Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes

MODERN PHYSICS
Fall 2010, PHY3106 - Modern Physics I
Time Dilation Length Contraction Relativistic Doppler Shift Lorentz Transformation Velocity Transformation Relativistic Momentum Relativistic Energy Blackbody Radiation Photoelectric Effect X-Ray Production Compton Effect Rutherford Scattering Bohr Atom Rydberg Constant De Broglie Particle/Group Waves Heisenberg Uncertainty
- Born Interpretation
Schrdinger Wave Equation Schrdinger Time-Independent Eq. Energy Quantization (Schrdinger) Wavefunction Quantization (Schrdinger)
By: Thomaz L. Santana
http://www.thomazsantana.com
Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 1
Time Dilation
Sunday, September 12, 2010 7:42 PM
Consider a fast moving train with a laser aiming vertically and mirrors perpendicular to the laser on the roof and floor. Take [S'] to be the observer in the train & [S] to be the observer next to the train track. They see the laser covering different distances at different times.
S'
O'
d = t'c
To simplify we will consider just one side of the triangle. Let (t) equal time for the rest observer frame and (t') equal time in moving reference frame.
tc t'c t
Time Dilation
Solving for time (t)
now we create a Scalar and call it gamma
is the time rate of an inertial frame relative to a observed inertial frame with a velocity and time rate . The formula is only capable of giving us the difference in time rate of one inertial frame relative to another inertial frame.
Time Dilation Examples

What speed would a clock have to be moving in order to run at one-half the rate of a clock at rest?
An atomic clock is placed in a jet airplane. The clock measures a time interval of 3,600s when the jet moves with a speed of 400m/s. How much longer or shorter a time interval does an identical clock held by an observer on the ground measure?
If:
Then:
The clock on the ground measured 3.2 nano seconds more then the clock on the Jet.
Length Contraction
Recall from Time Dilation section:
(c) is a constant velocity & velocity * time gives a length (L)
Recall:
L : Is the length measured by an infinite amount of observers spanning & at rest with respect to the object. : Is the length measured by an infinite amount of observers spanning the path of travel of the object as the object passes the observers with a velocity. Alternately the length can also be measured by an observer using a stopwatch to measure the time [ ] it took the object to pass & multiplying the objects velocity.
Length Contraction Examples

Length example: A spaceship at rest is measured to be 100m long. Now this spaceship flies by an observer with a speed of 0.99c, what length will the observer measure?
Distance example: An observer on earth sees a spaceship at an altitude of 435m moving downward toward Earth at 0.970c. What is the altitude of the spaceship as measured by an observer in the spaceship?
The spaceship observer sees Earth 106 m away.

Length Contraction & Time Dilation Example

Saturday, September 18, 2010 9:42 AM
Example: Muons are unstable elementary particles that have charge equal to an electron and mass
207 times that of an electron. Muons are naturally produced by the collisions of cosmic radiation with atoms high in earths atmosphere. Muons have a half-life of 2.2 s measured in a reference frame at rest with respect to them. Muons travel with a speed of 0.98c relative to earth observer. Muons travel 643m in their reference frame.
If detector (D1) measured [N] muons what would detector (D2) measure? Detector (D2) is 3230m directly below detector (D1).
Muons
Muon reference frame
Earth reference frame
Time for muon to travel 3230m in earths reference frame is coincidently 11 s, which is the half-life of the muon.
# of half-lifes =
(both have to be from the same reference frame)
If done without special relativity, we would not know the muons half-life relative to earth. We would have divided time of travel (11us) by the half-life (2.2us) and have concluded that 5 half-lifes have gone by. Giving us...
Relativistic Doppler Shift

Observer
Source
Lambda is a length; velocity * period [T] = Within the time period [T], the light pulse moved away from the source at the speed of light [c] & the observer moved towards the pulse with a velocity [v]. Because the observer is measuring, we can't use the time period [T] from the source. We have to use the observers time period [T']. Substituting using these relations
Relativistic Doppler Shift

Or algebraically manipulated...
Note: [+ velocity]: means our assumption when we derived this formula (source at rest and observer moving towards source) is correctly applied to the problem. [- velocity]: means the problem is not similar to the one the formula was derived from, thus the observer is moving opposite to the source.
Example: Calculate, for the judge, how fast were you going when you ran the red light because it appeared Doppler-shifted green to you. (Wavelengths: Red: 650nm, Green: 550nm)
Lorentz Transformation
Saturday, September 18, 2010 11:38 AM
S'
P
r'
O'
At time [t = t' = 0], a light pulse is emitted and arrives at [P] at time [t] according to [S] and at [t'] according to [S']
r = ct
r' = ct'
r
O
In 3-D & only considering velocity in [x]-axis:
- 6 Assume: Apply 7 at object [P] at [O'] - 7 - 8
7 becomes:
- 9
Apply 8 and 9 to light pulse described by 6
Then:
Lorentz Transformation
Saturday, September 18, 2010 12:27 PM
Inverse - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13 - 15 - 14
Simultaneity Example: Suppose for each observer, lightning strikes occurred at [t = 0] and at the locations [X1 = 0] and [X2 = L]. Observer [S] sees both lightning strikes at the same time. What will observer [S'] see?
[S] & [S'] would see event1 at the same time
[S'] would see event2 happen before [S]
[S'] observed event2 [
] seconds ago.
Observer [S] Event1 Observer [S'] x=0 x=L Event2
Velocity Transformations
Taking derivative of equations 10 & 13
- 16
From differential equations we get [y] & [z] components...
- 17
- 18
[ [
]: is [x] component of velocity of object according to observers in [S] ]: is [x'] component velocity of object according to observers in [S']
[ ]: is velocity of [S'] relative to [S]
Velocity Transformations Examples
S (earth)
S' (A)
Rockets [A] & [B] move towards each other at 0.9c relative to earth. What is the velocity of [B] relative to [A]? Note: The given speeds are both relative to earth. We can fix ship [A] to the [S'] frame and assign earth [S] as a rest frame. Now we can say ship [B] has speed 0.9c relative to earth and [S'] frame has speed 0.9c relative to [S]
Important Concept: Because [A] is measuring the speed of [B], [A] must be at rest with the [S'] frame to obtain [ ] (check definition of
S (earth)
S'
A B
As seen from earth, two spaceships are approaching along perpendicular directions. If [B] is observed by earth to have a speed of 0.8c along the positive x-axis and [A] observed to have a speed 0.9c traveling in the negative yaxis, find the speed of [A] as measured by [B].
Relativistic Momentum
Proving momentum is not conserved in the [S'] frame. Consider the exact event that occurred in the [S] frame from the [S'] frame. Recall definitions of [ ], [ ] & [ ] to use in [S'] frame.
Before
After
S'
S'
Because [S'] is unaware of its [ ], it only recognizes [ ]
Before
After
Saturday, October 09, 2010 4:23 PM
We must create a new expression for relativistic momentum such that momentum is conserved for all observers.
: Mass of the object measured by an observer at rest with respect to the object. : Velocity in the direction of interest of object measured by observer in [S] : Magnitude of the velocity of an object measured by observer in [S]
Relativistic Momentum Example

A collision of two balls of equal mass, in a reference frame [S].
Find:
&
First we will solve for the initial linear momentum in the direction. Then we equate it to the final momentum and solve for .
Important Concept: Recall the definition of and , velocity in a direction and magnitude of velocity.
Because the final component is only in the x direction the magnitude velocity is equal to velocity in .
Comparing initial velocity in direction to final vel. in direction, , we see that the final vel. has increased which is absolutely not what we would expect from classical momentum.
Relativistic Energy
Consider work done by a force.
Substituting & changing limits of integration for W
Recall work-energy theorem states that work done by all forces acting on a particle equals the change in kinetic energy of a particle. We integrated from 0 to , forming an equation in which kinetic energy is initially at zero.
If:
Relativistic Kinetic Energy

Recall is velocity in [S]
Simplified Kinetic Energy
Relativistic Energy
Total Energy:
When velocity, , of a given particle is zero we observe that the particle still contains energy.
Recall is velocity in [S]
We can deduce that mass is an incredibly dense form of energy.
Rest Energy
If we relate total energy and momentum by squaring both sides we obtain the following expression.
For the case of particles that have zero mass, photons, we set
= 0.
Getting familiar with eV as a unit of energy.
Rest energy of electron:
Conservation of Mass-Energy
We can no longer think of separate laws of conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. We unify them and call it Conservation of Mass-Energy.
Change in mass:
Note: M is always greater then the sum of individual masses thus, is always positive.
Example: How much energy is released during the formation of 1g of 4He ? Known: Tritium molecule 3H fuses with a proton 1H to form a helium nucleus 4He
4He 3H
= 3727.4 = 2808.9 1H = 938.3
2808.9 + 938.3 - 3727.4 = 19.8 19.8 of energy is released during the formation of one nucleus of 4He
1 g of 4He contains 1.51 X 1023 nuclei
BlackBody Radiation
Sunday, October 10, 2010 12:58 AM
A blackbody [BB] is one that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation falling on it.
is the power emitted per unit area per unit frequency.
[ Wien's displacement law:
] power per unit area emitted at the
surface of a BB at all frequencies. [ ] coefficient if not an ideal BB [ ] Stefan-Boltzmann constant
[ ] 5.67 [ ] Temperature in unit Kelvin
Example: estimate the surface temperature of the sun. Sun radius , EarthSun distance m, the power per unit area measured on earth is 1,400 W/m2
We can also use Wien's displacement law, measure on earth to be m
Blackbody
Sunday, October 10, 2010 3:34 PM
Spectral energy density, energy per unit volume per unit frequency of the radiation within the blackbody cavity.
Planck's Contribution: Oscillation energy is an integer multiple of [ ], emitting or absorbing discrete amounts of energy n*[ ]
[ [ [ [ [ [ [
] Energy per unit volume per unit frequency ] Planck's constant ] ] Boltzmann's constant ] ] Temperature in unit Kelvin ] Frequency
Planck's formula
Discrepancy in Wien's exponential law for longer wavelength's led Planck to his formula (which perfectly agrees with experimental data)
Photoelectric Effect
Light knocks electrons off metal plate, then they get repealed by like charges and shoot to other side.
When a potential difference is applied, only electrons with enough kinetic energy will make it to the cathode. [Stopping Potential] is when we increase the voltage to the point where no electrons reach the cathode.
The kinetic energy of the most energetic electron is equal to the Stopping Potential times the electron charge. [ ] Stopping Potential
[ ] Kinetic energy of most energetic electron
[1eV] is the kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron when it accelerates through an electric potential difference of one volt, thus the Voltage needed to stop an electron is equal to the electron's kinetic energy
Photoelectric
Results: 1) (expected) 2) For given , is independent of (unexpected) 3) varies linearly with (unexpected) 4) Delay in current is zero (unexpected) Note: [ ] Intensity of light (number of electrons per second)
With the results we must change our view of light, consider light as a wave and particles.
Light behaves like particles (Photons) in its interaction with other matter. Each photon has a discrete energy
Photoelectric
[ ] Discrete Energy value per photon [ ] Work function [ ] Kinetic energy of most
energetic electron
Note: [ ] is the energy with which an electron is bound in the metal.
At the point where kinetic energy is zero:
Example: Cesium illuminated with a 300nm light source gives off electrons with a maximum kinetic energy of 2.23eV Find: a) work function b) stopping potential for a 400nm light source c) threshold frequency
X-Ray Production
A heated filament boils electrons off. Then a huge potential difference accelerates the electrons to collide into a metal target, X-Rays are given off from the collision.
If electron loses all its energy in a single collision...
When an electron collides with an electron in orbit, an electron from a higher orbit will drop in energy level to fill in the gap releasing a photon. The spikes in the graph is when a low orbit electron gets knocked off.
X-Ray Difraction
Atoms in plane [A] will scatter constructively if the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Atoms in plane [A] & [B] will scatter constructively if the path difference for rays (1) & (2) is an integer multiple of the wavelength. Constructive interference will occur when:
Condition for constructive interference (Bragg equation) [ ] Distance from plane [A] to [B] [ ] Angle the ray makes with the plane (assuming a 2D diagram) [ ] Integer multiple [ ] Wavelength
Example: X-radiation ( is incident on a crystal with adjacent atomic planes spaced ( apart. Find the three smallest angles for which constructive interference will occur.
Compton Effect
Photon
Initially there was no [y] component, thus for there to be a [y] component a force must be applied. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction, so the [y] component of momentum of the photon must equal the [y] component of momentum of the electron.
Electron
Compton Shift
Compton Example
Photons of 1.02 MeV are scattered from electrons in a metal at rest. The scattering is symmetric, find the angle and energy of the scattered photons.
Solve for E'
Proof a photon cant transfer all its energy to a free electron.
assuming: In the final condition all kinetic energy from photon is transferred to electron. [ ] momentum of photon [ '] momentum of electron
Initial = Final
Gravity and Light

Effective inertial mass determines how the photon responds to an applied force. Gravitational mass determines the force of gravitational attraction.
Rutherford Scattering
We can deduce that the alpha radiation experienced a force for its momentum to change. Assuming the force acting on the particle is columbic & all charges are concentrated in a small radius at the nucleus, we derive a formula...
Au
b
(impact parameter)
Integrate and solve for [b]
Rutherford Scattering
Cross Section (
Au
microscope
b (A') gold foil R A

Predict amount of radiation to detect in any given location
Skipped steps...
Then substitute
Rutherford Scattering [ ] /sec from source [ ] /sec scattered at specific area [ ] # nuclei per unit area of foil
(proportional to thickness) [ ] area of detector [ ] coulomb constant [ ] nuclear charge, # of electrons [ ] distance from foil to detector [ ] angle of detector measured from axis parallel to source [ ] elementary charge [ ] kinetic energy of (2 ) radiation
[ ] mass 1 atom [ ] density [ ] thickness [ ] mass of foil [ ] # atoms, # nuclei
Bohr Atom
Friday, October 22, 2010 12:20 AM
Electrons are assumed to orbit without radiating "stationary state".
Angular momentum is quantized. Allowed Orbital Radius
Substituting velocity solved from equating Coulombic force to centripetal force into quantized angular momentum equation, we have an expression for allowed orbit radius where [ ] is any real integer.
or
[ ] Integers. 1, 2, 3 [ ] Coulomb constant [ ] Radius of [ ] Bohr Radius
] Bohr Radius ( = 1)
Allowed Energy
Analyzing total system energy (negative because potential energy is zero at infinity) and substituting the radius for quantized radius expression.
or
Rydberg Constant
Sunday, November 07, 2010 5:57 PM
The change in energy when the electron changes orbit, can be interpreted as the energy released when the electron goes to a lower state (smaller ) or the energy required to be in an excited state (larger ).
Rydberg Constant
Generalized Equation
Important concept: The equations can only be used on Hydrogen or "Hydrongenic" oneelectron atom. The Generalized Equation takes the effect of nuclear mass and the different nuclear charge of "Hydrongenic" atoms into account.
[ [ [ [
] Nuclear mass ] "Reduced mass" ] Nuclear charge ] Rydberg Constant Also...
Example: A hydrogen atom at n=3 decays to the ground state with emission of a photon. Find: wavelength, recoil energy & momentum of atom.
Photon momentum = Atom momentum
De Broglie
"because photons have wave and particle characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have wave as well as particle properties"
De Broglie wavelength
Recall...
This is precisely the Bohr condition for quantization of angular momentum. Electron matter waves bent into a circle around the nucleus can only support integral number of wavelengths that fits exactly into the circumference of the orbit, otherwise destructive interference.
Example: What is the Broglie wavelength of a 140g baseball traveling at a speed of 27 m/s ? Note: Must use relativistic momentum when velocity is fast (also when there is a big ratio of momentum to mass).
Particle/Group Waves
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principal

It is impossible to determine simultaneously with unlimited precision the position and momentum of a particle.
Momentum-Position Uncertainty
Energy-Time Uncertainty
Example: Estimate the kinetic energy of an electron confined within a nucleus of size 100pm.
Complex number contains two bits of information, real & imaginary. Greek letter "Psi"
] Is the "complex conjugate" of

-
Must be: Single valued Continuous Remain finite Over an infinite interval, probability must equal 1
(all real)
Born Interpretation
The probability that a particle will be found in the infinitesimal interval dx about point x, denoted by P(x), is:
"Normalized" when we equate it to 1. (means there is a 100% probability that the particle is in the integrated range)
The fundamental problem in quantum mechanics is this: Given the wavefunction at some initial instant, say t=0, find the wavefunction at any subsequent time t.
Example: Normalize the function and find the probability of the particle being within ( a/2 ).
-a
Given
a
Evaluate integral, equate to one & solve for A.
Normalized
Or 87.5%
Schrdinger Wave
A differential equation whose solutions give for a particle as its acted by a force.
Instead of force, consider the potential energy UE. Connecting Equations "C.E." Starting point: Total = Kinetic + Potential
[1]
Substituting with "C.E."
[2]
Substitute [ ] & [ (note: * = -1)
] into equation [2]
Schrdinger's Wave Equation
Schrdinger Time-Independent
Monday, November 08, 2010 1:25 AM
The Schrdinger equation propagates the initial wave forward in time. at , the initial rate of change of the wavefunction. From this we compute the wavefunction a short time, , later as . This allows the LHS to be reevaluated, now at . With each such repetition, is advanced another step into the future. Continuing the process generates at any later time . Assume solutions exist of form:
Starting point: Substitute into Schrdinger wave equation
[1]
[2]
[3]
Notice [2] the LHS is a function of only, and the RHS is a function of only. Since we can assign any value of independently of , the two sides can only be equal if each is equal to the same constant, denoted [E]. This leads to equation [3].
Substitute [3] into [2]
Time-Independent Schrdinger equation
Energy Quantization
For a free particle with no forces acting on it confined in a "box" of length . Because it is confined to the box, the particle can never be found outside, which requires to be zero in the exterior regions and . Inside the box, . Rearranging the Time-Independent Schrdinger equation:
With
The solution to
is:
Allowed Energies for a Particle in a Box
The lowest energy state allowed is , which is called the ground state or zero-point energy.
Wavefunction Quantization
For each value of the quantum number there is a specific wavefunction describing the state of the particle with energy .
Recall conditions:
Stationary States for a Particle in a Box
Probability density:
Normalizing:

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MODERN PHYSICS

Fall 2010, PHY3106 - Modern Physics I

By: Thomaz L. Santana

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 1

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 2

Solving for time (t)

now we create a Scalar and call it gamma

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 3

Time Dilation Examples

Recall from Time Dilation section:

(c) is a constant velocity & velocity * time gives a length (L)

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 5

Length Contraction Examples

The spaceship observer sees Earth 106 m away.

Length Contraction & Time Dilation Example

Muon reference frame

Earth reference frame

(both have to be from the same reference frame)

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 7

Relativistic Doppler Shift

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 8

Relativistic Doppler Shift

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 9

In 3-D & only considering velocity in [x]-axis:

- 6 Assume: Apply 7 at object [P] at [O'] - 7 - 8

Apply 8 and 9 to light pulse described by 6

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 10

[S'] would see event2 happen before [S]

[S'] observed event2 [

Observer [S] Event1 Observer [S'] x=0 x=L Event2

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 11

Taking derivative of equations 10 & 13

From differential equations we get [y] & [z] components...

[ ]: is velocity of [S'] relative to [S]

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 12

Velocity Transformations Examples

Saturday, September 18, 2010 1:59 PM

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 13

Because [S'] is unaware of its [ ], it only recognizes [ ]

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 14

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 15

Relativistic Momentum Example

A collision of two balls of equal mass, in a reference frame [S].

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 16

Consider work done by a force.

Substituting & changing limits of integration for W

Relativistic Kinetic Energy

Simplified Kinetic Energy

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 17

We can deduce that mass is an incredibly dense form of energy.

Getting familiar with eV as a unit of energy.

Rest energy of electron:

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 18

= 3727.4 = 2808.9 1H = 938.3

1 g of 4He contains 1.51 X 1023 nuclei

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 19

is the power emitted per unit area per unit frequency.

[ Wien's displacement law:

] power per unit area emitted at the

surface of a BB at all frequencies. [ ] coefficient if not an ideal BB [ ] Stefan-Boltzmann constant

[ ] 5.67 [ ] Temperature in unit Kelvin

We can also use Wien's displacement law, measure on earth to be m

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 20

Modern Physics I - Thomaz Notes Page 21