenser

claim, enables rubber to a large

or

were

smaller conductors This diminished size is used. from "crosstalk,"' extent, troubles
a

them

to

use

action in the neighboring wires. leaks through The current which the insulation of if any liquids tendency t"3 produce changes chemical

cable lias a
are

High

insulation

therefore

diminishes

this action

current, injurious

contains

no

cables vary contain from

and Some
are

besides economizing energy. oil which might have traces of acids or alkalies. Their from one-quarter of an inch to 2 inches in diameter and
one

present. by reducing the The paraffin used

to two

hundred

used for telephone, have the conductors twisted in pairs for metallic circuits. From November, 1881, to June, 1889, they have made cables containing
36,927

conductors, in lengths up to 8 miles, telegraph, and electric-light service.

and

of which electric lights.

miles of conductors, of which 22,313 are underground 36,126 are for telephone, 681 for telegraph, and 120 for

section, gold is too well-known to require description here. wire medal) Xo technical data could be obtained from the company. The material, okonite, is reported to be a mixture of India rubber and It appears to be placed around the wire in mineral hydrocarbons.
"

Okonite.

The

Okonite

Company's

(United States

insulated

238
the form

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

and adheres to the of a band with a longitudinal seam, wire very tenaciously. An expert test made for the jury showed an insulation resistance per megohms per kilometer at 8" C. (4,200 of 6,800 megohms
capacity and The Cobb Cobb.
"

of 0.36 microfarads Vulcanite

per kilometer Company Wire

mile), (0.58er mile). p (United States section,

erately gold medal) exhibited electric light wire insulated with a modhard but pliable vulcanized rubber tube, and with or without lead armor. This tube is made of of rubber, the vulcanization

which is stopped before the rubber becomes as hard as the ordinary hard rubber, thus giving a material, the insulating properties of like those of hard rubber, and having the additional are which property of being pliable, so that it may be bent to a moderately small The tubing is first to the insulation. circle without injury by means of special machinery made of soft rubber mixed with sulphur; is made this soft tubing; it is a seamless lead pipe around the air in the tube, then vulcanized under pressure by compressing after which the stranded copper wire is threaded through lengths of
means of a long steel needle, which The is done quite rapidly by means operation of special machinery. high, averaging for a No. 4 or 5 wire cable, insulation is remarkably between 10,000 and 20,000 megohms even per mile, and sometimes

about

200 feet of this tube, by

This is probably in part due to the fact that the exceeding 30,000. tube fitsthe wire loosely and that it is therefore insulated to a great This the wire and its insulating tube. extent by the air between wire has been used in New York and Chicago for underground cuits. cir-

CABLES.

M. Menier oldest French

(French section, gold medal),one of had a (founded manufacturers 1850),

the principal and very fine exhibit

insulation. of insulated wires and cables chiefly of rubber and gutta-percha This firm is one of the principal ones furnishing wires and

(telegraph war cables to the French Government and The factory covers 5 acres 400 of ground, employs
horse power, using about 300 tons of crude rubber their business, including rubber goods, amounting
a

departments).
men,

and

1,000

and gutta-percha;
to about

$800,000

year.

ment, exhibited a piece of their river cable laid for the Governbetween Havre and Honfleur (onthe opposite sides of the mouth It was laid in 1877 and is stillin good of the Seine), 8-Jmiles long. condition. It consists of five wires insulated with gutta-percha, and
protected with juteand a double armor of galvanized iron wire. The underground electric-light cables, which they have made for Paris and other cities,consist of tinned copper covered with three layers of vulcanized rubber, and covered with lead 2-Jmillimeters

They

ELECTRICITY.

239
of the

(one-tenth of
double

an

inch)thick.
cables.

They

claim to be the inventors

concentric

those of the India Rubber Other creditable exhibits of cables were ler (French section, gold medal) and Fowand Gutta Percha Company " Co. (English section, gold medal).

Henley's Telegraph
exhibited samples of Some them. of them
were:

Works
a

Company

(English section, silver medal)

and laid by The earliest

were

large number of cables made interest historically. of

cable laid at Ceylon in 1857, 30 miles, single conductor weight 66 tons; another 'in Egypt, in 1857, three wires, 9 miles, and 1858, 240 miles, weight 408 tons. They 20 tons; another in Tasmania,
A
were armor,

all of the well-known

a

construction, with

galvanized

iron wire

protecting compound. covered with Commercial Cable Company a model of New York, showed the armor was of a cable in which made of short steel ferrules, the b dered ends of which were made to fitinto one another, the jointseing renof thick round rubber rings. air-tight and elastic by means

The

The

is object

crushing

to protect it from strain is 25 tons.

danger

from

crushing

by ice.

The

MISCELLANEOUS.
UNDERGROUND
WIRES

OF

PARIS.

These
two

cables

are

composed

and covered with two

7,
or

layers of Chatterton 14 of these stranded

gether of wires of seven strands twisted tolayers of gutta-percha, alternating with The cables are formed of 3, 5, compound.
together, spun over wires bunched with three layers, the firstof tarred jute, with with Norway in the opposite pitch, and the direction to the
0.5 to 0.7

tarred cotton and covered the second of cotton tape impregnated

third of tarred cotton tape wound preceding layer. The diameter of the wire used millimeter (about No. 24 to 21 B. " S.
twisted together

is from from

gauge). The
are

seven

wires
3.5 to 5
a

and covered

as

described

millimeters
is not

(equalto 0.137 to 0.197

above, inch). The copper

has

conductivity

mile),

of at least 90 per cent that of pure copper; the resistance to 33 ohms greater than 20. 57 ohms per per kilometer (equal quently Those most fre0" C. per square millimeter cross section at

used have

the

same

resistance
or

as

(0.157 and
that is, about
over

0.197 inch,

about

iron wire of 4 and 5 millimeters No. 6 and 4 B. " S. For

gauge);

16 to 9.7 ohms

370 megohms than 0.48 to 0.40 microfarad.

these the insulation is per mile. F.)and the capacity is less per mile at 24" C. (75"

covered with lead in place of the three layers of or These are used in the sewers tunnels, being of cotton and tape. hooks, while those without lead are put into castmerely hung on iron tubes in trenches.

Some

others

are

240

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

lines the cables are made like the preceding two correspond to are generally of three conductors, of which and iron wire of 4 millimeters and the other to one an of 5. These are placed in cast-iron tubes in trenches. Sometimes, when there is only

For long underground

one

cable, it is covered with The Socie*td des Telephones, and Telegra-ph

Works

an

armor

Menier,

of iron wire and simply buried. India Rubber and Gutta-Per-

Company (Paris), three furnish unall dergroun for the telegraph department the city of Paris. wires of For electric light underground cables vulcanized rubber is generally used in place of gutta-percha. French submarine cables. The conductor of the submarine cables
cha
"

is made This is covered with a wire. strands of copper of seven layer of Chatterton compound and then with three layers of guttaThis is covpercha alternating with two of Chatterton compound. ered in opposite directions, over two layers of jute wound with

which is then placed the armor this armor of iron wire is made ends it is made of large wires.
wire three layers of bituminous spirally around it. iron, while for shore known "Best-Best" as

cables for shore of small-sized wires, while For deep-sea cables the armor is galvanized
it is
an

of iron wire.

For

deep-sea

ends

extra fine quality of iron

armor

quality.

compounds

is covered with and two of tarred linen wound This

are

submarine cables used by France by the large English companies, namely:

The

almost exclusively made The Indian Rubber, Gutta-

Percha

Works Company, tion Constructhe Telegraph and Telegraph firm of Siemens Brothers. Maintenance Company, and the and The Cable making of telegraphs of machine. administration
"

exhibited a small model of the machines used by them at their factory for making cables. The bundle of insulated wires which are to constitute the cable are drawn slowly through a series tubes in line with each other. Between the end of each tube and of France
the beginning insulation
on a

or

of the next, a is wound armor, disk

layer of the covering material, be it around the cable from bobbins secured

As the cable with these tubes. it spirally these coverings are thereby wound around in alternately opposite directions. It also passes through tanks and a jetof containing the liquid coating material and finally through

revolving passes through,

concentric

The following exGovernment. wire for the French tract from the "specifications for galvanized wire" for the French Government, 1879, shows the requirements made and the tests to which the wire is
"

cold water. Galvanized

subjected.

The
must

with
must

iron must be reduced and refined entirely with charcoal, and be free from scale and other faults. It must be galvanized Wires pure zinc. of 5, 4, 3, and 1 millimeters in diameter be able to stand
a

tension of 650, 440, 250, and

30 kilograms,

ELECTRICITY.

241
6 per

than respectively, with an elongation of not more being wound on a cylinder (size not must resist
to
a

cent.

It

given)and subjected

tension

of 500, 350, 200, and

22 kilograms,

resist being secured in a vise and wire must forward and backward through a sharp right angle each way, 3, 4, 5, and 8 times, respectively. It must stand four successive immersions each in a solution of copper sulphate (1to 5 parts of of one minute

respectively. The being bent alternately

three larger sizes must stand being wound in diameter, and the a cylinder of 1 centimeter over detaching the over a cylinder of 3 millimeters without smaller one but the wire will not be held strictly to this test. The wire zinc ;

water)without

being

stained.

The

be made in France. In the specifications for 1889 the same imposed conditions were following additional requirements : The resistance at 0" C. with the reduced to a wire of 1 millimeter diameter must not be greater than
must
156 ohms

per kilometer (orabout 250 ohms per mile for a No. 18 wire). Testing. For testing cables and joints facture, roughly during their manuit appears that the so-called plate or influence machines
"

Wimshurst, (Holtz,
are a

Carre*,
into
use

developing etc.),

coming

very high tension electricity, largely in France. They seem to afford

ready, cheap, and effective means is good or bad, without, however, to be measured thereby.

the cable or joint the insulation resistance enabling

to find whether

Splices.
"

The Western

Electric Company

multiple wire Patterson cables, which were to be the finest they had seen. One
of 1 25 and 100 wires.
over a

exhibited some splices of by some French experts said

was

of 50 pairs, and others The individual splices were distributed spirally

short length of the cable and afterwards covered with a short piece of lead pipe only slightly larger than the other. They exhibited but somewhat for electric also some good complicated splices light wire cables.

Couplings.
p. 86.

"

For couplings

for splicing wires,

see

under

ries," "Accesso-

CONDUITS.

few that it may almost be saidso exhibits of conduits were that this branch was not represented at all. There was only one in the French section and two in the United States. It is all exhibit that this should be so, because in Europe more than anywhere else underground wires are used. is probably that it is considered there such a simThe explanation ple to lay well insulated cables in the ground directly, or in matter
the
more

The

strange

or that there is nothing of wood concrete, or in sewers, about it to exhibit. The sidewalks in Paris and many other Euro, belong to the streets and not to property owners, pean cities and

troughs

they may

therefore be used for such conduits, which H. Ex. 410" VOL 16 iv

overcomes

some

242

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION"

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

difficulties, especiallly in Paris where the surface covering is generally or asphalt, which therefore keeps the ground below quite pitch dry. Another reason why it is less difficultthere, is that they rarely use
in our the high potential circuits so common arc-light distribution, and lately also in our alternating-current distribution. Another
there is
so

receiving less attention is that little to our electric-lightdistribution there, as compared

reason

why

itis apparently

cities,that there is no The Postel-Vinay.

"

such need for complete system exhibited by

and flexible systems. Postel-Vinay (French

it differed so radias of special interest to Americans cally from our ususal systems. Instead of using expensive insulating so much trouble here, coverings of wires which appear to cause they use bare wires in the conduits and support them on insulators.
was section)

of a twisted cable, and in cast-iron supports which are are supported about every to the iron cross through the medium pieces secured of strong porcelain insulators to which they are cemented with sulphur.
are

The

wires for great currents

in the form

7 feet

conduits firmly imbedded

The

are

made of concrete having in their sides. The conduits

the iron
are

cross

pieces

are of concrete or flat stones the tops of which In crossing streets they tunnel underneath below the sidewalk. the if necessary. An advantage sewers of such a system is that house are connections readily made, and that the capacity of the wires

covered with slabs only a few inches

may

readily be increased at any subsequent time the other, in the same supports. another wire over

by merely laying A good illustration

installed of this system, as well as of other details of a system in Paris, will be found in La Lumiere electrique June 29, 1889, p.
604.

The

Consolidated

Telegraph

and

Electrical

Subway
charts
are

Company
and models familiar to

section, silver in New York their systems of American readers.

(United States

medal) exhibited

City, all of which

The

American

Indurated

Fiber Company

(United States section)

circuits. They exhibited samples of their pipes for underground tubes are proposed as a substitute for iron and creosoted wooden which have been used largely. In a descriptive circular they make "This the following statements: ess pipe is made by a patented procfrom long wood

fibers,separated, washed free from all saps and gums, molded while in a pulpy state into the requisite size and It is then to shape, and then subjected great hydraulic pressure. it hardened by a chemical treated and renders process, which to acids and moisture, absolutely strong, hard, and impervious structible decay or corrosion, and practically indewaterproof, proof against
The
couplings, bearing
pipe is supplied

standard

in lengths of 5 feet with sleeve pipe thread, so cut that the ends 'butt'

ELECTRICITY.

243

in coupling, thus preventing any catch or pocket at the joints. to a uniform Each length is carefully reamed diameter. The out weight of the pipe is one-fifth that of iron, and it is therefore more

tensile strength of the pipe is about the square inch, and it withstands 11,000 pounds all ordinary The pipe will resist over 200" of heat, and will internal pressures. frost than iron pipe." stand more economically
to

handled.

The

VIIL"

APPLICATIONS
AND

OF

ELECTRICITY SURGERY.

IN

MEDICINE

for the application of electricity in medicine to the department more properly and of medicine surgery, rather than to that of electricity. No attempt is and here to give either a full summary, therefore made a complete or

General.

The apparatus surgery belongs

"

description of the exhibits in this branch, nor to describe them from The following notes are limited to a mere a medical point of view. to the notice of apparatus which chanced to come mention of some the writer, and is treated from the point of view of an electrician satisfaction to notice from the exhibits, that the use of electricity in this branch appeared to be no longer limited chiefly to doctor, but that it was the practice of the "quack" studied systematically
a

merely. It was

fast taking an and intelligently, and was in the intelligent practice of medicine and surgery. The
cases

important

place

of very complete and The exhibits creditably designed for convenience and maintenance. limited almost exclusively to the French section. were Unquestionably the finest exhibit was that of Charles Chardin

exhibits in this class were quite the apparatus quite elaborate,

numerous,

and in

number

being

(Frenchsection,
be very
A

silver

medal).

It

complete, showing good and in a number of cases considerable ingenuity. improvements were of number noticed in batteries for medical

quite large and appeared to intelligent designing, workmanship,

was

surgical (chiefly cauterizing) purposes, with a view chiefly to uid, reducing the amount of attention, care, cleaning, slopping of the liqthem as refilling,etc., and for transportable purposes, to make light and small as possible. important The more of them will be
and

found

In quite a number of the exhibits under "batteries." induction coils for generating the so-called " faradic curof rents (which are simply interrupted, high tension, alternating currents it was noticed that the usual of different alternating
"

described

potentials),

interrupter of the primary rapidly vibrating-hammer coil was by a long pendulum-like interrupter, by means of which interruptions were An made quite slowly and regular.

replaced the

adjustable

weight

on

this pendulum

enabled

the slowness

of the interruptions

244

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.
'

to be varied between
were

great limits.

In another

apparatus

these

interrupti

There

were

application, as of direct high-tension and

cauteries

and revolving contact. produced by a clockwork high-tension batteries for direct of exhibits of number induction or influence machines for the application also
The exhibit of the electrodescharges. different forms was particularly large and
a

of many

very complete and convenient by Dr. Vigouroux, among containing electrical apparatus things a series of induction coils of different windings, and other for measuring at any time both the potential and convenient means

varied. Bre*guet

(French section)xhibited e
designed

The same maker galvanometer. strength with the same for registering on the apparatus of Professor Hayem also exhibited drum the currents used in therapeutics. a revolving
the current

short description of a bullet probe and induction balance for locating a bullet in a body, see under "telephony," p. 131. use The advantage made of offered by electrical illumination was In some a small electric lamp in a number of pieces of apparatus. For
a

was

arranged

for internal illumination

"

hand

photophone," in front and a reflector in back the operator, or on a stand, a lens was of the lamp, producing a strong, parallel beam of light, the lamp itselfbeing only a small battery lamp. in principle, was Another not new apparatus of interest, though

reflector. In the

of cavities, or with a small attached to the forehead of

the

ozone

generator

exhibited in operation

by Huguet The

(French section).
is that

principle

that if namely, of Houzeau, two parallel plates having metallic 011 their outside coating
surface
as

be

charged

and

discharged

succession, ondary when connected to the secinduction an circuit of

in rapid

will be generated coil, ozone in the air space between the plates. The apparatus exhibited
is shown in the adjoining cut, Fig. 61, which explains itself. The three concentric cylinders are of glass, the twoinner
FIG. 6i." ozone
generator;

ones

having

Huguet.

one

forced in through the tube, passes between where it is partially converted into ozone,

side, as shown. the two electrifiedplates, haled which is collected and in-

tin foil on. The air,,

For an illustrated article on this by the patient. see subject Revue Internationale de TElectricite, August 26, 1889, p. 133.
*

ELECTRICITY.

245
EXHIBITS.
RODS.

IX."

MISCELLANEOUS
LIGHTNING

interesting exhibits of lightning rods it was to notice an almost complete change of the general systems, in a diametrically opposite direction, in conformity with the progress of In. no other class exhibits was it shown more science. of prominently

Among

the half dozen

how

the progress

of science

overthrown
to
so

so many years. adhered In the exhibitions of 1878 and 1881, and doubtless also in subsequent there were ones, exhibits of insulators and holders of various the building as sorts for keeping the lightning rods insulated from

old and obstinately for

short time, almost ideas which had radically wrong

a

has, within

completely been

possible. In the present exhibition were shown systems and appliances for connecting the building electrically as carefully The former removes as possible with the lightning rod. ing the buildas far as possible from the beneficial influence of the lightning
carefully
as

rod; the latter, by discharging

as

the house

also, protects

it

as

much

possible. In 1884, when the electrical exhibition building was being fitted lightning rods on this new with and proper system, the "old and experience lightning-rod makers (plumbers, believe) laughed and we

scoffed at the idea of allowing the rod to be connected to the building and even soldered to the tin roofs. At the present exhibition such to exhibit their former products. were, makers apparently, ashamed also that the intelligent makers used bands and stranded wires to replace the usual solid conductor, in conformity with the recent developments. In some exhibits, solid, massive, platinum points were used in place those of brass, platinum plated, on account of the liabilityof the of
some cases

In

it was

noticed

latter to become

fused

by

strong
was

advocates a lightning-rod tip having a great charge multitude of points, instead of a few, to facilitate the disdistribute it among and many points, probably to diminish the liability fusion of the points. of Milde Fils, " Co. exhibited a complete that system showing
with all the later developments of science in this bands of copper li by inch, tinned on the outuse side, -J better, iron bands covered with a thick coating of copper or, which is then tinned, in accordance with the fact lately demonstrated, Bands are used that the self-induction, is less in iron than in copper. for this same fasreason, as also because they can be more readily tened
branch.
pace They to the building and bent in conformity with shape of the walls, cornices, etc. The bands are in electricalcontact with all the parts of a building, including all water and gas pipes, and have points situated

character of a sharp point, as In another exhibit the maker

discharge, and thereby lose their shown by samples of actual cases.

they kept

246
on

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

fastened, at intervals of the tops of every high part. They are about every foot, by improved clamps, which allows them to expand The earth plates are made of an open spiral, made of and contract.
of this band, which presents a surface of a square meter. This is put into the well. They prefer to have several grounds for each house.
16 meters
STEEL MAGNETS.

Meritens

(Frenchsection) exhibited
of steel tempered

permanent

steel magnets
a

Clemandot
own.

made Magnets of allshapes were exhibited; among having the following constants : magnets

by compression,

of his process of horseshoe them were

Another

exhibit of permanent
some

contained section),

which

that of Marchal magnets, had the following constants:

(French

MAGNETIC

NICKEL

ALLOY.

ex(United States section, honorable mention), hibited bars of nickel, alloyed with various proportions of tungsten This alloy was varying from 1 to 6 per cent in different samples. At the time of writing no figures magnetic to a considerable degree. had been obtained. The nickel is made from nickeliferous pyrrho-

Joseph Wharton

tite and is about 99 per cent nickel and iron.

NON-MAGNETIC
WATCH

1 per cent impurities, chiefly

MOVEMENTS.

by experiments sufficientlywell demonstrated if the hairspring that a watch will not be affected by magnetism An are metal. and the escapement made of a non-magnetic iron shield around the watch may protect it in a weak field,but it

We

believe it has been

do so in a powerful field, tection of course, and it is therefore a proin a degree only. There were a few exhibits of nonmagnetic Those of hairsprings and escapements, all in the Swiss department.
can

not,

ELECTRICITY.

247

in the United States, are made of a pallaPaillard, already known Patek, Phillippe " Co. exhibited hairsprings of an dinum alloy. by Sandoz; also escapements of "wolalloy called "mangor,"made They all have the same tine" and "wolf or," made by Weidemaiin.
was as steel ; their composition not given. appearance favorable qualities from a all of them, have other standpoint, besides being non-magnetic.

Some,

if not

watchmaker's

X."

GENERAL
CARBONS.

SUPPLIES.

The exhibits of carbon goods for arc lights, batteries,and other purposes were almost exclusively and for many microphones, in the French section. Most of these French exhibits were very creditable,

General.

"

perfection in the manufacture of such goods. They showed not only the possibility, but also the practicability of molding and shaping the carbon in all possible forms and sizes, and giving to it the properties of great elasticity,density, or porosity, as showing
great

Rods were shown, from the size of required for different purposes. hair (presumably for incandescent lamps) up to 3 inches diameter a thin as paper; delicate as and 3 feet long; plates for microphones spiral springs having very great elasticity; porous cups for batteries;

jarsfor

batteries; tubes of all sizes, and delicately molded pieces of All of these were made of complicated forms for various purposes. from as distinguished or cut retort carbon ized carbonmolded carbon, No information be obtained about could vegetable material.

as these are the processes of manufacture, usually kept secret. Contrary to our usual custom, the arc-light carbons used in France This may be due to the fact that are very rarely copper-plated.

their resistance is sufficiently low not to need a copper coating; but it may also, and more probably, be due to the fact that in their usual systems of distribution the arc lamps are connected in multiple arc, dead resistance in circuit to keep the and therefore require some
current

steadier. Another custom

an

different from
arc

ours

is that for the upper

are

or

positive

carbon of cored carbons almost universally By a cored carbon is meant has a thin rod or core one used. which lengthwise through the center, similar to a lead pencil; the carbon of this core, being softer than that around it, burns away than sooner the rest, thereby keeping the crater of the arc always in the same

lamp

the arc from traveling around to different position and preventing in the ordinary carbons is sides of the carbon, which phenomenon one of the causes of nickering and of a blue light on one side of the lamp. The cored carbons appear to cost from 5 to 10 per cent more
than the plain, and in addition to this they burn the cost of the light somewhat. ing faster,thus increas-

248
The
as

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PAKIS.

to be exceedingly prices of arc-light carbons seem compared with those in the United States; they are
as
"

high abroad from five to

ten times

Exhibits. Edmond

great. Among

the chief exhibits and exhibitors

were

lowing: the fol-

E. Carre* (French section, silver medal) exhibited among things very complicated forms, molded and cut, chiefly of fine, other delicate workmanship; also long, fine, slender tubes. In the
were

(French section, silver medal) exhibit of Emile L. LeVy among other things the following: Arc-light carbons 7 feet long

and all diameters; a plate about 3 feet by 18 inches by one-half an inch thick; split hollow cylinders of all sizes for batteries; large, hard crucibles, also one of complicated form for an aluminium ess; procvery thin disks for microphone

diaphragms;

hair-like threads, probably very elastic spiral 1$ inch diameter made of a round carbon rod of about one-sixteenth of an inch diameter. In the exhibit of Lacombe " Co. (French section, silver medal), large ones 3 some which was chiefly of arc-light carbons, were very feet long and 3 inches diameter; also 5 feet long and 2 inches diameter;
a

for microphones;

small balls like shot, for incandescent lights;

also carbon rods with deep spiral grooves longitudinally, the of object which is probably to keep the arc in the center. Charles R. Goodwin (French section)exhibited porous cups and battery jarsof porous and dense carbon respectively. Also very large blocks and slabs probably for batteries.
August Ballat

(Frenchsection, honorable
or

mention) was

the only

exhibitor of "cut" they are sometimes

very hard and from the others, which

carbons, or "French" carbons as called in the United Stases. These carbons are strong, and are cut from blocks, as distinguished
are

"retort"

molded
carbons

from
are

hardened.
in which

The
strong

cut

acids are used, as to be more porous, thereby presenting more The exhibit was fine one, a very showing carved into
numerous

and afterwards for batteries generally preferred they last longer and appear plastic
surface
to the

mass

liquids.

shapes and forms, 4 the larger pieces was one plates, crucibles, dishes, etc. Among feet by 1 inch by 3 inches, and a slab 2 feet by 18 inches by threefourths of an inch, both without a flaw.

pieces cut, turned, and such as rods for lamps,

(Frenchsection, silver medal)exhibited lights covered with a hard, black enamel, which carbons they claim increases the time of burning 25 per cent. This enamel insulator and must therefore be taken off whenever is an contact is to be made with the carbon. The carbons are made of charcoal, of
for
arc

Messrs. Mignon

" Rouart

black. They are coal tar, pitch, and of lamp very hard, almost metallic, and are claimed to give very little ash. The published to the usual American prices are quite high when compared carbons.

ELECTRICITY.

249

For

instance, the

plain carbon

price of is 10.5 cents

11. 5 cents

seven-sixteenths inch (11 millimeters) per foot; cored, 11 cents (or5 per cent

more); enameled,
12.1 cents

(or 10 per

cent

more); cored

(or15 per

cent

more).
an

carbons, seven-sixteenths of cored, is 1 to 1.2 cents per foot, or about one-tenth of the above. d? Electricite et Hydraulique The Compagnie (Belgian also section) they claim great whiteness light carbons for which of exhibited light and
same
an

usual inch, copper

The

and enameled, or American price plated, but not

arc

without

flame.

size

as

the above,
an

are

Their published prices, for the 5.9 cents per foot plain and 6.5 cents

gave 3.4 cents per foot for company that the American this size, plain, showing carbons are, as a rule, cheaper than those in Europe. very much the pioneers in A. de Merit ens " Co. (French who were

cored. A price list from

English

section),

electric light-house lighting, exhibited carbons for very large lights, wards of small rods copper plated and aftermade of a number which were large rod. They together to form one bunched and secured claim that such carbons will point themselves better while burning, rod and that the flame will "jump" less than with a homogeneous size. of the same

Company, of Pittsburg and Manufacturing (Bronzemedal),was the only American exhibitor. Their carbons are made from mineral oils. No description could be obtained from the makers.
The

Solar

Carbon

OTHER

SUPPLIES.

HARD

RUBBER.

finest exhibits of hard-rubber and gutta-percha goods in the those of the Societe*Ge*nerale des Telephones, electrical section were The and Casassa Fils et Cie. (silver medal),both in the French section. The latter was particularly interesting, showing excellent workmanship to different forms and a wide range of adaptability and
uses.

Among
screws,

them

were

iron

jarsand
,

other metallic with

a

like objects

handles,

binding

rubber

adhering

posts, etc. covered to it with great tenacity.

PORCELAIN
AND

coating of hard

EARTHENWARE.

Among
were

the chief exhibits of porcelain goods for electrical purposes Hache, Jullien " Co. and L. Thierre, both in French There

section forms

is littleto be described about the exhibits, the very large assortment except to mention of different of insulators and insulating knobs, tubes, buttons, etc., both

(bronze medal).

for outdoor

very and indoor wiring; many of the latter forms were designed Messrs. Woodfor facilitating the wiring. practically

250
house

UNIVERSAL

EXPOSITION

OF

1889

AT

PARIS.

"

Rawson

exhibited
a

very

good

form

Fig. 62, which

contains small quantity the insulator from the supporting pin. surface of Other novel and ingenious insulators
were

of insulator, shown in of oil to insulate the outside forms

but

of by other exexhibited hibitors scribed they could not be de-

or cuts, be obtained. neither of which could Fowler, Lancaster " Co. (English

without

illustrations

exhibited section)

material resembling but much better adapporcelain, ted for electrical fixtures. It is hard
strong, and
not
as

and

brittle

as

the

it can be made ordinary porcelain; fine, regular, and sharp screw with a thread, both inside and outside, which It fit together well and smoothly.
can

Fig. 62." Insulator, by Woodhouse

Rawson.

"

be glazed or colored. orable Lallier " Co. (French section, honhad a creditable exhibit

mention)

of stone
numerous

and

earthen

ware

in

shapes for different purposes.

FIXTURES.

of chandeliers, fixtures, globes, shades, etc., tulip-shaped shades for incandescent lights, were some lescent which, from the outside, that is,for transmitted light, had an opalooking at a pink color predominating, appearance with while
Among

the exhibits interesting

the

are

pearance surface, that is, for reflected light, they had the apThey are said to be new, a bright and of gilt reflector. known in this country as French shades. Other fixtures, though

inside

interesting and

numerous,

leave nothing

to be described.

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