In-depth management guide CTG008

Monitoring and targeting

Techniques to help organisations
control and manage their energy use
Contents

What is monitoring and targeting? 02

The meaning of target 03

Reporting exceptions 04

Estimating expected consumption 06

Precedent-based targeting 06

Activity-based targeting 06

Key charting techniques 10

Cusum analysis 10

Fixing a ‘tough but achievable’

target characteristic 13

Diagnosing adverse changes in performance 14

Persistent abnormal performance 15

Automatic meter reading 16

Visualisation 17

Assessing performance with fine-grained data 18

Implementing monitoring and targeting 20

Routine operation 21

Choosing M&T software 21

Next steps 22

Glossary 23

Appendix A: Constructing a false colour plot 26

Appendix B: Performance indicators 30

Appendix C: Energy accountable centres 31

 Monitoring and targeting 01

Reducing energy use makes perfect business sense; it saves money,

enhances an organisation’s reputation and helps everyone in the fight
against climate change.

The Carbon Trust provides simple, effective advice to help organisations

take action to cut emissions. One of the simplest ways to do this is to use
energy more efficiently.

This technology guide explores monitoring and targeting techniques, and

shows how organisations can adopt an appropriate level of monitoring and
targeting in a way which will help them to save energy and cut costs.
02 The Carbon Trust

What is monitoring and targeting?

Monitoring and targeting is an energy management technique that can be
applied in any type and size of organisation, whether commercial, industrial
or public sector.

The purpose of monitoring and targeting (M&T) is to
relate your energy consumption data to the weather,
production figures or other measures in such a way
that you get a better understanding of how energy is
being used. In particular, it will identify if there are signs
of avoidable waste or other opportunities to reduce
consumption.
Data collection may be manual, automated, or a mixture
of the two. Once an M&T scheme has been set up, its
routine operation should be neither time-consuming
nor complex. An M&T scheme will provide essential
underpinning for your energy management activities,
allowing you to:
This guide presents M&T from two perspectives. One
is routine use (on a weekly cycle, for example). Routine
M&T as explained here is quick and simple and requires
no particular expertise on the part of the user. The
other perspective is target-setting and diagnosis, an
aspect that will appeal to users who wish to analyse
data in more depth. Although this aspect needs to be
addressed when first setting up an M&T scheme, it then
becomes optional once the system is up and running.
Even for the more advanced aspects, an appreciation
of the basic physical principles behind the use of energy
at your place of work and a basic grasp of maths is all
that is needed.

1. Detect avoidable energy waste that might otherwise
remain hidden. This is waste that occurs at random
because of poor control, unexpected equipment faults
or human error, and which can usually be put right
quickly and cheaply (or, indeed, at no cost). Intercepting
and rectifying such problems should more than cover
the cost of operating the M&T scheme. See the next
section for some examples.
M&T is an extensive topic and this guide can only
provide an introduction to the more complex analysis
methods and tools that can be used. Users should
contact the Carbon Trust or an expert consultant
for more detail or further advice on applying these
techniques within their organisation.

2. Quantify the savings achieved by any and all of

your energy projects and campaigns in a manner
that accounts fully for variations in weather, levels of
production activity and other external factors. Many
users cite this as the most valuable result of M&T.

3. Identify fruitful lines of investigation for energy

surveys. Rather than starting a survey with no clear
agenda, you can go prepared with specific questions
to ask, prompted by observed erratic or unexpected
patterns of consumption.

4. Provide feedback for staff awareness, improve

budget setting and undertake benchmarking.

The meaning of target
Monitoring and targeting can be focused on invoice
checking, contract tariff negotiation and financial
budgeting, or on the physical performance of the
organisation’s buildings, processes and vehicles. It is
the latter interpretation that we will use in this guide.
Often, targets are set without consideration of practical
application or achievability. This guide focuses on
achievable operational targets. An operational target:
• Is calculated rationally to reflect known
achievable performance
• Is discussed and agreed
• Is applied to individual monitored streams
of consumption
• Is continually amended to reflect improvements
• Does not need to be widely disclosed
• Has performance reviewed monthly at most,
commonly every week, or even daily or per shift
• Is beneficial for day-to-day cost and
environmental management.
Hidden avoidable energy loss happens all the time,
usually because of some minor control failure or the
inappropriate action of occupants or maintenance staff.
This guide will help you detect and remedy this waste,
and disclose other opportunities to save energy
and money.
Monitoring and targeting 03
Examples of waste and saving that have been identified
by employing M&T include:
• Losses that would have equalled £3,500 a year were
incurred when a limit switch came loose at a waste-
water treatment works, causing some machinery
that should have been running intermittently to
run continuously.
• Gas consumption at a council depot doubled when
a maintenance contractor left the heating system
running 24 hours a day.
• The front steps of an office block were found to be
costing £5,000 a year because the control had failed
on the de-icing heaters (which the owners did not
even know they had).
• Frost-protection systems are a prime cause of waste.
One energy manager cut the electricity consumption
of his HQ building by 40% when he found that all the
electric frost protection pre-heaters were running on
his air handling units.
• Hundreds of pounds a year were lost when someone
left a bypass valve open on a steam trap in the
basement of a paper mill.
Further information
Fact sheets
Energy management (GIL136)
Understanding your energy consumption (CTL001)
Assessing the energy use at your industrial
site (CTL002)
Assessing the energy use in your building (CTL003)
04 The Carbon Trust
Reporting exceptions
One of the key functions of a monitoring and targeting scheme is to alert
the user to instances of exceptional excess consumption of energy.
An overspend league table is a simple and very effective
report format to ensure instances of exceptional
consumption are detected. It can be applied in any
circumstances: by large and small users, for buildings,
processes and vehicles, and at any chosen interval.
It can be implemented in spreadsheets or by any good
proprietary M&T software, and requires no special
skills or knowledge to interpret it.
An overspend league table is simply a list of variances
ranked in descending order of cost. ‘Variance’ is the
difference between the actual quantity used and the
corresponding expected quantity. Methods for estimating
expected consumption are covered later in this guide.
Figure 1 An example of an overspend league table
Assessment intervals
This guide refers to weekly assessment intervals.
Smaller businesses may prefer to operate M&T
schemes at monthly intervals, while ambitious
energy-intensive firms may opt for daily or even
per-shift reporting.
Longer intervals mean more delay before
exceptions are flagged up, and at short intervals
there is more risk of spurious alerts, even if all the
data can be collected at the required frequency.
Experience shows that weekly analysis is a good
compromise, at least as a starting point.
The main point to bear in mind is that equal time
intervals should be used.

This form of exception report has many advantages.
First and foremost, the most significant items are
always at the top of the list, so it does not matter
whether the report contains 10 items or 10,000.
Second, it will be immediately evident how much
remedial effort is warranted; indeed in some weeks
there may be no problems that are sufficiently costly
to merit investigation. Third, as exceptions are judged
on cost, non-energy commodities can be included
in the same report. By including other utilities and
consumables such as water, effluent discharge volumes,
chemicals and so on, the overspend league table can
provide valuable benefits beyond energy savings alone.
The final advantage of the overspend league table
is that it requires no special expertise to interpret it.
All the user needs to do is note which consumption
streams appear significantly overspent, verify the
related input data, and if the problem seems genuine,
raise the issue with whoever operates or understands
the item in question.
Top tip
It is essential to ensure that variations in input data
are not caused by faulty measuring equipment or
sensors. Meters and sensors should be regularly
maintained and calibrated.
By including other utilities and consumables,
the overspend league table can provide valuable
benefits beyond energy savings alone
Monitoring and targeting 05
Routine monitoring by means of an overspend league
table is so simple that it should take no more than a few
minutes a week – unless, of course, additional time is
warranted by the occurrence of a significantly costly
problem. Using it is a robust procedure, since almost
anyone can deputise for the principal user in his or
her absence.
Although this guide goes on to describe various
associated analytical and charting techniques, these
can be thought of as optional. Once an M&T scheme
has been set up, the overspend league table may be
all that is needed for simpler examples.
Case study:
A borough council
The energy manager at a borough council applied
M&T on a monthly basis to all council buildings,
using in-house manual meter readings. Some
months after implementing the scheme he detected
increased water consumption, and in some cases
increased electricity consumption, at several of
their public conveniences.
On investigation it transpired that the gents’ urinal
flush controls had been replaced. New infrared
motion sensors had been fitted in place of the old
hydraulic controls and were responding to homeless
people sleeping in the toilets overnight. Increased
electricity use was mainly due to the rough
sleepers jamming the hand-dryer pushbuttons
with matchsticks, although in one case the lavatory
attendant was living in a store cupboard and had
wired in an electric heater.
06 The Carbon Trust

Estimating expected consumption

The crux of the overspend league table – and of monitoring and targeting in
general – is having good estimates of expected consumption for comparison
with what is actually used.

Methods for calculating expected consumption fall into
two categories. There are those based on precedent
(comparison with previous periods), and activity-based
methods that relate expected consumption to its driving
factors (weather, production throughput, mileage, etc.).
For the sake of brevity we will refer to any procedure for
calculating expected consumption as a ‘targeting model’.
Generally, however, precedent-based targeting models
can be too simplistic, and organisations may want to
consider activity-based targeting. This is particularly
appropriate when there are clear drivers for changing
energy consumption, for example, changes in production
throughput. See page 17 for examples of how data can
be compared using automatic meter readings.

Precedent-based targeting Activity-based targeting

Precedent-based targeting models are most commonly Activity-based targeting models calculate expected
used in monthly monitoring schemes, when expected consumption by reference to its driving factors – the
consumption can be deduced from what was used in measurable things that cause consumption to vary.
the corresponding month a year before. One weakness Examples of these are given in Table 2.
of this procedure is that it assumes that conditions
(especially the weather) were comparable in the Table 2 Driving factors
two months. This is not always the case, although
in some circumstances the differences may not be
Energy use Possible driving factor
too significant.
Space heating Outside temperature
A more problematic issue is what happens when
energy waste has occurred. The resulting excessive Air conditioning Outside temperature;
consumption erroneously raises the expected quantity possibly also humidity levels
a year later. To work effectively, discount abnormal Steam raising Quantity of steam produced
months to prevent them being used for target setting. Production process Production quantity
At the other end of the scale, some automatic monitoring
and targeting schemes attempt to compare consumption Exterior lighting Hours of darkness
at very short intervals (e.g. half an hour), with a target Drying Quantity of water removed
template derived from previous similar days. The same from product
caveat applies: abnormal consumption patterns must
be filtered out from the pool of data used as precedents
to make this effective.

Precedent-based targets, used with caution, may be

the best method when consumption is seasonal, but
unrelated to any measurable driving factor. Retail
premises, for example, may exhibit peaks of consumption
during the pre-Christmas period and New Year sales,
and general electricity demand in schools, which
otherwise might be steady through the year, should
fall during holidays.
 Monitoring and targeting 07

Consumption driven by the weather In either case, it is possible to identify a performance

characteristic line which typifies the relationship. For a
With very few exceptions, energy users of all kinds
given degree-day value, the characteristic line enables
are dealing with weather-related energy consumption,
energy users (or, more usually, the M&T software or
usually for heating but increasingly also for cooling.
spreadsheet) to ‘read off’ the expected consumption
Here, external air temperature is the dominant influence.
(see Figure 4). This is explained more fully later.
For convenience, regional or local air temperature
data can be converted into ‘degree-day’ values, which
provide an index of how cold (or hot) the weather was Figure 3 Example of electricity consumption related
in a given place in any particular week or month1. to cooling degree days
Laboratory Electricity
Fuel consumption for space heating will normally
Performance characteristic line(s)
exhibit a straight-line relationship to heating degree
days (Figure 2), while electricity consumption should 3,500

relate to cooling degree days (Figure 3) if any chilling 3,000

plant exists on the metered circuit.
2,500

Figure 2 Example of relationship between fuel 2,000

kWh

consumption and heating degree days

1,500
Building 14 gas
Performance characteristic line(s) 1,000

1,800,000 500
1,600,000
0
1,400,000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1,200,000 Cooling degree days

1,000,000
kWh

800,000
600,000
Degree days
400,000 Heating degree days are a measure of the severity
and duration of cold weather. The colder the
200,000
weather in a given month, the larger the degree-
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 day value for that month. They are, in essence, a
summation over time of the difference between
Heating degree days
a reference or ‘base’ temperature and the
outside temperature.

Further information
Degree days for energy management (CTG004)

www.carbontrust.co.uk/degreedays

1
Limited figures are available free of charge. Commercial data providers can be found on the web and it is also possible to calculate figures from
local measurements.
08 The Carbon Trust

In Figure 4, the expected consumption where degree Consumption driven by production

days = 28 is 1,250,000kW/h. The intercept (energy = throughput
900,000kW/h where degree days = 0) shows the
In some (but by no means all) production processes,
consumption where no heating is required. The values
energy consumption can be related to production
on the graph at this point could represent gas being
throughput using the same straight-line basis that was
used for production or hot water etc. The scatter points
explained above. Figure 5 illustrates just such a case for
can indicate various things, including how well controlled
gas used in a commercial bread oven.
the heating system is, but they can be influenced by other
variables such as varying production levels in a factory.
Figure 5 A performance characteristic line for
a simple process
Figure 4 The performance characteristic line
superimposed on the scattered data points Process ovens – gas

Building 14 gas 250,000

Performance characteristic line(s)

1,800,000 200,000
1,600,000
1,400,000 150,000
kWh

1,200,000
100,000
1,000,000
kWh

800,000
50,000
600,000
400,000 0
200,000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

0 Output (tonnes)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Heating degree days If a simple straight-line relationship is not applicable,
other methods can be used. However, as there are
operational advantages in being able to represent
Note performance as a straight-line characteristic on a
scatter diagram, methods that manipulate the data
The characteristic line will usually only be needed
to make that possible are generally to be preferred.
for computations within the normal range of data.
The position of the intercept must be interpreted It is beyond the scope of this guide to deal with these in
with caution if it is extrapolated well beyond this detail, but some hints are given below. Suffice to say that
range. Where degree days are the driving factor, any appropriate method can be used to infer expected
the intercept will also be sensitive to the choice consumption from other independent measurements.
of base temperature.
 Monitoring and targeting 09

Alternatives to straight-line targets
Production processes are often more complex to set
targets for. One common situation is where several
products with different energy intensities are made
on the same plant. Here, a tabular form of calculation
is necessary to establish expected consumption.
Suppose there are three products: A, B and C, which
respectively require 10kWh, 20kWh and 50kWh per
unit to manufacture. Suppose also that there is a
fixed overhead of 3,000kWh per week. These values
would all be constant from week to week, but actual
production throughputs would vary.
Take a week when production of A, B and C was 400, 500
and 600 units respectively. Expected consumption would
then be given by multiplying the quantity produced by
the kWh per unit:
Another way to view these situations is to work out an
energy-weighted equivalent output. Five hundred units
of Product B, for example, is the equivalent (in energy
demand) of 1,000 units of product A (because its energy
intensity is double). In the example shown here, the
mixed production is the equivalent of 400 + (500 x 20/10)
+ (600 x 50/10) = 4,400 units of Product A. Reducing
the week’s bundle of production to a single equivalent
output in this way enables a straight-line characteristic
to be drawn.

Activity Quantity in week kWh per unit Total kWh

Product A 400 10 4,000
Product B 500 20 10,000
Product C 600 50 30,000
Fixed demand 1 3,000 3,000
Grand total expected for the week 47,000
10 The Carbon Trust

Key charting techniques

In addition to creating a straight-line target, it can also be important to know
additional techniques when operating a monitoring and targeting scheme.

Key M&T charting techniques that users should be Figure 6 Energy consumption related to driving factors
aware of are:
Site E gas – 45 unit
• How to fix straight-line targets at the lowest Performance characteristic line(s)
sustainable level 250,000
• How they can help diagnose abnormal performance.
200,000
In order to apply these techniques, users must be
familiar with cusum analysis. This technique is relatively
simple, but very effective. If the energy performance for 150,000

a building or process is consistent every week, its actual kWh

consumption will be roughly equal to expected values 100,000
(however calculated). In some weeks actual will exceed
expected and in others it will be less, but in the long term 50,000
the positive and negative variances cancel out and their
cumulative sum (‘cusum’) will remain roughly constant. 0
If, however, a problem occurs that causes persistent 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

energy waste, even if the problem is minor, positive Output (tonnes)

weekly variances will outweigh the negative and their
cumulative sum will increase. The cusum chart would
switch from a horizontal to a rising trend, as will be
shown later in Figure 15.
Cusum analysis
Cusum analysis can help find the lowest sustainable
position for the performance characteristic line. It can
also be used to diagnose changes in performance.
The M&T spreadsheet or software will provide a
tabulation of weekly2 consumption and a relevant driving
factor from which to draw a scatter diagram chart.
Figure 6 shows energy consumption on the vertical axis
and driving factor values on the horizontal axis.
The next step is to superimpose a line of best fit on the
scattered points. The spreadsheet will have a regression
function that will do this. Note that the energy figures
are the dependent variable or y-axis data, while the
driving factor figures are the independent variable or
x-axis data.
The software will identify the intercept – the point
where the characteristic crosses the vertical (energy)
axis – and the slope of the line3. In the analysis below,
the intercept is denoted by c and the slope by m.
Figure 7 Superimposing a line of best fit
Site E gas – 45 unit
Performance characteristic line(s)

250,000

200,000

150,000
kWh

100,000

50,000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Output (tonnes)

2
Or other chosen interval.
3
In MS Excel this is termed the x-coefficient.
 Monitoring and targeting 11

This then provides enough information to construct
the cusum calculation. There are six columns (including
date stamps) in the following spreadsheet:
Note that the formulae in column D refer to c and m
(the intercept and slope of the current performance
characteristic line) stored in cells $B$2 and $B$3
respectively. These are constants, although possibly
subject to amendment from time to time as the view
of what is achievable changes.

Figure 8 An example of a cusum calculation

Column Contains
A Input data Date of end of period
B Input data Quantity consumed (kWh)
C Input data Driving factor, such as tonnes or degree days
D Formula Expected consumption (m x col. C) + c
E Formula Difference between actual and expected (col. B – col. D)
F Formula Running total of column E
12 The Carbon Trust

Figure 9 A time-series view of expected consumption

Mathematically, a straight line is denoted by
Site E gas – 45 unit
y = mx + c, where:
Co-plotted actual and expected
250,000 • y is the dependent variable (in our case energy
used or expected to be used).
200,000
• x is the driving factor or independent variable,
which could be degree days or production
150,000
kWh

throughput, for example.

100,000 • m is a constant indicating the slope of the line.
In energy monitoring it shows how many extra
50,000 units of energy are used for each extra unit of
driving factor.
0
27/02

5/03
39/02
33/02

• c is a constant coefficient representing the

11/03
45/02

51/02

17/03

23/03

30/03

intercept on the y (energy) axis. It is the amount

Week of energy predicted to be used when the driving
factor is 0. This is sometimes called the base load
Figure 9 shows the time-series view of expected or fixed load.
consumption – Column D, as a green continuous line –
and actual consumption – Column B, plotted as points
– together on the same graph. It provides a subjective Figure 11 An example of a cusum chart
view of how the two relate. It also shows any periods Site E gas – 45 unit
when they diverge. Cumulative sum of deviations
250,000
Figure 10 is a plot of column E (the difference), and it 200,000
shows more clearly the history of the variance. This 150,000
chart is the equivalent of a control chart in the quality- 100,000
monitoring technique statistical process control. It 50,000
kWh

0
can have limits of expected or allowable variation -50,000
superimposed, as illustrated by the broken blue line. -100,000
It clearly shows whether or not the deviation between -150,000
-200,000
observed and expected consumption is within the
-250,000
normal behaviour of the process.
27/02

33/02

39/02

45/02

51/02

5/03

11/03

17/03

23/03

30/03

Figure 10 Plotting the difference Week

Site E gas – 45 unit

Deviation from expected Figure 11 is the cusum chart. It plots the values from
60,000 Column F. In the example, it can be seen that the cusum
has both upward and downward sloping sections.
40,000 Upward gradients signify a persistent tendency to use
20,000 more energy than expected, and downward gradients
show sustained better-than-expected performance.
kWh

-20,000

-40,000

-60,000
27/02

5/03

11/03
33/02

17/03
39/02

45/02

30/03
51/02

23/03

Week
 Monitoring and targeting 13

Fixing a ‘tough but achievable’ If we identify the same hand-picked data points on the
scatter diagram (Figure 13), we see that they lie towards
target characteristic the lower edge of the scatter. This is no surprise, but
In order to detect – and thus rectify – accidental energy until we drew the cusum we did not know that these low
waste, target performance characteristics need to consumptions were consistently achievable. In general,
stretch people without breaking them. Set the target just arbitrarily picking low points on a scatter diagram
too leniently, and opportunities will be missed because is not reliable.
some problems will not show up as overspends.
Set it too aggressively4, and everyone will become Figure 13 Best achievable performance on the
demoralised because they will be unable to avoid scatter diagram
adverse reports.
Site E gas – 45 unit
The clue to best achievable performance is in the Performance characteristic line(s)
cusum chart. There may be periods when it slopes 250,000
downwards for weeks at a time, indicating a persistent
tendency to use less energy than predicted by the trial
200,000
characteristic. These favourable periods present an
opportunity for further analysis, as illustrated in Figure 12.
150,000
kWh

Note: Figure 12 is based on a real case where

performance had changed from time to time. Often,
100,000
it is not possible to discover the reasons for past
adverse changes; however, this does not prevent the
50,000
user identifying when the best performance occurred.

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Site E gas – 45 unit production

Figure 12 Identifying best achievable performance

Site E gas – 45 unit

Cumulative sum of deviations

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000
kWh

-50,000

-100,000

-150,000

-200,000

-250,000
27/02 33/02 39/02 45/02 51/02 5/03 11/03 17/03 23/03 30/03

Week

4
Setting extreme targets is an alternative technique which may be applied in some circumstances, but such methods are outside the scope of this
guide. The Carbon Trust can offer additional advice in this area. Call 0800 085 2005 for further help.
14 The Carbon Trust

By fitting a new performance characteristic line through Figure 14 Finding a new operational target
the points identified as representing best achievable Site E gas – 45 unit
performance, this becomes the new operational target Performance characteristic line(s)
(Figure 14).
250,000

Diagnosing adverse changes 200,000

in performance
150,000
The cusum chart can help to diagnose long-term adverse

kWh
performance. Figure 15 shows a cusum chart that has
developed a rising gradient towards the end (indicating, 100,000
as previously explained, an adverse change in the way
the monitored plant uses energy). 50,000

This time, pick the points on the rising section of the

cusum to select adverse weeks. 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Site E gas – 45 unit production

Figure 15 An example of a cusum chart with a rising gradient

Site E gas – rolls etc

Cumulative sun of deviances
200,000

150,000

100,000
kWh

50,000

-50,000

-100,000
36/02 42/02 48/02 2/02 8/02 14/03 20/03 26/03 33/03 39/03
Week
 Monitoring and targeting 15

By looking at the same points on the scatter diagram, Figure 17 Comparing actual consumption with
compare the adverse characteristic with what is theoretical demand
achievable. This should enable someone with technical
College Q main electricity
knowledge of the process to infer the nature of the Performance characteristic line(s)
fault (in this example, the symptom is fixed extra
70,000
consumption unrelated to production throughput).

Furthermore, the analysis indicates the magnitude 60,000

of the excess consumption. The timing was already 50,000

shown on the cusum chart. This is a powerful set of
evidence to aid in identifying the cause of the deviation 40,000

kWh
and resulting excess cost and carbon emissions.
30,000

Figure 16 Comparing adverse characteristics with what 20,000

is achievable
10,000
Site E gas – rolls etc
Performance characteristic line(s) 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
120,000
Heating degree days

100,000
Figure 18, meanwhile, shows electricity demand in
80,000 a log chipper feeding a pulp mill. The blue line shows
that demand barely changes with throughput. The red
kWh

60,000 line represents a more rational characteristic that the

mill could achieve by improving motor control during
40,000 idle periods.

20,000
Figure 18 Identifying a more rational characteristic line
0 Chipper power
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Performance characteristic line(s)
Site E rolls production 14,000

12,000
Persistent abnormal performance
The techniques described so far are designed to 10,000

detect waste when performance changes, but they can

8,000
kWh

sometimes provide clues about performance that is

persistently poor and has a consumption characteristic 6,000
that looks wrong.
4,000
Figure 17 shows the electricity demand pattern of a
college campus (blue line) compared with what it should 2,000
be in theory (red line). The weather-related demand was
0
unexpected – it was traced to students using portable 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
electric heaters in the halls of residence. Woodyard chip conveyor to pulp mill

Further information
Advanced metering for SMEs (CTC713)
16 The Carbon Trust

Automatic meter reading

Automatic meter reading ensures bills are based on actual, rather than
estimated consumption, and avoids the need for manual readings, which
can be impractical and unreliable.

The increasing availability of automatic meter readings

makes it possible to monitor energy consumption in
detail. Suppliers are obliged to install half-hour meters at
larger consuming sites. These ‘Code 5’ fiscal electricity
meters in the UK record data at 30-minute intervals.
Smaller sites are able to pay for half-hourly meters
through independent meter providers. How often a
reading is taken will depend on the supplier, although
customers may request regular readings. If you have a
half-hourly meter, ask your supplier or service provider
for a regular copy of the data. They may even provide
web tools to help you analyse your data.
This fine-grained data can be used both to visualise
demand patterns and to assess energy performance.
The examples that follow mainly discuss electricity,
as that is the most common utility to be measured
at short intervals.
Tax incentives
Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) enable
businesses to buy energy efficient equipment using
a 100% rate of tax allowance in the year of purchase.
Businesses can claim this allowance on the
investment value of energy efficient equipment,
if it is on the Energy Technology List. The procedure
for claiming an ECA is the same as for any capital
allowance. For further information please visit
www.eca.gov.uk or call the Carbon Trust on
0800 085 2005.
Further information
Metering technology overview (CTV027)
 Monitoring and targeting 17

Visualisation Figure 20 Store W electricity demand profile

Most organisations have buildings with a pattern of 00:00

occupation that is repeated from one week to the next, Power
with a consistent profile for each day of the week. percent
90-100
Examining the daily profile can reveal anomalous
80-90
performance. For example, in Figure 19 we see the
70-80
24-hour profile of electricity supply to a department
12:00 60-70
store. The blue trace is Wednesday the 15th of
50-60
August 2007. The purple and green traces are for the
40-50
subsequent two days and show unusual high overnight
30-40
consumption. The cause was found to be the air
20-30
conditioning, which had been left running continuously
10-20
after being maintained.
0-10
24:00
Figure 19 24-hour demand profiles
01/12/00
05 /12/00
09/12/00
13/12/00
17/12/00
21/12/00
25/12/00
29/12/00
02/12/01
0612/01
1012/01
1412/01
1812/01
Retail store W electricity

400
350
300 In this false-colour contour plot (above),
Power (kWh)

250 consumption rates are represented on a grid in

200 15–Aug-07 normal day which each column represents one day (midnight to
150 16–Aug-07 abnormal midnight, top to bottom) and the days are arranged
100 nightime load left to right. The cells of the grid are colour-coded to
50 17–Aug-07 abnormal indicate the short-term power level. See Appendix
nightime load A for suggestions as to generating these charts.
0
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00
Time of day
Both of these examples illustrate cases where a demand
Quite a good way to visualise many weeks’ data is a threshold was exceeded – quiet-hours demand in the
false-colour contour plot. Figure 20 shows demand in first case, and daily peak demand in the second.
a department store over the Christmas and New Year Setting automatic alarms against such limits is one
period. Many features can be picked out: the regularity way to detect waste, although it may result in numerous
of demand (late Thursday opening, for example); higher spurious alerts of relatively low financial value. Smarter
demand during the day in the run-up to Christmas; ways of using fine-grained data and integrating them
extended closures during the public holidays; and the into the overspend league table, as examined next, can
fact that overnight demand is slightly higher before reduce spurious and trivial alerts.
midnight than after. This latter feature is attributable
to window display lighting, and the chart discloses
that the lighting control fails or is overridden from
time to time.
18 The Carbon Trust
Assessing performance with
fine-grained data
To assess performance requires estimates of expected
consumption. As mentioned earlier, energy uses with
repetitive daily or weekly profiles can be assessed
by reference to preceding periods (provided that
unrepresentative days are excluded from the pool
of precedents).
In theory, it would be possible to check every half-hour
period against a precedent-based template profile, and
to raise an alarm if the variance exceeds a certain limit.
However, except in rare cases, this is not a practical
strategy. False alarms may occur purely because
demand is differently distributed during the day: the
same (correct) quantity of energy could be used, but at
different times, causing over-consumption in one interval
to be balanced by under-consumption in another.
It is the cumulative deviation that is important, and this
can be arrived at by measuring total actual consumption
over a week, for example, and comparing it with what it
would have been with the demand pattern represented
by the target template profile.
Figure 21 Batch production plant demand
Theoretical pattern of demand Actual pattern of demand
00:00 00:00
06:00 06:00
12:00
12:00
18:00 18:00
24:00 24:00
M TW T F S S M T W T F S S M TW T F S S M T W T F S S
Aggregating deviations over a week brings
two benefits:
1. The ‘smoothing’ effect reduces spurious alerts.
2. The resulting estimate of excess consumption can be
used in the overspend league table so that any detected
problems can be assigned a sensible priority.
In practice, most managers say they prefer to deal with
energy as a concentrated weekly task rather than being
continually interrupted by alerts in real time, some of
which may be insignificant or spurious. This is not to
dismiss automatic meter reading as valueless: quite
the opposite, since the stored fine-grained consumption
data can be viewed, when required, as an aid to
diagnosing abnormal performances.
The strategy of aggregating fine-grained data for weekly
review, and only examining the detail as required, also
accommodates those situations where demand patterns
are not recurrent, notably in industrial processes. Here
a form of activity-based targeting can be employed,
using either physical sensors or a production scheduling
database, to infer what the pattern of demand ought
to be.
Figure 21 for example shows a pair of charts relating
to a batch production plant in a factory. It compares the
theoretical demand pattern (derived from a production
scheduling database) with actual consumption.
kW
117
110
102
95
88
80
73
66
59
51
44
37
29
22
15
7

As before, by aggregating a week’s worth of theoretical
demand, one obtains an estimate of expected
consumption that enables excess consumption to
be included in the overspend league table.
Even more complex solutions can be employed when
the risk of undetected loss is sufficiently high. In one
particularly advanced application, process control data
such as temperatures and flow rates are being collected
from a set of distillation columns and analysed every
20 minutes (during steady-state operation) to calculate
the theoretical heat demand from first principles.
Case study:
Chemical works
A chemical works applied M&T to the steam
consumption in some distillation columns, carrying
out a weekly assessment of consumption against
theoretical demand calculated from 20-minute-interval
data on material flows and temperatures. It found
a number of instances of avoidable waste, such as
a case where the operators had bypassed a heat
recovery unit and another where steam was leaking
through a faulty trap.
In the latter case the fault was already known about,
but its cost implications were not. The company also
discovered (by chance) that it was possible to operate
slightly outside the stipulated ‘reflux ratio’ and achieve
higher thermal efficiency. Manual control was replaced
with an automatic loop by reprogramming the plant
Monitoring and targeting 19
The theoretical heat demand is added up over the
course of a week and compared with metered steam
consumption. Again, this is done using an overspend
league table to detect and quantify any energy losses
that may occur, for example as the plant’s internals
begin to foul up or disintegrate.
To avoid data overload and possible spurious alerts,
do not try to assess performance in real time. Have
a weekly review, for example, and then drill down into
the detail of any cases that require investigation. Use
data visualisation techniques to help you and your
colleagues find the causes of excess consumption.
control system, and the more efficient settings were
adopted as the norm.
The factory’s process managers found the M&T
scheme useful for comparing the relative thermal
efficiencies of their distillation columns, enabling
them to schedule production on a least-energy basis.
It also gave them the ability to optimise maintenance
shutdowns, as internal fouling and disintegration
can now be detected through a deteriorating energy
efficiency. They also welcomed the fact that operators
no longer have to try to assimilate dozens of flow
and temperature readouts, nor guess whether any
deviations are significant or not; the overspend league
table gives them a simple weekly summary of where,
if anywhere, waste is occurring.
20 The Carbon Trust

Implementing monitoring and targeting

Rolling out a monitoring and targeting scheme will require several factors
to be in place, but once the scheme is up and running routine maintenance
is simple.

In order to operate an M&T scheme effectively, The required driving-factor data will often include
the following three components must be in place: degree-day statistics, and according to the user’s
circumstances may also comprise production figures,
1. Consumption data
mileages, hours of darkness, or whatever other data
2. Driving-factor data helps to determine how much energy should have
been used.
3. Methods of calculating expected consumption.
Two important points to note are that first, driving-factor
Consumption data may come from meters (manually
data, like consumption data, need to be synchronised
or automatically read), from delivery and stock-level
with the assessment intervals; and second, where
figures, or from proxy measures such as run-hours
production data are used, they should certainly be
counters or ammeters. The critical task is to ensure
gross (rather than saleable) volumes, since it will often
that data are synchronised as closely as possible
take as much energy to produce a unit of unsaleable
with the required assessment intervals. Repeatability
scrap as a unit of good product.
of measurements is more important than accuracy.
Systematic bias in readings is of little consequence: Production volumes may need to be measured at
it will affect the calculated consumption volume, but the intermediate points in the process in order to provide
unexpected change that caused it will still be evident. a meaningful guide to the energy requirements of
different production stages. For example, in a paper-
Meter readings should be read in-house. It is best not to
making machine, the paper goes through a drying stage
rely on invoice data, as suppliers are under no obligation
after dewatering and pressing. The steam requirement
to provide accurate readings. Nor do suppliers read
for a tonne of discarded paper that gets as far as the
private submeters, which are an important source of
reeler is the same as for a saleable tonne, but it is nil
data. Furthermore, in-house meter readings can be
for a tonne of discarded paper that comes off at the
scheduled at appropriate intervals (such as once a week).
wet end.
On half-hourly metered electricity supplies the data
from the supplier will be more reliable, but unless the Finding appropriate indicators of production activity
user makes other arrangements, the data will usually can be a challenge. Avoid complexity at the outset and
only be available monthly in arrears. try a simple approach – it may work. Refine the model
later if necessary. Be pragmatic: if consumption X varies
Automatic meter reading is beneficial when meters are
with driving factor Y, use that relationship as a targeting
inaccessible, too remote, or too numerous for manual
model even if X does not directly depend on Y. Unlike
reading to be an option. Meters with pulse outputs or
with rigorous statistical analysis, there does not need
serial communications interfaces are needed, along
to be a causal link, merely that the relationship between
with additional components such as:
X and Y should normally be consistent.
• Data loggers (when the meter has no recording
capability of its own)
• Data concentrators (when data from multiple logging Further information
devices need to be marshalled)
Metering technology overview (CTV027)
• Gateways (for passing data between networks using www.carbontrust.co.uk/mandt
different protocols or isolated by a firewall)
• Software to interrogate the devices and record results
in a database.

Having secured a supply of consumption and driving-
factors data, the final task is to relate one to the other,
establishing tough but achievable operational targets.
These may be precedent-based or activity-based, using
straight-line relationships or any other appropriate
method of calculating expected consumption. However
they are to be done, it is sensible to gather sufficient
historical data and set some preliminary targets at the
outset. Operational targets can and will be reviewed
and revised as time goes by, and will not be widely
publicised within the organisation, so it does not matter
too much if they are not absolutely right first time.
Nor does it matter if initial coverage is incomplete.
It is better to have the ability to detect waste in some
areas than to remain in the dark until every single item
is covered.
Further information
Energy management strategy (CTV022)
Practical energy management (CTV023)
Advanced metering for SMEs (CTC713)
Routine operation
Once the M&T scheme has operational targets set for at
least some of the consumption streams, routine operation
is very easy. At the chosen assessment interval (say once
a week):
• Acquire the necessary data (consumption and
driving-factors)
• Display the overspend league table
• Check the data behind any significant overspends
• Ask for explanations.
In some cases there will be a good explanation for the
excess consumption. Otherwise, it is likely that there
is some avoidable waste that could easily be remedied.
Note that it will be easy to counter excuses (extreme
weather, high production output, and so on) because
most of these influences will already have been taken
into account.
It may be unnecessary to do anything more by way
of analysis. Conventional investigations can be carried
out and remedial work can be put in hand (where
economically justified) in the knowledge that failure
will be exposed in future reports.
Monitoring and targeting 21
Only in a minority of cases – if at all – will it be necessary
to carry out further analysis. However, fine-grained data
may prove useful where available, and if the problem
persists, it will ultimately become possible to diagnose
the new consumption patterns using cusum-assisted
regression analysis.
From time to time it will pay to look at the foot of the
overspend league table, where all the ‘underspent’
streams accumulate. Persistent underspending suggests
a target that is too lenient. Cusum analysis can then
be used to identify when the improved performance
started, and a new target can be set accordingly.
Choosing M&T software
Although there are many proprietary M&T software
packages available, not all of them are designed for the
purposes described in this guidance. Some software
supplied with automatic meter reading hardware may
do little more than display demand-profile charts, for
example, while energy accounting software may lack the
analytical and target-setting functions found in products
with more of a bias towards physical performance.
To give the full benefits of waste-avoidance analysis,
software needs to be able to support the principles
and procedures explained in this guide. Appropriate
products will have these hallmarks:
• An emphasis on the assessment of physical
performance (as distinct from energy accounting,
although they may offer this as well).
• Facilities for setting up calculations of expected
consumption, at least using straight-line relationships
with single driving factors and preferably other
methods as well.
• Generate the overspend league table as defined
above, either as a standard built-in report (preferred)
or as a user-defined report template.
• Provide scatter, deviation and cusum charts at least,
and employ them actively in the target-setting
process by enabling selective analysis of hand-picked
data points.
It is also possible to build a scheme in-house with
spreadsheets. The overspend league table, in particular,
is very easy to emulate, and all the required charts
described earlier can be readily defined. The more
advanced steps (such as selective regression analysis
in particular) would be more of a challenge, but not
beyond the more capable spreadsheet user. Examples
of techniques, tips and tricks needed for energy analysis
can be found on the web.
022 The Carbon Trust
22

Next steps
Effective M&T provides the basis for energy management. Follow the steps
below to understand the energy consumption on the site and identify where
more information is needed.

Step 1. Understand the industry Step 4. Install sub-meters

Making sense of the complex industries of energy
(electricity and gas) and water helps in understanding
how energy is delivered to the site, how it is billed,
and who has responsibility for supply and the hardware
of utilities.
Step 2. Analyse energy bills
Large users or multi-site organisations could benefit
from installing sub-meters. Look at the strategies for
sub-metering, and install based on the data needed.
Further information
Metering technology overview (CTV027)

Invoices give a lot of information about supply, tariff www.carbontrust.co.uk/mandt

and consumption. Understanding the information given
on them can lead to large cost savings as well as provide
details for your energy management strategy.

Step 3. See what systems are in place

Analyse what meters are currently on site and the data
collection and recording techniques. Is enough data
available from the current systems to properly assess
the site? You may want more information than your
current meters are giving you.

Glossary
Activity-based targeting
The process of estimating expected consumption
volumes by reference to production throughput,
prevailing weather and other driving factors. Comparison
between expected and actual consumption reveals
randomly-occurring accidental avoidable waste.
Advanced metering
See Smart meter
Assessment interval
The period between exception reports; commonly
weekly for industrial plants but often monthly for
dispersed estates of buildings. Daily, per-shift and even
‘real-time’ assessments may be worthwhile in some
circumstances. Returns of consumption and related
driving factors must at least be synchronised with
the assessment interval (although more frequent
measurements may be of some diagnostic value).
Base temperature
In relation to the calculation of degree days, the
assumed lowest outside air temperature at which
a particular building can maintain comfort without
artificial heating (or the highest temperature at which
cooling is not required). In the UK a base temperature
of 15.5ºC is common for heating assessment.
Benchmarking
Identifying the things that enable good performance,
either by critically comparing the performance of
similar installations, or (if no comparable cases exist)
identifying past periods of better performance.
Code 5
Code 5 users are sites which already have electricity
consumption monitored half-hourly. Sites with peak
consumption exceeding 100kW for three consecutive
months are classified as ‘Code 5’ and suppliers collect
actual consumption data into the Balancing and
Settlement Code for accurate billing. These accurate
data are likely to be available for energy management
purposes and should be requested from the
energy supplier.
Monitoring and targeting 23
Consumption data
Figures, collected at equal intervals, representing
the quantities of energy, water, or other consumable
resources used. May be derived directly either from
meters or from stock-level and delivery information;
or may be computed by arithmetic combining two or
more flows, or inferred from indirect measurements
such as data-logged electric current.
Control limit
A tolerance band on the deviation chart indicating the
level of deviation which is considered to be significant.
Cumulative deviation
See Cusum
Cusum
Cumulative sum of the difference between actual and
target consumption in successive monitoring intervals.
Usually presented as a chart whose most important
property is that it manifests a horizontal trend as long
as consumption remains close to target.
Degree days
A measure of how cold (or hot) the weather has been
(relative to a stated base temperature) measured over
a regular monitoring interval, usually weekly or monthly.
Deviation chart
A time-series chart showing the difference between
actual and expected consumption in each successive
monitoring period. May have control limits
superimposed. Precursor to the cusum chart which
shows the cumulative sum of deviation values.
Driving factor
An independently measurable factor (e.g. production
throughput, mileage, degree-day value) that determines
the required quantity of energy or other consumable
resource.
Expected consumption
Theoretical quantity of energy, water, etc., against which
actual consumption can be gauged. Can be calculated
in various ways ranging from precedent (same period
the year before) to rigorous mathematical modelling
from first principles, but most commonly calculated
using a simple empirical straight-line relationship
between past consumption and corresponding values
of an appropriate driving factor.
24 The Carbon Trust
False-colour contour plot
Graphical presentation of fine-grained (e.g, half-hourly)
data in which consumption rates are represented on
a grid in which, typically, each column represents one
day midnight to midnight and the cells of the grid are
colour-coded to indicate the short-term power level.
Useful for visualising repetitive daily and weekly patterns.
Sacrifices precision in the data but can display several
months’ data on a single page.
Fixed demand
The ‘base load’ consumption that is incurred regardless
of prevailing weather, production output, etc.; as distinct
from the variable component of demand.
Gross production
The favoured measure of production activity in energy-
intensive manufacturing, as distinct from net or saleable
production. Reflects the fact that it may take as much
energy to make unsaleable product as saleable. In
thorough implementations, it may be necessary to
record gross throughput at each significant stage in
a process, to recognise the fact that product may either
be diverted to scrap between stages, or else held in
buffer storage.
Historical baseline
The characteristic performance of a building, vehicle,
or manufacturing process, when first assessed at the
outset of an energy management programme.
League table
A report consisting of a list of items ranked in order
of significance, for example according to the gross
quantity or cost of energy used. See especially
Overspend league table.
Limit, control
Margin of error allowed in the estimation of expected
consumption and used to indicate deviations from target
that are significant compared with normal variability.
Moving annual total
A method of reporting in which the most recent
12 months (or 52 weeks) of consumption are stated,
regardless of the time of year. When applied to budget
tracking, provides a more stable estimate of end-of-year
out-turn than can be obtained by projecting from results
for the year to date.
Norm chart
A time-series chart in which actual consumption
volumes are co-plotted with the corresponding expected
values (inferred from the driving-factor values).
Operational target
Values for expected consumption in each monitored
stream, against which actual consumption can be
compared for the purposes of detecting adverse
changes in performance. Operational targets are based
on a rational analysis of achievable performance and
it is accepted that they may be refined at any time as
more evidence is gathered.
Overspend league table
Key weekly (or daily, etc) reporting technique in
which monitored streams of consumption are listed
in descending order of their apparent unaccountable
excess costs. Provides a rational view of where best
– if anywhere – to direct investigations and remedial
action. Conveniently accommodates any number of
streams, whether of energy, water, or other resources,
in a single concise summary that requires no specialist
knowledge to produce or interpret.
Performance characteristic line
A line, usually straight and diagonal, superimposed
on the scatter diagram of consumption volume versus
driving factor. Represents the idealised relationship
between the two and enables the expected consumption
to be estimated when the value of the driving factor is
known. The performance characteristic line can be set
to show the target, in which case it will occupy the lowest
justifiable position on the chart; or the standard, in which
case it represents current average performance and
would be used for forward budget estimation; or the
historical baseline representing average performance
in the base year.
Precedent-based targeting
Targeting method in which, usually, monthly
consumption is gauged against the same month a year
before. Simplistic because it assumes (a) that conditions
were indeed comparable in the precedent month and
(b) that no waste had occurred which would inflate the
target for the period being assessed. Precedent-based
targets can also be applied to half-hourly or other
high-frequency data, usually by defining a profile
‘template’ on the basis of historical performance.

Quiescent threshold
A simple exception-reporting method for high-frequency
data in which out-of-hours consumption is monitored
to ensure that it stays below some chosen level. Higher-
than-expected consumption often indicates items left
running unnecessarily.
Regression analysis
A statistical technique for determining the constant and
coefficients in a multi-variate targeting model of the form:
E = k 0 + k1.D1 + k 2.D2 + ... + kn.Dn
Risk of undetected loss
A formal method of evaluating the cost-effectiveness
of expenditure on additional metering. Consumption
is disaggregated according to where it is used, and
differing percentage losses are assumed according to
the nature of the application. Systems with low load
factors are presumed to have more scope for undetected
waste than those which have to operate continuously
close to their maximum rating.
Scatter diagram
An x-y plot of consumption versus driving factor,
both measured at regular intervals (typically weekly
or monthly).
Smart meter
A meter with data logging and two-way communications,
allowing, for example, data to be transmitted
electronically to a meter operator; a supplier to
disconnect a customer remotely; or costs to be displayed
on the basis of real-time price information.
Specific energy ratio
The ratio between energy (etc) used and its presumed
driving factor. An unreliable method of reporting,
suitable for high-level management presentations but
usually of little value for active management control.
Standard
Current average performance characteristic (any wasteful
use included). Usually used to project budgets by
reference to future expected activity levels and weather.
Monitoring and targeting 25
Stream
A measurable flow of energy, water, etc,: typically that
taken through an individual submeter but would also
include consumptions arrived at by difference (between
a main meter and its downstream submeters, say) or by
adding two or more flows (such as the oil and gas used
in a dual-fuel boiler). A stream need not necessarily be
metered: it could be computed from changes in stock
level, or estimated from a proxy measure such as hours
run. Some practitioners treat driving factors (production,
degree-day histories, etc) as ‘streams’ as well.
Submeter
Usually any consumption meter downstream of a
main supply meter; typically used to measure a branch
flow to a particular building zone, or item of process
equipment, etc.
Targeting model
Mathematical procedure for calculating expected
consumption from independent measurements of
driving-factor data, from first principles, or on the basis
of precedent, etc.
Variable component of demand
That portion of demand that varies in direct proportion
to the relevant driving factor, as distinct from the fixed
(i.e. purely time-related) component.
X-Y scatter
Graph in which a stream’s consumption is plotted
against the relevant driving factor, say on a weekly
basis, and usually with a straight line superimposed
to represent the achievable target. A standard
performance line or the historical baseline can
also be superimposed, the former being used for
budget projection.
Year to date
An inferior method of reporting in which consumption
etc. are reckoned from the start of the accounting year,
discarding information from the year before.
26 The Carbon Trust

Appendix A

Constructing a false-colour
contour plot
A false-colour contour plot can be constructed in
Microsoft Excel by one of two methods. Advanced
users can use macro code to colour the spreadsheet
cells according to their relative values. Another method
is to use Excel’s surface chart format as follows:

Step 1
Arrange the half-hourly values in a table, with one
column per day.
 Monitoring and targeting 27

Step 2
Highlight the data (including date and time labels) and
from the Excel menu select Insert, Chart. Pick the ‘surface’
option and click Finish.
28 The Carbon Trust

Step 3
The data will be plotted as a three-dimensional surface.
To convert it to a contour map, right-click on the chart
and choose 3-D view. Set both the rotation and elevation
to 90º, and perspective to 0º.
 Monitoring and targeting 29

Step 4
Finally, tidy up the display by editing the range-colours
to give an orderly spectrum. You may need to change
the y-axis major interval to increase the number of
steps and you will probably need to increase the size
of the chart, add titles and so on.
30 The Carbon Trust

Appendix B

Performance indicators
Historically, it has been common to express the
performance of industrial processes as specific energy
ratios (SER), kWh per unit of output. A monitoring
and targeting scheme can be programmed to calculate
SERs, but they should be used with caution because
they usually vary with product output (falling as
throughput increases), and are affected by shifts in the
balance between different product grades. They may
also be affected by the weather. In other words, they
cannot be relied upon as a measure of energy efficiency.
They should therefore only be used for summary reports
(if at all) and not for day-to-day management control.

The counterpart in buildings is the normalised

performance indicator (NPI), the weather-adjusted kWh
per square metre of floor area. These can be used to
provide comparisons between buildings, or against
published yardstick values, as a rough-and-ready
benchmarking aid. A monitoring and targeting scheme
can be programmed to calculate NPIs provided that
appropriate data on building floor area, occupancy
pattern and type of use are available.

The techniques described in this guide provide, in

effect, a method of self-benchmarking to complement
benchmarking on the basis of NPIs or SERs.
 Monitoring and targeting 31

Appendix C

Energy accountable centres

In larger organisations, energy accountable centres
(EACs) can be set up so that managers can see and
respond to the energy used within their respective
jurisdictions. A monitoring and targeting scheme can
be programmed to calculate the necessary EAC totals,
which may include apportioning the consumption
registered on shared meters.

However, in order to detect and diagnose waste

effectively, it is preferable to monitor and target the
whole consumption through each individual meter.
It follows that EAC totals should only be used for
summary reporting, and not for management control.
32 The Carbon Trust

Notes
Go online to get more
The Carbon Trust provides a range of tools, services and information to help you implement
energy and carbon saving measures, no matter what your level of experience.

Carbon Footprint Calculator – Our online calculator will help you calculate your
organisation’s carbon emissions.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/carboncalculator

Interest Free Loans – Energy Efficiency Loans from the Carbon Trust are a cost
effective way to replace or upgrade your existing equipment with a more energy efficient
version. See if you qualify.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/loans

Carbon Surveys – We provide surveys to organisations with annual energy bills of

more than £50,000*. Our carbon experts will visit your premises to identify energy saving
opportunities and offer practical advice on how to achieve them.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/surveys

Action Plans – Create action plans to implement carbon and energy saving measures.
www.carbontrust.co.uk/apt

Case Studies – Our case studies show that it’s often easier and less expensive than you
might think to bring about real change.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/casestudies

Events and Workshops – The Carbon Trust offers a variety of events and workshops
ranging from introductions to our services, to technical energy efficiency training, most
of which are free.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/events

Publications – We have a library of free publications detailing energy saving techniques

for a range of sectors and technologies.

www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications

Need further help?

Call our Customer Centre on 0800 085 2005
Our Customer Centre provides free advice on what your organisation can do to save
energy and save money. Our team handles questions ranging from straightforward
requests for information, to in-depth technical queries about particular technologies.

* Subject to terms and conditions.

The Carbon Trust was set up by Government in 2001 as an
independent company.

Our mission is to accelerate the move to a low carbon economy

by working with organisations to reduce carbon emissions and
develop commercial low carbon technologies.

We do this through five complementary business areas:

Insights – explains the opportunities surrounding climate change

Solutions – delivers carbon reduction solutions
Innovations – develops low carbon technologies
Enterprises – creates low carbon businesses
Investments – finances clean energy businesses.

www.carbontrust.co.uk
0800 085 2005

The Carbon Trust is funded by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra),
the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, the Scottish Government, the Welsh
Assembly Government and Invest Northern Ireland.
Whilst reasonable steps have been taken to ensure that the information contained within this publication
is correct, the authors, the Carbon Trust, its agents, contractors and sub-contractors give no warranty
and make no representation as to its accuracy and accept no liability for any errors or omissions.
Any trademarks, service marks or logos used in this publication, and copyright in it, are the property
of the Carbon Trust. Nothing in this publication shall be construed as granting any licence or right to use
or reproduce any of the trademarks, service marks, logos, copyright or any proprietary information in
any way without the Carbon Trust’s prior written permission. The Carbon Trust enforces infringements
of its intellectual property rights to the full extent permitted by law.
The Carbon Trust is a company limited by guarantee and registered in England and Wales under
Company number 4190230 with its Registered Office at: 8th Floor, 3 Clement’s Inn, London WC2A 2AZ.
Printed on paper containing a minimum of 75% recycled, de-inked post-consumer waste.
Published in the UK: March 2008.
© Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO. CTG008