Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Abstract
The
arguments
and
discussions
in
this
paper
are
anchored
on
alternative
development
theory,
which
proposes
that
development
must
eradicate
poverty,
be
endogenous
and
self-reliant,
and
be
in
harmony
with
the
environment.
The
paper
then
discusses
the
factors
why
sustainable
development
initiatives
have
not
been
successful
both
at
the
global
level
and
in
the
Philippines.
It
also
cites
the
reasons
why
those
that
are
successful
become
soone
of
the
key
factors
is
local
participation
in
the
implementation
of
the
programs.
Although
the
civil
society
organizations,
primarily
the
non-government
organizations,
are
at
the
forefront
of
sustainable
development,
not
all
of
these
institutions
are
suitable
or
capable
of
implementing
the
programs
effectively.
The
paper
thus
argues
that
social
enterprises
and
similar
organizationswith
their
unique
features
that
can
address
the
program
weaknesses
or
failure
factorsmust
be
tapped
as
agents
of
sustainable
development
and
that
an
enabling
policy
environment
must
be
created
for
these
social
enterprises
to
grow
to
advance
the
countrys
environment-related
programs.
Table
of
Contents
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1
Rationale .................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Research
Question ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Contribution
of
the
Study.................................................................................................................................. 2
Theoretical
Background........................................................................................................3
Sustainable
Development
Anchored
on
Alternative
Development ................................................ 3
The
Role
of
Institutions...................................................................................................................................... 5
The
Role
of
the
NGOs .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Critique
of
the
Global
Sustainable
Development
Initiatives.....................................9
The
Philippine
Context ....................................................................................................... 11
The
State
of
Natural
Environment ............................................................................................................. 11
Government
Response .................................................................................................................................... 15
Issues
and
Challenges...................................................................................................................................... 16
The
Civil
Society
Organizations
in
the
Country.................................................................................... 17
NGOs .................................................................................................................................................................. 18
POs...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Cooperatives................................................................................................................................................... 22
Challenges
and
Limitations
of
the
Civil
Society
Organizations ................................................ 23
Strengthening
Sustainable
Development
Programs
through
Social
Enterprises.............................................................................................................................. 24
Definition
of
Social
Enterprise..................................................................................................................... 24
Types
of
Social
Enterprises ........................................................................................................................... 26
Unique
Features
of
Social
Enterprises
Relevant
to
Sustainable
Development ...................... 28
Policy
Recommendations
to
Create
an
Enabling
Environment
for
Social
Enterprises
as
Agents
of
Sustainable
Development ................................................. 33
Direction
for
Further
Research........................................................................................ 37
Annex ........................................................................................................................................ 39
Works
Cited ............................................................................................................................ 41
Introduction Rationale
Thirty-two years after the World Conservation Strategy in 1980 and twenty years after the launch of Agenda 21, environmental degradation continues to be a problem in the Philippines. The deteriorated state of the countrys environment and natural resources is felt most by the poor, who depend on such resources for their livelihood and are most vulnerable to the consequences of its degradation and depletion. Major urban areas remain polluted, as evidenced by poor air and water quality, and by poor waste management. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) Specifically, land use has been a major concern, specially that catastrophes have been damaging the nation, the occurrence of which is mainly attributed to environmental degradationforest, soil, and land overall. For example, the average estimated cost of casualty resulting from typhoons alone averaged Php6.3billion each in damages in infrastructure, loss of lives, and foregone income. This high social cost of poor environmental management compels one to look into the factors that contribute to the success or failure of environmental management and to propose possible solutions.
Research
Question
The
research
question
will
thus
be
this:
Why
has
sustainable
development
remained
an
issue
despite
the
various
initiatives globally,
regionally,
and
locallybeginning
1992?
This
paper
argues
that
sustainable
development,
being
anchored
on
the
principles
of
alternative
development,
needs
to
address
the
basic
human
needs,
and
be
participatory
and
self-reliant
in
addition
to
the
inherent
ecological
orientation
of
the
program. Thus, among the contributory factors to the outcome of the sustainable development programs and policies, this paper looks into the implementing agents and the implementation process that comes naturally with the organizational nature of the agents. At present, the non-government organizations (NGOs) are in the forefront of Philippine civil societys advocacy for sustainable development. However, NGOs are criticized for being financially dependent on donors (and therefore, not self-reliant) and middle-class-driven (and therefore, not participatory). This paper further argues that social enterprises can be effective agents of sustainable development because not only are they financially independent and do work with grassroots, but they also have the capacity for managerial competencies necessary for program implementation and for technological innovation. Entrepreneurs have the ideal characteristics required to experiment, take risks, and put into practice these elements of the model and move towards sustainability entrepreneurship. Hence, entrepreneurs should not only be considered as contributors in a successful economy, but the driving force of a sustainable society (Tilly and Young, 2009).
If its environment-related policies and programs are examined, the Philippines has not been amiss in this area, what with the 59 laws/degrees/orders passed. The soundness of these policies, however, is one issue; their implementation is yet another. While studies on sustainable development often focus on the quality or content of the programs, as well as on the implementation processes, the outcomes, and the solutions to improve these programs, this paper examines the implementing actors as a contributing factor to the outcomes of sustainable development.
Page 2 of 43
Social entrepreneurship has become a popular vehicle and development model to address various social issues. In the Philippines, it has gained ground as poverty alleviation mechanism. However, there is little discussion on how this model can be used in sustainable development, hence this paper. The theoretical foundation of this study, as well as most case studies that will be cited, shall be based on literature written in the West/North where social entrepreneurship is more developed and sophisticated; the application and analysis, however, shall be done in the Philippine context and in the case of sustainable development.
While poverty and social justice have been the center of development efforts for centuries, environmental concerns started receiving global attention beginning only in the 1970s, with the Founex Report of June 1971 identifying development and environment as 'two sides of the same coin' (United Nations Environment Program, 1981). In 1974, the members of a symposium of experts Cocoyoc, Mexico came with the Declaration (which later became popularly known as the Cocoyoc Declaration of 1974) that was considered influential in changing the attitudes of leading environmental thinkers: A people-centered development in harmony with the environment, requiring a more self-reliant effort than in the pastself-reliance through full participation in a system that perpetuates dependence. (Cocoyoc Declaration, 1974 cited in Friedmann, 1992)
In 1975, the Dag Hammarskjild Report proposed another development strategy that had the following characteristics: 1) geared to the satisfaction of needs, beginning with the eradication of poverty; 2) endogenous and self-reliant; and 3) in harmony with the environment. This proposition was in response to crisis of development at that time: mass poverty in Third World countries, unequal relations between dominant and dominated countries, institutional crisis, and
Page 3 of 43
environmental problems. (Hammarskjold, 1975) This is perhaps the earliest work that legitimized and universalized the alternative development concept. According to Martinussen (1997), alternative development is different from other theories in terms of goals and agents. Alternative development redefined development goals from economic growth to human development, and focused on the civil society as development agent. As for the methodology, Nederveen Pieterse (1998, 2010) emphasized alternative developments being participatory, endogenous, self-reliant, and ecologically sustainable. These contours are hard to measure but the whole point of development as proposed by the alternative development is to go beyond getting standards and numbers as was done in the previous economic growth-driven strategies. He furthered that development is not about growth but about social transformation and came up with a comparative table of growth-centered and social transformation-centered growth models (see Figure 1). Figure 1: Development Models (Nederveen Pieterse, 1998)
Page 4 of 43
Other definitions are as follows: Development is a process by which the members of a society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspiration. (Korten, 1990) A theoretical framework outside the well-known neoclassical and Keynesian doctrinesan ideology that rejects a system driven by relentless competition, forced to expand production continuously regardless of cost, while bringing ever-new technologies on the market. (It) addresses the condition of the poor directly(and) argues for their involvement in actions that will lead to their own empowerment. (It) therefore pursues structural changes at the national level as well as local meliorative action. (Friedmann, 1992) As a society-led theory, alternative development is often associated with community development, local economic development and micro regional development...alternative development has also been linked to the idea of de-globalization or de-linking local economies to the global economy and the return to indigenization. (Bello, 2002) Consistent with Polanyis (1977, in Martinussen) argument that economic relations and economic activity are deeply embedded in the matrix of social and cultural relations, Friedmann (1992) asserted that: 1. Societal relations are more important determinants of human behavior than incentive structures of mainstream economists. 2. It is necessary to probe into the social-cultural institutions of the civil society, beginning with the household.
For
while
the
establishment
and
strengthening
of
autonomous
local
communities
are
both
a
means
to
promote
human
wellbeing
and
as
an
end
in
itself
(Korten,
1990),
these
autonomous
local
communities
cannot
be
created
and
sustained
without
the
state
collaboration
(Friedmann,
1992).
Alternative
development
cannot
walk
away
from
the
role
of
the
state.
Education,
health
care,
and
infrastructure
cannot
be
left
to
local
alternative
development.
The Social Enterprises as Agents of Sustainable Development Page 5 of 43
Economic development requires state action. More recent alternative approaches argue that a strong civil society needs a strong state (Brohman, 1996 in Friedmann 1992). Bebbington and Bebbington (2001) also argued that the state could provide the legal environment and structure that encourage alternative development, such as decentralization of power to local government, at which level the groups can better participate in the planning and implementation activities. Nederveen Pieterse (1998, 2010) also emphasized the role of institutions in alternative development. He supported Kortens (1990) argument that the heart of development is institution and politics, and Sanyals (1994) point that alternative development has not found institutional support because agencies, bureaucracies, and ministries cannot handle sharp discontinuities in principles and practices. (Nederveen Pieterse, My Paradigm or Yours? Alternative Development, Post- Development, Reflexive Development, 1998) With the recognition of the role of state in alternative development, this paper equally acknowledges its role in sustainable development; that regardless of who the implementing agents are, the state or government still is crucial in sustainable development. Bebbington and Bebbington (2001) also brought the market back into development. They argued that economic development remains important to the communitiesin fact, collective actions were said to be more sustainable in areas where group participation was coupled with economic development (in the form of access to markets and/or capital). They suggested that this phenomenon could probably be explained by accumulation of wealth or capital preventing migration. In essence, the authors did not see the exclusivity between growth and social transformation, as presented by Nederveen Pieterse in Figure 1.
Page 6 of 43
Supporting Bebbington and Bebbingtons argument, this study shall likewise consider economic development, or at least meeting of basic human needs, in the analysis of the effectiveness of agents of sustainable development programs.
Page 7 of 43
1. Voluntary
organizations
that
pursue
a
social
mission
based
on
shared
values
2. Public
service
contractors
that
are
market-oriented
nonprofit
businesses
serving
public
purposes
3. Peoples
organizations
representing
members
interests
4. Governmental
non-governmental
organizations
that
are
into
creations
of
government
and
serve
as
instruments
of
government
policy.
Likewise,
Friedmann
(1992)
drew
his
own
typology
of
NGOs:
1. Popular
organizations
that
are
non-profit,
non-political
groups
from
within
the
civil
society
of
the
poor,
mostly
funded
by
the
membership
dues
2. Professional
groups
composed
of
educated
staff
working
on
disempowered
communities
and
funded
by
private
donations
3. Private
voluntary
organizations
that
are
well-funded
foreign
NGOs
with
global
operations
4. Non-profit,
socially
oriented,
business
organizations,
which
designs,
manufactures,
and
sells
village
technologies.
On
the
other
hand,
Bebbington
and
Bebbington
(2001)
came
up
with
two
types
of
NGOs:
1. The
informal
civil
society
groups
that
emerged
from
bottom
up,
are
more
inclusive,
and
are
thus
more
often
viewed
as
the
source
of
alternative
development
2. The
formal
NGOs
that
normally
employ
top-down
approachsomething
that
led
the
authors
to
emphasize
that
not
all
groups
can
be
vehicles
to
alternative
development
Based
on
these
various
typologies,
it
is
therefore
not
sound
to
assume
the
all
NGOs
are
equipped
or
inclined
to
promote
development,
as
not
all
are
meeting
the
basic
needs
and
are
endogenous,
self-reliant,
and
ecologically
sustainable.
The Social Enterprises as Agents of Sustainable Development Page 8 of 43
development perspective. (United Nations Environment Programme, 2002) The International Institute for Sustainable Development (2007) proposed that economics and the environment needed to be brought into line, with the environment often being short-changed. It is then argued that more supportive policy frameworks must be designedto include funding mechanisms, support structures, and greater recognition of the value of community-focused programsto have a more effective sustainable development program. (Vickers, 2010) Kirrin (2000), in his report on the Metropolitan Environment Improvement ProgramWorld Bank's efforts to address the environmental concerns of Asia's major cities where Philippine projects were studiedalso identified community involvement as one of the key factors associated with better project impact. He also concluded that learning by doing and monitoring progress improves insight and performance and so do technical and management skills, and documentation of process and experience. Finally, institutionalization of projects, he noted, occurs through partnership, dissemination, and changes in programs and policies. The abovementioned issues may be grouped according to policy administration process:
Page 10 of 43
The countrys environment and natural resources continue to deteriorate. According to the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016, only 45 percent of classified forestlands remain; the quality of land resources has been reduced by erosion, pollution, and land conversion; critical watersheds continue to deteriorate, which is likely to affect water supply; biodiversity resources are also among the most threatened; and coastal and marine resources have been declining as a result of coastal development and unsustainable fishing practices. Major urban areas remain polluted, as evidenced by poor air and water quality, and by poor waste management. The impact of environmental degradation is felt most by the poor, who depend on such resources for their livelihood and are most vulnerable to the consequences of its degradation and depletion. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) The quality of land resources has deteriorated steadily because of erosion, pollution, and land conversion. Twenty-one percent of the countrys agricultural lands and 36 percent of nonagricultural lands are moderately or severely eroded. Soil erosion has affected the productivity of land, limited the rehabilitation or restoration of degraded lands, lowered the quality of surface water, and modified hydrologic conditions. Moreover, the changing weather patterns have brought about prolonged droughts and excessive rains. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) Of the countrys total land area of 30 million hectares, 47 percent (14 million hectares) has been classified as alienable and disposable lands while 15.9 million hectares (52 percent) are classified as forestlands. Some 2.7 million hectares of total classified forestlands have been either established or considered as protected areas, making up a total of 238 protected areas. Of the forestland, only 6.43 million hectares or 41 percent were still forested in 2003, a significant decline from the 17
Page 11 of 43
million hectares recorded in the 1930s. Figure 2 shows the decline in forest cover from 1934 to 2003. An analysis of satellite-based maps elaborated by the European Unions Joint Research Centre in 2007 revealed that possibly, only 19 percent of the countrys land area (or 5.7 million hectares) remains forested. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) The main threats to Philippine forests come from the collection of fuel wood, settlements in forestlands, conversion to agricultural uses, kaingin and forest fires, and illegal logging. There are approximately 20 million people living in upland watershed areas, half of whom are dependent on shifting cultivation for their livelihood. Inequitable land distribution, insecure tenure, and rural poverty are often cited as causes of deforestation and forest degradation in the Philippines, which, in turn, are linked to increases in rural populations both as a result of high fertility and in-migration. Deforestation has made many poor communities more vulnerable to natural calamities such as of typhoons, flash floods, and landslide. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) The mining industry, despite its social and environmental threats, is being promoted and revived due to its possible contribution in inducing economic growth, attracting investments, and reducing poverty in the countryside. However, challenges remain on the emerging framework of responsible mining specifically on corporate
Page 12 of 43
accountability, voluntary compliance among companies, and giving of due recognition to local autonomy and indigenous peoples rights. Of the countrys 30 million hectares of land area, 9 million hectares (30 percent) is considered as having high mineral potential. Only 2.7 percent of this high-potential area is covered by mining permits or contracts and only 0.32 percent is in the development or operating stage. In separate researches, it was found that mining permits or contracts were within half the number of titled and claimed ancestral domains. A number of mining projects, however, have been alleged to have caused environmental degradations, physical displacement of indigenous peoples, and cultural dislocations. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) In 2005, a European Union (EU)-commissioned study reported that legal and illegal mining operations posed serious threat to the forest and to local rivers because of forest clearing and the release of toxins. Metallic mine waste generated from 1990 to 1999 amounted to 131 million metric tons (MT), while mine tailings were about 136 million MT. Many of these concerns stem from the failure of many small and large-scale mining companies to adhere to stringent, globally defined standards for responsible mining. (National Economic and Development Authority, 2011) Land use has been a major concern specially that catastrophes have been damaging the nation, the occurrence of which is mainly attributed to environmental degradationforest, soil, and land overall. Gathered from various sources, the following figure shows the estimated cost of casualty resulting from select typhoons from 1991 to 2011, with each averaging Php6.3 billion in damages in infrastructure, loss of lives, and foregone income (Figure 3).
Page 13 of 43