STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

A power system consists of three subsystems which have clearly demarcated functions. But , coordinated working of all the three subsystems is absolutely essential as they are parts of the same system. The sub system are: i) The generation sub system ii) The transmission sub system iii) The distribution sub system Basic Structure of a Power System The basic structure of a power system is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 A typical power system The generation sub system may be called GENCO, responsible for generating electric power as per the predicted load requirements. Generation Technologies: i) Hydro plants with reservoir run-of-the-river pump storage ii) Thermal plants Nuclear Coal, oil Gas simple cycle
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 combined cycle iii) Other plants: wind, thermo solar, photovoltaic, fuel cells, biomass, geothermal, etc.

Transmission: Connects large generation & wholesale demand. High voltage is used _ current & losses are reduced. Transmission network is meshed System reliability is increased Less reserve margin is needed in the system Short- circuit power is increased Most lines are overhead lines. Underground cables are used only when strictly needed. Distribution: One can distinguish between subtransmission & true distribution networks. Subtransmission networks cover a region & they have a some kind of meshed topology. They feed distribution networks & some large consumers. Distribution networks must reach every single end consumer. Rural distribution networks have a radial topology Urban distribution networks are meshed but they are operated radially. Electrical energy is generated in large hydro-electric,thermal and nuclear powerstations.These stations are generally situated far away from the load centres.This necessitates an extensive power supply network between the generating stations and the consumers load.This network may be divided in to two parts that is transmission and the latter into primary and secondary distribution.Transmission lines transmit bulk electrical power from sending endstations without supplying any consumers en route by contrast, a distribution line or distributor supplies consumers directly at short intervals along the line.A distributor is subject to the legal requirement that power must be supplied at a voltage with in 6% of the declared voltage whereas a transmission line is not subject to any such restriction and its voltage can vary as much as 10% or even 15% due to variation in loads.Any restriction on transmission voltage is technical and not legal.

POWER SYSTEM CONTROL CENTRE AND REAL TIME COMPUTER CONTROL

The operation of an electric power system is characterized with a number of control functions. Some of them are automatic and others require operator initiation. Consider, for example, a single unit power plant . One can recognize a number of control loops: (1) The Voltage Control Loop. The objective of this control loop is to regulate the voltage at the terminals of the generator. It consists of the voltage regulator and exciter system. Inputs to this control loop are the reference voltage Vref, which may be selected by the system dispatcher or automatically by computers (VAR dispatch), and the actual voltage at the terminals of the generator Vg. (2) The Power System Stabilizer (PPS) Loop. The objective of this control loop is to slow down the oscillations of the generator following a disturbance. It consists of a feedback system which injects a stabilizing signal into the exciter system. Feedback quantities may be: frequency, f, real power, Pg, etc.
(3) The Secondary Automatic Generation Control Loop. The objective of the secondary automatic generation control loop is to regulate the net interchange, unit real power output, and speed (frequency). It consists of a feedback system which injects a signal into the speed regulator (governor). The signal, refered to as the Unit Control Error (UCE), is constructed from measurements of frequency, interchange schedule, unit real power output, etc. Reference quantities for this control loop are: (a) Scheduled interchange of real power, Psched, (b) Scheduled frequency, fsched, and (c) Scheduled unit real power output, Pdes. This control loop uses integral feedback of frequency and therefore regulates the system real time (integral of frequency). Since the electric power system is a dynamic system, the control loops should be designed so that the system is steered to desired operating conditions with minimal oscillations, and minimal control effort to avoid excessive wear of equipment. Thus the transfer functions E(s), D(s), R(s), L(s), and G(s), indicated in Figure 1.3, must be selected to meet performance objectives and to track desired operating conditions in a smooth manner.

Figure: CLP Power system control centre "CLP Power has been providing a safe and reliable power supply to the Hong Kong community over the past century, and we will continue to do so in future. We believe maintaining a high reliability standard is critical to a cosmopolitan city like Hong Kong. We place much emphasis on our emergencies response capabilities because we know that a power interruption, even if it lasts for few minutes, will cause a great deal of inconvenience to our customers, the service sectors and the business community."

SCADA SYSTEM

In a modern energy management system, a computer (automatically or on dispatcher command) can issue commands which are transferred through the CIOCs, communication links, and RTUs to the survey points for execution. This configuration and function is illustrated in Figure.

We carry out study engineering and commissioning of Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system ( SCADA )which, as its name implies, allows operators to monitor and control all the supply system as well as analyse data relating to the systems performance. We carry out installation of new SCADA system for : POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM GAS TURBINE BOILER SYSTEM DESALINATION PLANT The Data Acquisition and Processing Subsystem comprises a set of software which process the data collected by the SCADA system. This data is utilized in two ways. Status data (circuit breaker status, interrupt switch status, transformer tap setting, etc.) are utilized to form the system configuration and model. The software which uses the status data for the purpose of computing the system configuration and model is known as system network configurator. Typically, this software is executed only when a change in status data occurs.
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LEVEL DECOMPOSITION IN POWER SYSTEM

Power systems are characterized by strong hierarchical order. Accordingly, control strategy can be devised to fit into the hierarchical structure advantageously in the following ways: First Level - Generating stations and sub stations. Second Level - Sub transmission and transmission networks. Third level - Transmission system. Fourth level - or top level interconnected power systems.

A number of control functions can be performed locally at power generating stations and substations using local equipment and automatic devices. Some of the typical control applications are : 1. Local monitoring and control, 2. Protection, 3. Auto reclosure, 4. Voltage regulation, 5. Capacitor switching, 6. Feeder synchronization; 7. Load shedding in the event of necessity, and 8. Network restoration.

POWER SYSTEM SECURITY

Security of an electric power system is loosely defined as the ability of the system to withstand major disturbances without losing synchronism. The security of the system is a very complex concept. Experience accumulated over the years indicates that the security of the system can be only insured by continuous monitoring and control of the system. Security control comprises the integration of a number of automated and manual control operations, such as: * Automatic generation control, * Economic dispatch, * Generation rescheduling, * Voltage control, * Coordination with neighboring utilities, and * Load control. The integration of all these functions is incorporated in the security monitoring and control subsystem. A hierarchical control scheme is typically employed. The functions of this subsystem can be grouped into two classes: (1) Security monitoring, and (2) Security controls. A qualitative analysis of these functions is given here. Later in Chapter 11, system security is addressed in greater detail. Security Monitoring: For the purpose of explaining the security monitoring function, it is expedient to classify the infinite number of possible operating conditions of a power system in terms of security. For this purpose observe that the power system should satisfy the following requirements: (1) Operating constraints such as: limits on system frequency, limits on bus voltage magnitude, limits on circuit loading, etc. Any attribute of system component, such as loading of a circuit, reactive power generated by a unit, etc. can be expressed as a function of the system state and controls, i.e. (x,u). Then, the operating constraints are expressed as a set of inequality constraints h (x,u) b or h(x,u) 0 where h(x,u)= hh(x,u) - b (2) Load constraints which simply express the fact that any customer switching into the system must be served. They are represented with a set of equality constraints, i.e. the power flow equations: g(x,u) = 0 In terms of above expressions, the operating states of a power system are classified into (DyLiacco [5], [52], Fink[70]): (l) secure, (2) normal but insecure or vulnerable, (3) emergency, (4) extremis, and (5) restorative as follows: (1) Secure: All load and operating constraints are satisfied for the systems and for any foreseeable and probable contingency. (2) Normal But Insecure: All load and operating constraints are satisfied for the present system, but not for one or more foreseeable (and probable) contingencies. (3) Emergency: All load constraints are satisfied, but one or more operating constraints are violated. (4) Extremis: One or more load constraints are violated, and one or more operating constraints are violated. (5) Restorative: All operating constraints are satisfied, but one or more loads are disconnected.
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Most of the time the operating state of the system is normal (secure or vulnerable). In this case, security monitoring involves the analysis of whether the operating state of the system is secure or vulnerable. For this purpose, a security assessment must be performed at appropriately selected time intervals.

Fig: power system security display

The total load is due to domestic, commercial and industrial components, power station auxiliaries and the I2R heating loss in the transmission system. The maximum demand is about 13,800 MW and is growing at about 300 MW each year. The predicted energy delivered for the current year is 70,000 GWh. During security assessment, a series of fast computations are made to examine the effect of various credible contingencies and those that are not so. If some of the assumed contingencies result in unsatisfactory performance from the point of view of security, a corrective strategy is called for, to determine the best corrective action either by special calculations within the computer or from results obtained from off-line studies. Continuous monitoring for security and sending command signal for corrective action whenever necessary is 'referred to as security control.

VARIOUS OPERATIONAL STAGES OF POWER SYSTEM

Application principles and procedures for the operation of electric power distribution systems and associated major apparatus are presented. The contents include principles of power systems, cabling systems, electrical equipment, power system protection and coordination, instruments and meters, operational procedures, and electrical utilization systems. Preventive State: i. ii. iii. The preventive state is actually the normal state. The term `preventive' was used to stress the `Security' aspect of the normal operation.. Normal operating condition usually means that all the apparatus are running within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within acceptable ranges. The system should also continue to operate `normally' even in the case of credible contingencies. The operator should `foresee' such contingencies (disturbances) and take preventive control actions (as economically as possible) such that the system integrity and quality of power supply is maintained.

Emergency state i. The power system enters an emergency state when some of the components operating limits are violated; some of the states wander outside the acceptable ranges, or when the system frequency starts to decrease. The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve system stress by appropriate actions. Economic considerations become secondary at this stage.

ii. iii.

Restorative state i. ii. Restorative state is the condition when some parts (or whole) of the system has lost power. The control objective in this state is to steer the system to a normal state again by taking appropriate actions.

POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY

Voltage stability is an integral part of the power system response and is an important aspect of system stability and security. Voltage instability has been detected well before the onset of angle instability in many cases. If the problem is not corrected it can lead to voltage collapse and system wide disturbance. The loss of synchronism of generators is called angle instability. Voltage stability also called load stability is a subset of overall stability of a power system and is a dynamic problem that occurs due to monotonically changing voltages. In industrialized areas increase of load demand is met without a corresponding increase in transmission capacity leading to severe problem including voltage stability. Voltage stability is the ability to maintain the voltage so that when load is increased load power will increase and so both power and voltage are controllable.

a steady-state voltage stability analysis of power systems with high penetrations of wind.

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