TOPIK 1 :

BANDING BEZA BAHAN ASLI DAN BAHAN BUATAN MANUSIA BAHAN ASLI BAHAN BUATAN MANUSIA CIRI-CIRI berharga Tahan Lasak

tulen dan semula jadi

Ringan

mudah diurai dan degradasikan

Kukuh

berasal daripada tumbuh-tumbuhan, haiwan atau tanah

Reka bentuk untuk fleksibiliti

Tidak mengurai dan didegradasikan dengan mudah

Ia biasanya dibuat daripada beberapa bahan semula jadi

Boleh diwujudkan oleh proses fizikal dan kimia CONTOH Tanah aloi,

Getah

plastik

Petroleum (Bahan Api)

bahan komposit,

Bahan-bahan bukan organik (batu)

bahan kimia industri,

Rencam (tanah liat, porselin)

sabun

Kayu (rotan, buluh, kulit kayu)

detergen.

Logam (tembaga, gangsa, besi, emas, perak)

Gentian Semula jadi (benang bulu, sutera, kapas, flaks, hem, jut, kapok)

TOPIK 2 : FEUL Fuel is any material that can be used to generate energy to produce mechanical work in a controlled manner. The processes used to convert fuel into energy include chemical reactions, such as combustion, and nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as metabolism. Hydrocarbons are by far the most common source of fuel in current use, but many other substances can be used as well.

Fossil fuel Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals[3] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years[4]. In common parlance, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels. Fossil fuels release millions of greenhouse gases into the air, but they do have some benefits:

Provide electricity Fuel for our automobiles Energy for heating and cooling Very cheap

There are many disadvantages of using fossil fuels:

Produce greenhouse gases Non-renewable energy source Contribute to global warming Deplete the ozone Aid in acid rain

Crude Oil A mixture of a wide range of molecules which is pumped or mined from underground reservoirs. As a mixture it has very little value; too runny for paving, too thick for an engine. Fortunately each molecule boils at a different temperature, which is the basis of distillation.Fractional distillation of crude oil is the first step in the production of many of the materials we have come to rely on in modern life.

Petroleum Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. The molecules have different sizes and numbers of carbon atoms. The small molecules have few carbon atoms and low boiling points, while the large molecules have many carbon atoms and high boiling points. In this form, petroleum is difficult to ignite and therefore is of little use. It must be refined to make useful fuels and chemicals. Petroleum is used for:

Heating homes Fueling cars Gum Crayons Dishwashing liquid Records

Fraction of crude oils and its uses Number of Carbon Atoms 3 or 4 Boiling Point (C) below 30

Name

Uses Bottled Gas (propane or butane). Fuel for car engines. Solvents and used in petrol. Fuel for aircraft and stoves. Fuel for road

Refinery Gas

Petrol

7 to 9

100 to 150

Naphtha Kerosene (paraffin)

6 to 11

70 to 200

11 to 18

200 to 300

Diesel Oil

11 to 18

200 to 300

vehicles and trains.

Lubricating Oil

18 to 25

300 to 400

Lubricant for engines

and machines. Fuel Oil 20 to 27 350 to 450 Fuel for ships and heating. Lubricants and candles. Road surface and roofing.

Greases and Wax

25 to 30

400 to 500

Bitumen

above 35

above 500

TOPIK 3 Ore

An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals with important elements including metals. The ores are extracted through mining; these are then refined to extract the valuable element(s). The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes. The process of ore formation is called ore genesis.

MINERALS A mineral is composed of the same substance throughout. If you were to cut a mineral sample, it would look the same throughout. There are about 3000 different minerals in the world. Minerals are made of chemicals - either a single chemical or a combination of chemicals.

PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Characteristics used in the identification & study of minerals. These are the most common characteristics used when describing minerals.

Color this varies depending on the chemicals present and is the least informative in identifying a mineral variety

Luster what the surface looks like in the light Specific Gravity how heavy it feels, heft Crystal Form shape of crystal, shape the mineral would take if it had room to grow in a cavity, not massive some minerals have a number of different crystal shapes

Cleavage pattern when mineral is broken in planes or conchoidal

Fracture Tenacity - toughness, how cohesive the mineral is, if it falls apart Hardness what it can scratch & what scratches it Transparency - The ability to transmit light. Depending on a number of things, rocks & minerals can also transmit light. Many rocks that are opaque when in a chunk, are translucent when cut into very thin slices. Gems stones are often valued on how clear, or transparent they are.

Special Properties magnetism, chatoyancy, fluorescence, odor, streak, burn test, conductivity

TOPIC 4

ALLOY

alloy is as a material that's made up of at least two different chemical elements, one of which is a metal. An alloy is a combination, either in solution or compound, of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal, and where the resultant material has metallic properties. Alloys are often used to enhance properties of a metal. Metallic elements are blended with other metals or non-metallic substances to give them special qualities, such as corrosion resistance, greater hardness or more strength. Alloys are made by melting the main metals and then dissolving the other substances in it.

Alloy

Components

Typical uses

Iron (50%+), aluminium (8Alnico 12%), nickel (15-25%), cobalt (540%), plus other metals such as copper and titanium.

Magnets in loudspeakers and pickups in electric guitars.

Amalgam

Mercury (45-55%), plus silver, tin, copper, and zinc.

Dental fillings.

Babbitt metal ("white metal") Tin (90%), antimony (7-15%), copper (4-10%). Friction-reducing coating in machine bearings.

Door locks and bolts, Brass Copper (65-90%), zinc (10-35%). brass musical instruments, central heating pipes.

Copper (78-95%), tin (5-22%), plus Bronze manganese, phosphorus, aluminium, or silicon.

Decorative statues, musical instruments.

Cast iron

Iron (96-98%), carbon (2-4%), plus silicon.

Metal structures such as bridge sand heavyduty cookware.

Cupronickel (copper nickel) Copper (75%), nickel (25%), plus small amounts of manganese. Coins.

Aluminium (94%), copper (4.5-5%), Duralumin magnesium (0.5-1.5%), manganese (0.5-1.5%).

Automobile and aircraft body parts, military equipment.

Gunmetal

Copper (80-90%), tin (3-10%), zinc (2-3%), and phosphorus.

Guns, decorative items.

Magnox

Magnesium, aluminium.

Nuclear reactors.

Firework ignition Nichrome Nickel (80%), chromium (20%). devices, heating elements in electrical

appliances.

Shape memory alloy used in medical items, Nitinol Nickel (50-55%), titanium (45-50%). spectacle frames that spring back to shape, and temperature switches.

Ornaments, used to make Pewter Tin (80-99%) with copper, lead, and antimony. tableware before glass became more common.

Varies. Old-fashioned solders contain a mixture of tin (50-70%), lead (30-50%), copper, antimony, Solder and other metals. Newer solders dispense with lead for health reasons. A typical modern solder has 99.25 percent tin and 0.75 percent copper. Connecting electrical components into circuits.

Steel (general)

Iron (80-98%), carbon (0.2-2%), plus other metals such as chromium, manganese, and vanadium.

Metal structures, car and airplane parts, and many other uses.

Iron (50%+), chromium (10-30%), Steel (stainless) plus smaller amounts of carbon, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, and other metals. Jewellery, medical tools, tableware.

Coating for Stellite Cobalt (67%), chromium (28%), tungsten (4%), nickel (1%). cutting tools such as saw teeth, lathes, and chainsaws.

Sterling silver

Cutlery, jewelry, medical Silver (92.5%), copper (7.5%). tools, musical instruments.

White gold (18 carat)

Gold (75%), palladium (17%), silver (4%), copper (4%)

Jewelry.

Wood's metal

Bismuth (50%), lead (26.7%), tin (13.3%), cadmium (10%).

Solder, melting element in fire sprinkler systems.

TOPIC 5

Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of chemical substances which are characterized by having molecular structures which are called benzene rings. The chemically simplest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene, and the structure of this hydrocarbon lent its name to the benzene ring. Many aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic, and they are unfortunately among the most widespread of organic pollutants. Nuclear Substituted Compounds

When the functional group or any substituent, in aromatic compounds is directly attached to the benzene ring, it is a called nuclear substituted compound. Such compounds are named as the derivatives of benzene under the IUPAC system. However, the common names of many such compounds are retained by IUPAC.

Sidechain Substituted Compounds

Aromatic compounds where the functional group is present in the sidechain of the ring are called sidechain substituted compounds. Sidechain substituted compounds are named as the phenyl derivatives of the corresponding aliphatic compounds.

Physical Properties of Aromatic Hydrocarbons

The melting and boiling points of aromatic hydrocarbons increase with the molar mass, and are higher than that of the corresponding aliphatic hydrocarbons. They are soluble in organic solvents, Insoluble in water, and Lower densities than water.

USES

As an industrial solvent for fats and oils, rubber, resins etc. As a starting material for dyes, drugs, perfumes and explosives and polymers For dry-cleaning of woollen clothes.

TOPIC 6 The manufacture of ethanol from ethene Ethanol is manufactured by reacting ethene with steam. The catalyst used is solid silicon dioxide coated with phosphoric(V) acid. The reaction is reversible.

Only 5% of the ethene is converted into ethanol at each pass through the reactor. By removing the ethanol from the equilibrium mixture and recycling the ethene, it is possible to achieve an overall 95% conversion. Uses of ethanol Drinks The "alcohol" in alcoholic drinks is simply ethanol. Industrial methylated spirits (meths) Ethanol is usually sold as industrial methylated spirits which is ethanol with a small quantity of methanol added and possibly some colour. Methanol is poisonous, and so the industrial methylated spirits is unfit to drink. This avoids the high taxes which are levied on alcoholic drinks (certainly in the UK!). As a fuel Ethanol burns to give carbon dioxide and water and can be used as a fuel in its own right, or in mixtures with petrol (gasoline). "Gasohol" is a petrol / ethanol mixture containing about 10 - 20% ethanol. Because ethanol can be produced by fermentation, this is a useful way for countries without an oil industry to reduce imports of petrol.

As a solvent Ethanol is widely used as a solvent. It is relatively safe, and can be used to dissolve many organic compounds which are insoluble in water. It is used, for example, in many perfumes and cosmetics. Uses of methanol As a fuel Methanol again burns to form carbon dioxide and water.

It can be used a a petrol additive to improve combustion, or work is currently being done on its use as a fuel in its own right.

As an industrial feedstock Most methanol is used to make other things - for example, methanal (formaldehyde), ethanoic acid, and methyl esters of various acids. In most cases, these are in turn converted into further products. Ether is the general name for a class of chemical compounds which contain an ether group an oxygen atom connected to two (substituted) alkyl groups. A typical example is the solvent and anesthetic diethyl ether (ethoxyethane, CH 3-CH2-O-CH2CH3). An ether has two organic groups (alkyl, aryl, or vinyl) bonded to the same oxygen atom, ROR Formula R-O-R where R is alkyl or aryl. Symmetrical or unsymmetrical

Physical properties

Ether molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds among each other, resulting in a relatively low boiling point comparable to that of the analogous alkanes. Ethers are more hydrophobic than esters or amides of comparable structure

Ethers are hydrogen bond acceptors- they are more soluble in H2O than are hydrocarbons

Uses of ether:

The following are the general uses of ether,

Diethyl ether is used in anaesthia. In Grignard reaction,it is used as a solvent. Used as a solvent for resins, oils, fats, and gums. Used for refrigerator purposes.

TOPIC 7

Preaparation of Aldehydes and Ketones Oxidising alcohols to make aldehydes and ketones The oxidising agent used in these reactions is normally a solution of sodium or potassium dichromate(VI) acidified with dilute sulphuric acid. If oxidation occurs, the orange solution containing the dichromate(VI) ions is reduced to a green solution containing chromium(III) ions. The net effect is that an oxygen atom from the oxidising agent removes a hydrogen from the -OH group of the alcohol and one from the carbon to which it is attached.

[O] is often used to represent oxygen coming from an oxidising agent. R and R' are alkyl groups or hydrogen. They could also be groups containing a benzene ring, but I'm ignoring these to keep things simple. If at least one of these groups is a hydrogen atom, then you will get an aldehyde. If they are both alkyl groups then you get a ketone. If you now think about where they are coming from, you will get an aldehyde if your starting molecule looks like this:

In other words, if you start from a primary alcohol, you will get an aldehyde.

Uses of aldehydes and Ketone 1. manufacture of resins, dyes, and organic acids. 2. Formaldehyde can be used to preserve dead animals. Formaldehyde is well recognized as formalin solution used to defend biological specimens and to prepare Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products. 3. Benzaldehyde is an almond extract. Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery with in dye industries. 4. Acetone is a common fingernail polish remover and is a solvent. Acetone is very flammable. Acetone with ethyl methyl ketones are general industrial solvents. 5. 2-Butanone (MEK, methyl ethyl ketone) is used as a solvent and paint stripper. 2Butanone is very flammable. 6. (-)-Carvone is used as spearmint flavoring. 7. (+)-Carvone is used as caraway seed flavoring. Vanillin is the vanilla flavoring. 8. Aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents, starting materials and reagents for the sysnthesis of other products. 9. Aldehyde is used primarily as an initial material in the manufacture of acetic acid, ethyl acetic, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs. 10. Various aldehydes and ketones exemplar, butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor, etc. are well recognized in support of their odours and flavours

TOPIC 8 Uses of Carboxylic Acids: They are used in several food produce and pharmaceuticals to include flavors. Some of these families are manufactured for apply as solvents that are acetone and for prepare materials similar to adhesives, paints, resins, perfumes, plastics, fabrics, etc

Methanoic acid: use as rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating industries.

Ethanoic acid: use as solvent and as vinegar in food industry. Hexanedioic acid: manufacture of nylon 6:6. Ester of benzoic acid: use as perfumery. Sodium benzoate: use as a food preservative. Higher fatty acids: use as manufacture of soaps and detergents

ESTERS Esters are derivatives of the carboxylic acids in which the -OH part of the carboxylic group has been replaced by -OR group where R may be alkyl or aryl group. A carboxylic acid contains the -COOH group, and in an ester the hydrogen in this group is replaced by a hydrocarbon group of some kind. This could be an alkyl group like methyl or ethyl, or one containing a benzene ring like phenyl. Esters are compounds formed from the reaction between alcohols and acids. The word 'ester' alone now signifies by common usage that the acid is an organic acid, but inorganic acids can also form esters

Uses of Esters

Esters are used as softeners in molding and plastic industries, in artificial fragrances or scents, as solvents in pharmaceutical industries, as industrial solvents for making

fats, cellulose, paints and varnishes, and used in making artificial food flavors that are added into food such as ice cream and sweets.

Esters are used in making various products like plastics, polymers, explosives. They are also used as solvent for oils, fats, cellulose resins etc.., They are also used in making artificial flavours and essences. Esters are also being successively used as the alternative to diesel. The salicylic methylester has amazing fragrance, the formula is given below.

AMIDES

Acid amides may be regarded as the derivatives of carboxylic acids in which -OH part of the carboxylic group is replaced by the -NH2 group.

Acid anhydrides are considered to be derived from carboxylic acids by the removal of a molecule of water from the two molecules of the acid.

TOPIC 9

Plastics are synthetic chemicals extracted mainly from petroleum and composed of hydrocarbons (compounds made from chains of hydrogen and carbon atoms). Most plastics are polymers, long molecules made up of many repetitions of a basic molecule called a monomer; in effect, the monomers are like identical railroad cars coupled together to form a very long train.

Thermoplastic polymers can be heated and formed, then heated and formed again and again. The shape of the polymer molecules are generally linear or slightly branched. This means that the molecules can flow under pressure when heated above their melting point.

Thermoset polymers undergo a chemical change when they are heated, creating a three-dimensional network. After they are heated and formed, these molecules cannot be re-heated and re-formed.

TOPIC 10

Ammonia (NH3) is an important compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, can take the form of a strong smelling liquid or gas. It is a colourless gas with a choking smell, and a weak alkali which is very soluble in water.Most popularly, consumer and commercial products use the alkaline substance to clean grime or fertilize crops.

The Haber process The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas - methane - with steam, or through the cracking of oil. Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is 80 per cent nitrogen; nearly all the rest is oxygen. When hydrogen is burned in air, the oxygen combines with the hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind. Nitrogen and hydrogen will react together under these conditions:

a high temperature - about 450C a high pressure - about 200 atmospheres (200 times normal pressure) an iron catalyst

The reaction is reversible. nitrogen + hydrogen N2(g) + 3H2(g) ammonia 2NH3(g)

Nitric acid The most important and useful oxoacid of nitrogen is nitric acid. Its molecular formula is HNO3 and molar mass 53 g mol-1.

Ostwald's process The conversion of ammonia into nitric acid in this process is done through the following steps:

Step1 Oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide

Ammonia is oxidized by air in the presence of Pt catalyst at 800C to give nitric oxide.

Step 2 Oxidation of NO to NO2 The nitric oxide is oxidised by air at temperature below 100C, to give nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Step 3 Formation of nitric acid

Nitrogen dioxide is then converted to nitric acid by absorbing NO2 in water, in the presence of air.

Uses of Nitric acid The important uses of nitric acid are as follows:

1) Nitric acid plays a significant role in the manufacture of various products such as:

Explosives like trinitrotoluene (T.N.T.) nitro glycerine, gun cotton, ammonal etc. Fertilizers such as calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate etc. Nitrate salts such as calcium nitrate, silver nitrate, ammonium nitrate. Dyes, perfumes, drugs etc. from coal tar products. Sulphuric acid by Lead Chamber process.

2) It is used in the purification of silver, gold, platinum etc.

3) Nitric acid is used in etching designs on copper, brass, bronze ware etc . 4) It is used to prepare "aqua regia" to dissolve the noble elements.

5) It is used as a laboratory reagent.

Sulphuric acid Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is one of the most important industrial chemicals. It is an oily liquid having a boiling point of 335 C, which evolves much heat on dilution with water. Millions of tons of sulphuric acid are made every year by the CONTACT PROCESS, which converts raw sulphur, oxygen and water to sulphuric acid. Step 1: Melted sulphur is burned in a furnace, using air, producing sulphur dioxide, SO2. Step 2: The SO2 gas is passed through a tower called a precipitator in order to remove dust and other impurities which might interfere with the catalyst. Step 3: The SO2 is then washed with water, in a scrubbing tower. Step 4: The SO2 is then dried in a drying tower. Step 5: After passing through a heating chamber, the SO2, which is still mixed with air, is passed through a reactor. There, using vanadium pentoxide, V 2O5, as catalyst, the SO2 is converted to sulphur trioxide, SO3.

Step 6: Finally, the SO3 is absorbed in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving the socalled oleum or pyrosulphuric acid. This is the diluted with water to give about 98% pure H2SO4.

Uses of sulphuric acids in our daily life

In the manufacture of fertilizers, ammonium phosphate and calcium super phosphate.

In the manufacture of rayon and nylon and also in the preparation of dyes and drugs from coal tar derivatives.

In the manufacture of the explosives such as Tri-nitro toluene , Tri-nitro glycerine and picric acid.

In the manufacture of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid. In the manufacture of sodium sulphate for glass industry and ferrous sulphate for ink industry.

In the purification of petrol, kerosene, and lubricants. It is used in metallurgy for extraction of metals. Leaching of metallic compounds gives sulphates which on electrolysis gives the metal in pure form .It is used for pickling of metals.

It is used in storage of batteries. It is used as a laboratory reagent for the preparation of iodine, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

TOPIC 11

Composites are made by combining two or more natural or artificial materials to maximize their useful properties and minimize their weaknesses. One of the oldest and best-known composites, glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP or FRP), combines glass fibers (which are strong but brittle) with plastic (which is flexible) to make a composite material that is tough but not brittle. Composites are typically used in place of metals because they are equally strong but much lighter.

Composites exist in nature. A piece of wood is a composite, with long fibres of cellulose (a very complex form of starch) held together by a much weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton and linen, but it is the binding power of the lignin that makes a piece of timber much stronger than a bundle of cotton fibres.

Types of Composite

Natural Composites

Composites can be easily found in nature. Wood is an example of a composite because cellulose fibers are held together by substance called lignin. These fibers can be found in cotton and thread, but it's the bonding power of lignin in wood that makes it much tougher. Another natural composite is rock and sand, materials used in concrete. Rock is just smaller rocks held together, and sand is made of small grains

Mud Bricks

One type of very old composite material invented by early humans was the mud brick. A normal mud brick is sturdy and resistant to compression, but can break if bent. Straw is a material that has excellent tensile strength, meaning that it resists stretching. By combining both, early humans were able to create composite mud bricks that could resist weight and compression as well as stretching.

Concrete

Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, stones and water. Combined, concrete is stronger than any one of these materials. Concrete is used heavily in building and road construction.

Fiberglass

Fiberglass is a material made of tiny glass shards held together by resin and other components. In the automotive industry, fiberglass is important for making body kits. The body shell for a car is made up of different layers of fiberglass, such as a gelcoat layer, tissue layer, matting and cloth. The final product is a complete, waterproof, lightweight and strong body kit. Fiberglass can also be a less expensive alternative to other materials.

Ceramic

Ceramics once referred purely to pottery and to articles made by firing materials extracted from Earth. Today, the term has a much broader definition. Ceramics are generally thought of as inorganic and nonmetallic solids with a range of useful properties, including very high hardness and strength, extremely high melting points, and good electrical and thermal insulation.

The best-known ceramics are pottery, glass, brick, porcelain, and cement. But the general definition of a ceramica nonmetallic and inorganic solidis so broad that it covers a much wider range of materials.

Main properties of glass These are the main characteristics of glass:

- Solid and hard material

- Disordered and amorphous structure - Fragile and easily breakable into sharp pieces - Transparent to visible light - Inert and biologically inactive material. - Glass is 100% recyclable and one of the safest packaging materials due to its composition and properties

TOPIC 12

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic and oleic acids. Fatty acids are organic acids that have more than sixteen carbon atoms in their molecular structure. The sodium soaps are called hard soaps and the potassium soaps are known as soft soaps. Soaps are obtained from oils and fats. For e.g., tristearin is got from beef and mutton tallow, tripalmitin from palm oil and triolein from lard (pig fat), olive oil and cotton seed oil. In India, soap is commonly got from coconut, groundnut, til and mahua oils. Manufacture of Soap Saponification

Saponification is the process where oil or fat (tristearin) is treated with sodium hydroxide solution called lye, to form soap and glycerine.

Saponification

Oil or fat is taken in a huge iron-pan called soap kettle and heated with open steam. 10% sodium hydroxide solution (lye) is added in a thin stream. The steam keeps the mass boiling and ensures thorough mixing as well. Saponification is complete after several hours to give a frothy mixture of sodium salts and glycerine.

Salting out of Soap

Saponfication is complete when we see a slight excess of the alkali in the transparent reaction mixture. Common salt or brine is then added to precipitate soap and heating is continued. Soap forms in the upper layer as a thick mass. This is known as salting out of soap.

The unused alkali solution in the lower layer is called spent lye or sweet lye. This along with glycerol and salts is drawn from below the reaction vessel. Glycerol can be recovered from this. Finishing

The soap obtained after salting out is boiled again with sodium hydroxide for complete saponificaiton. This converts all the unsaponified fat. The spent lye is then drawn off. The solid soap is then boiled with water to dissolve excess of alkali. It is then allowed to settle when the impure soap called nigre forms the lower layer. The pure soap in the upper layer is transferred through a swing pipe to a steam-jacketed tank called crutcher. It is then shredded into small chips, dried to the requisite amount of moisture content and mixed with colouring substances and perfumes. Some fillers like rosin, sodium silicate, borax and sodium carbonate are added to laundry soaps. They have detergent value and are less expensive than soap. In the next step, the soap is allowed to run into moulds and permitted to solidify. The bigger blocks are then cut with steel wires into smaller slabs, which are then cut into smaller cakes and stamped.

Synthetic Detergents

Synthetic detergents possess the desirable properties of ordinary soaps and can be used with hard water and in acidic solutions as well. Synthetic detergents are sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acids or sodium salt of long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphates. Their calcium or magnesium salts are soluble in water. The hydrophobic part is the hydrocarbon chain and the water soluble part can be:

An anionic group like sulphate or sulphonate A cationic group like amine salt or quaternary ammonium compound A non-ionic group like alcohol or ether

Properties

Some of the synthetic detergents with a branched hydrocarbon chain have very low biodegradability. They are resistant to bacterial attack and are not fully degraded in sewage treatment units. Therefore, they cause water pollution when they are discharged into a river or any other water body.

Phosphate salts present in synthetic detergents cause rapid growth of algae that deplete the oxygen content in the water. (A condition known as eutrophication). Due to this aquatic animals die resulting in the imbalance of the ecosystem as well.

These detergents lower the surface tension of water and act as cleansing agents (wetting agents). They can be used for delicate fabrics because they do not hydrolyze to give hydroxyl ions. They have equal action in both hard and soft water

Soaps

Detergents

Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids

Detergents are sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium salts of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate

Calcium and magnesium salts of

Calcium and magnesium salts of

soaps are in soluble in water. Therefore detergents are soluble in water. Therefore cleansing action of soap reduces in hard water Soaps are prepared from natural oils and fats Soaps cannot be used in acidic medium Soaps are biodegradable cleansing action of detergents remain unaffected in hard water Synthetic detergents are prepared from hydrocarbons of petroleum Detergents can be used in acidic medium Most of the detergents are nonbiodegradable

TOPIC 13

. Gelang getah dibuat dari getah, yang merupakan sejenis polimer yang dipanggil elastomer. Sebagai elastomer, gelang getah berbeza daripada bahan-bahan pepejal yang lain kerana ia boleh diregangkan lebih daripada empat kali ganda panjang asalnya dan apabila dilepaskan dengan mudah ia akan kembali ke panjang asal. Sifat ini dikenali sebagai kekenyalan

Komposisi Getah

Getah Asli ialah polimer tambahan isoprena, C5H8. Nama IUPAC bagi isoprena ialah 2-metilbut-1,3-diena. Sebagai contoh, getah asli adalah sangat kenyal dan dibuat dariapda monomer isoprena.

isoprena

Poli-cis-isoprena (getah)

Pemvulkanan Getah Asli

Pemvulkanan getah asli merupakan satu proses perangkaian silang yang ditemui oleh Charles Goodyear pada tahun 1839. Goodyear secara tidak sengaja mendapati bahawa menambah sulfur kepada getah asli diikuti dengan pemanasan campuran menjadikan getah lebih kuat dan lebih tahan terhadap pengoksidaan atau tindak balas yang lain. Dalam getah tervulkan, atom-atom sulfur membentuk rangkaian silang antara rantai-rantai panjang molekul getah asli. Apabila diregangkan, rantai getah tervulkan tidak boleh mengelangsor di antara satu sama lain dan terpaksa balik semula kepada bentuk asalnya oleh rantai silang atom sulfur. Akibatnya getah tervulkan menjadi lebih keras, lebih kenyal dan kurang melekit apabila panas.

Sifat-sifat getah mudah terbakar kenyal dan boleh diregang reaktif kepada agen kimia seperti minyak, gris dan petrol fleksibel kerana ia adalah satu termoplastik yang lembut dan mengeras bila berlaku pemanasan, boleh cair dan terbentuk semula untuk diguna pakai semula. tidak telap air. Ini menjadikannya suatu penghalang yang sangat baik terhadap patogen seperti virus HIV yang menyebabkan AIDS. Peka kepada penipisan ozon disebabkan oleh kehadiran ikatan berganda dalam s Getah asli yang digunakan untuk membuat objek adalah seperti berikut: pemadam hos air gelang getah tumit kasut sarong tangan, pembedahan dan perubatan kondom assesori enjin untuk mengurangkan getaran dan hentakan

Getah tervulkan digunakan untuk membuat objek seperti: alas kereta tayar kenderaan hos radiator pengelap cermin kereta penyumbat dan pengalas pengantungan (Seals and suspension mountings)

Getah sintetik seperti neoprene digunakan untuk membuat objek seperti: gaskets tali pinggang kereta tali pengangkut paip atau hos fleksibel untuk industri petrol

bahan-bahan penebat untuk sambungan elektrik di tempat yang ada bahan kimia

. Topic 14

Istilah 'polimer' berasal dari perkataan Greek, 'poli' bermaksud 'banyak' dan 'mer' bermaksud 'bahagian'. Polimer adalah molekul berantai panjang yang dibentuk

daripada penggabungan secara berulangan beberapa unit-unit kecil yang dipanggil monomer.

Sutera merupakan gentian protein semula jadi yang diperolehi dari kokon yang dibuat oleh larva ulat sutera yang diternak dalam kurungan. Sutera sebenarnya diperbuat daripada protein yang dirembeskan dalam keadaan bendalir ulat sutera

Sifat-sifat sutera adalah seperti berikut: bersinar semula jadi mempunyai tekstur licin dan lembut tahan asid mineral mempunyai kelembapan yang baik rintangan rendah terhadap pendedahan cahaya matahari keanjalan sederhana dan rintangan kedutan paling kuat antara semua gentian semula jadi tetapi kehilangan 20% kekuatan apabila basah

Kapas adalah serat lembut yang tumbuh di sekitar biji benih pokok kapas, pokok renek yang berasal dari kawasan tropika dan subtropika di seluruh dunia, termasuk Afrika, India dan Amerika. Kapas adalah tanaman musim panas, jadi ia mesti ditanam di kawasan-kawasan yang mempunyai kurang taburan hujan. Gentian yang paling popular diputar ke dalam benang dan digunakan untuk membuat tekstil yang lembut, di mana ianya merupakan gentian kain semulajadi yang paling meluas digunakan dalam pakaian hari ini. Sifat-sifat kapas adalah seperti berikut: kuat tahan Lama

 baik unuk mencetak selesa penyerap kelembapan yang baik daya tahan rendah (mudah berkedut) rintangan tinggi terhadap pelarut organik dan alkali

Kapas digunakan dalam pembuatan: Tuala Stokin Cadar Baju-T Penapis kopi Seluar Jeans Putik kapas dan swab

Benang bulu adalah gentian yang berasal dari sel-sel kulit yang khusus, yang dipanggil folikel. Ia diperolehi dari haiwan dalam keluarga Caprinae, terutamanya kambing biri-biri, tetapi rambut dari sesetengah spesis mamalia lain seperti kambing, llamas dan arnab juga boleh dipanggil benang bulu. Benang bulu mempunyai

beberapa kualiti yang membezakan dari rambut atau bulu: ia kerinting, mempunyai tekstur yang berlainan, anjal dan tumbuh dalam kelompok Sifat-sifat dari benang bulu adalah seperti berikut : bahan-bahan panas gentian ketat berkerut Sel-sel luar gentian menangkis air sementara sel-sel dalaman menyerap lembapan Keanjalan-wol yang tinggi memiliki keupayaan yang lebih besar untuk kembali ke panjang asal selepas diregangkan berbanding dengan mana-mana gentian tiruan.

 Keupayaan penyerap yang tinggi, mampu mengekalkan sehingga 25 peratus daripada berat dalam kelembapan. Pewarnaan benang bulu lebih unggul berbanding dengan gentian tumbuhan dari segi kekayaan dan kecerahan warna.

Topic 15 Kertas adalah bahan yang boleh didapati dalam pelbagai jenis ketebalan dan berat yang berbeza. Beberapa jenis kertas termasuk: kertas bank kertas buku kertas inkjet kertas penunjuk pH kertas fotografi kertas biasa kertas kitar semula kertas beras kertas tuala kertas dinding kertas lilin kertas pasir kertas bersalut (permukaan berkilat dan matt) kertas biasa Sifat-sifat kertas Berat Asas (GSM) Kecerahan, keputihan dan warna Kestabilan dimensi Kebolehan dilipat (lipatan Double) Pembentukan Kilat (Gloss) Mesin dan Haluan melintang Lembapan Kelegapan ketelapan (porosity) pelbagai saiz / Cobb kelicinan Kekukuhan Kenyal (Pemanjangan) Rintangan mengoyak

 Suhu dan Kelembapan: keadaan Kertas Ketebalan Kekuatan permukaan Langkah-langkah dalam proses membuat kertas: Pemprosesan pulpa menggunakan kimia atau mekanikal Penambahan bahan tambah Pengeringan Proses Akhir

Kertas boleh digunakan berdasarkan kepada pelbagai cirinya bergantung kepada tujuan pengunaannya, seperti: Untuk menulis atau mencetak: sehelai kertas boleh menjadi dokumen; ini mungkin untuk menyimpan rekod (atau dalam keadaan mencetak dari komputer atau menyalin dari kertas lain: sebagai rekod tambahan) dan untuk komunikasi. Untuk mewakili nilai: wang kertas, nota bank, cek, baucar, tiket Untuk hiburan: buku, majalah, surat khabar, lukisan, seni Untuk pembungkusan: kotak beralur, beg kertas, sampul surat, tisu pembalut, kertas dinding Untuk pembersihan: kertas tandas, sapu tangan, tuala kertas, tisu muka Untuk pembinaan: kertas mache (paper mache), origami, quiling, kertas kejuruteraan, pakaian Lain-lain kegunaan: kertas pasir, kertas penyerap, kertas litmus, kertas penunjuk universal, kertas kromatografi, kertas penebat elektrik, kertas turas