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Teaching One-to-One for Advanced Social Interaction


Centre number: Centre name: Specialism: Candidate name: Candidate number: Word count: 4,495 ES330 International House, Madrid 1to1 David Lind

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Contents
Part 1: Introduction Part 2: Needs analysis and diagnostic tests 6- 8 Part 3: Course Proposal 11 Part 4: Assessment Part 5: Conclusion 13-14 Bibliography Appendix 1: Course Plan 17-20 Appendix 2: Needs Analysis and Diagnostic Test Results 21-25 15-16 11-13 93-5

Included in separate document: Appendix 3: Needs Analysis Instruments 1-3

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Appendix 4: Completed Diagnostics 4-8 Appendix 5: Samples of assessments and evaluations 9-14

1.

Introduction

1.1 Why one-to-one? The type of course I have taught more than any other throughout my career is one-to-one. Nevertheless, due to its focus on group instruction, the influence of my professional development on my one-to-one teaching has been more incidental than direct. Though it is a popular choice for learners, Trench has observed that most one-to-one instruction takes place beyond the influence of directors of studies or current educational fashion (1993:87). This makes describing its nature and outlining formal guidelines for one-to-one teachers a less-than-straightforward endeavour which explains why only a handful of ELT scholars have attempted it; with their help, and drawing on my own experience, I hope to extract a set of core principles which will serve as the basis for practical decisions regarding planning and execution of my one-to-one courses.

1.2 Theories and principles in the literature: how one-to-one differs from group instruction
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a)More real and personal interaction Many learners choose one-to-one because of the increased opportunities for interaction with a native or highly proficient speaker, with whom they can develop a friendly and positive personal relationship (Wisniewska, 2010:2) and use the language in a way which more closely resembles real-life situations. b)Learner-generated content In group settings some flexibility is expected of individual learners so as to cater to the interests of the group as a whole. By contrast, in one-to-one settings, the pressure is on the teacher to consistently produce lessons which are pertinent to the needs of the sole learner. One way of achieving this is by calling upon the learner to generate content whenever possible, or what Murphey calls using students as primary material (1991:54). This principle echoes the tenets of Dogme ELT, which advocates a pedagogy grounded in the local and relevant concerns of the people in the room (Thornbury, 2006:70). c)Bag of tricks According to Wilberg (1987:9), in order to accommodate the individual learners needs, one-to-one teaching must extend beyond belief in the traditional theories and fixed-syllabus limitations which characterize group instruction. Murphey argues that this requires one-to-one teachers to have a larger bag of tricks and a wider grasp of different methodologies than the conventional classroom teacher (1991:54). My own experience teaching one-to-one courses, with learner profiles ranging from unmotivated adolescents obliged by their parents to highly motivated executives needing English for their next promotion, supports this view. d)Reformulation Wilberg (1987:4-5) observes that one-to-one instruction is most effective when the teacher enables the learner to reformulate his or her own content at a new level of awareness, skill and linguistic competence. This requires structured feedback from the teacher, as opposed to haphazard, interruptive correction, as he unapologetically puts it. e)Variety Wisniewska points out that teaching one-to-one, unlike teaching groups, leaves little room for down time to plan the next step of your lesson (2010:5). There is no opportunity for inter-learner communicative activities, such as pairwork, which means the burden of creating flow and variety falls squarely on the teacher. f)Timetable
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Unlike group classes, one-to-one lessons may be cancelled at short notice and take place at irregular intervals (Wisniewska, op.cit.).

1.3 Ideas from experience a)Maintaining rapport In one-to-one courses, teachers are required to give all their attention to the same person for an extended period of time, which can be an exhausting experience, or an exhilarating one, for both sides hence, the importance of good rapport between teacher and learner. One way of promoting this is by cultivating what Murphey calls the skill of mirroring (1991:67); this may be as simple a gesture as not being condescending about pop music when speaking to an adolescent (ibid.). b)Make them work The importance of discretion notwithstanding, I have learned that building rapport does not simply boil down to telling the learner what they want to hear. Most learners expect to be pushed to reach their language-learning potential, just as a fitness trainee expects to be pushed by his or her coach. In order to avoid falling into the trap of being perceived as a conversation partner, I believe it is important to be constantly vigilant of the language being used and to subtly remind the learner that you are working on ways of helping him or her to improve their English, which is why they are there in the first place. c)Teacher-generated content As a counterpoint to learner-generated content, I have observed in my one-toone courses that in addition to speaking about themselves, learners are also quite interested in knowing about you, the teacher. Davies calls this a rich and often untapped aspect of the teachers repertoire (2002:368).

1.4 Implications for course design a) It follows from 1.2b and 1.2c that one-to-one course design should be careful to avoid reliance on coursebooks or fixed-content syllabuses which leave little room for learner-generated content. Consequently, there would seem to be strong arguments in favour of a negotiated syllabus, (Thornbury, 2006:220) in which content is agreed upon and informed by a more thorough needs analysis than would be expected of individual learners on a group course. b) In accordance with 1.2d, room should be made in the course plan for structured feedback sessions, e.g., analyzing a segment of a previously recorded
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learner talk and getting the learner to notice the gap (Thornbury, 1997: 326) between their interlanguage and the target language. c) As regards 1.2e, it is important for the teacher to have enough readilydeployable resources to prevent the learner from sensing a lack of rhythm or variety. Assessments which test vocabulary from previous classes and questionnaires on topics relevant to the learner are just two ways to engage the learner and sidestep the conversation partner trap mentioned in 1.3b. d) In order to reach their full language-learning potential (1.3b), one-to-one learners need training on how to optimize their language learning experience, both during and between lessons. This means including in the course plan sections on learner training and how to foster autonomy. e) In reference to 1.3c, I find it useful to occasionally introduce teachergenerated content in the form of biographical anecdotes, which adds some variety to content and also helps to enhance the rapport mentioned in 1.3a and 1.2a. f) Finally, as some one-to-one lessons may be postponed or canceled outright (1.2f), the teacher must be prepared to prioritize content and make last-minute adjustments to the course plan.

2.

Needs Analysis (NA) and Diagnostic Tests

2.1 Rationale for NA: Succinctly defined by Dudley-Evans and St. John as establishing the what and the how of a course (1998:121), NA grew alongside the emergence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), in response to the growing number of learners needing to use English for practical reasons. Insofar as one-to-one courses address the learners specific needs, Osborne argues that all one-to-one students are ESP
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students (2005.4). Although today NA is considered an essential starting point for any course, in no setting does it seem more justified than in one-to-one, where content is dictated by the needs of a sole learner. 2.2 Why this learner? Heretofore, my NA for Paco, who I have been teaching one-to-one for five years, has been carried out along the lines described by Songhori (2007:3), i.e., assessing the language points I thought he needed to master as they became apparent. Realizing that this informal approach was a potential pitfall, as Paco was perhaps not benefiting from the advantages of more formal NA, I suggested we conduct some structured interviews to more clearly define his language needs and goals. Paco was enthusiastic about the idea. 2.3 NA commentary For help in conducting my NA, I turned to Wisniewska, who has devised a series of concise instruments (2010:40-45) designed for one-to-one learners; with their emphasis on learner history, desired outcomes, and learning style, respectively, the three questionnaires I have selected (Appendix 3) provide a profile of the learner (Appendix 2a), which has served as the basis for subsequent diagnostic testing. I have administered the questionnaires in interview format, which allowed for a more in-depth exploration of issues (Richards, 2001:61), which can be summarised as follows: a)Basic profile: 55-year-old, Spanish bank manager; BS Economics. b)Motivations: In the terms described by Richards and Schmidt (2002:343), Pacos motivation for learning English has evolved from extrinsic (as a means of furthering his career) to intrinsic (as an intellectual pursuit and personal challenge). Due to a shift in his professional activity, the learner currently has no practical, career-driven reasons for continuing his English instruction, which has resulted in a flourishing of his joy of learning for learnings sake, but has also favoured a status quo in which no clear time frame for learning objectives has been established. c)Learner style: Paco enjoys learning language as it emerges in conversations on topics which interest him, and therefore thrives in content-based learning environments, as evidenced by the many university courses he has attended abroad, making him a decidedly self-driven learner. He is not easily engaged by deductive grammar-rule teaching or explicit focus-on-form lesson formats, preferring what he calls real English, in which the teacher refrains from using display questions or contrived classroom techniques. Data from Instrument 3 (Appendix 3) indicate Paco is equally comfortable with auditory, visual, and kinesthetic styles of learning; however, his preference for learning through concrete experience, along with his broad cultural interests, categorise him as a
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diverger, or concrete/reflective learner, styles.

in Kolbs model (1984) of learning

d)Learner goals: Using the distinction made by Graves (2000:75) between overall goals and intermediary objectives, Pacos broader goal for this course is to reach a level of socio-linguistic competence on a par with native speakers, whereby his interlocutors do not feel obliged to grade their language to make allowances for the foreigner in the room. In other words, Paco wants access to that most coveted of target speech communities (Seedhouse, 1995:61), i.e., that of native speakers using ungraded language amongst themselves. e)Learner training: During our interviews, Paco admitted he was not efficient about his approach to learning vocabulary, as evidenced by the fact that he does not use a notebook. This calls for learner training, particularly as regards recording vocabulary and cultivating good learner habits.

2.4 Diagnostics If their aim is to ascertain what learning still needs to take place (Hughes, 2003:15) in order to achieve stated goals, then diagnostic tests should be designed to identify the areas which are impeding the learner in this regard. To this end, I have devised a three-pronged diagnostic approach to assess Pacos competence in advanced-level social situations: a)Analysis of audio recordings of Pacos lessons, and classification of errors which have emerged during conversation (Appendix 2b) Rationale: identify recurring error patterns; reduce learner stress (no pressure to get the right answer); increase reliability by analyzing broad samples of learner talk. b)Indirect diagnostic speaking test, tests recognition of fixed expressions and adjacency pairs typical of social interaction (Appendix 4a). Rationale: indirect test (tapescriptno audio) allows zooming in on the type of language underlying the speaking construct; contains representative sample of the language of social interaction incorporating, which is precisely what Paco is interested in (2.3d), and therefore has content validity, as defined by Hughes (2003:26-33); identify gaps between passive and active vocabulary via disappearing dialogue technique (Thornbury,2010). c)Diagnostic listening comprehension test (Appendix 4b), using ensemble of scenes from film trailer. Rationale:
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identify problem areas in Pacos comprehension of native-speaker social interaction; high face validity (ibid.), as scenes are from film director whose work Paco has specifically expressed interest in understanding better.

2.5 Priorities Fig.1 (extracted from data: Appendix 2b, entries 1-20)

a)Reduce L1L2 interference: transfer errors (fig. 1) account for well over half of the errors produced by the learner, with strong interference originating from lexis and grammar areas. Enhanced noticing skills may lessen this effect reformulation activities (1.2d). b)Increase idiomaticity: data from fig.1 and Appendix 2b (entries 21-30) show a need for greater collocational competence, e.g., fixed/semi-fixed expressions. c)Improve listening comprehension: data from Appendix 2b (entries 26-30) show gaps in social language lexicon; more exposure needed, e.g., via films, interviews, etc. d)Encourage learner to take greater responsibility for his own learning: more structured recording of vocabulary; less passive approach to film-watching (notetaking and playing back scenes); self-evaluation of progress. e)More accurate pronunciation of key words to avoid negative effect on target listeners, e.g., Appendix 2b-entry 19.

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3. Course Proposal

3.1 Rationale for course planning Course planning makes sense a priori, as it adds direction and purpose to a course, thereby motivating the learner from the get-go. But there is an a posteriori benefit, as well: the process of designing a course contributes to the cultivation of a personal teaching style. Woodward (2001:181) describes this as the result of sifting through all your information, resources, and beliefs and boiling them all down to a distillation. This, in turn, translates into enhanced confidence on the part of the teacher and reduced uncertainty on the part of the learner. 3.2 Learning aims and objectives One-to-one calls for a course plan which, at every stage of its design, caters exclusively to the needs and objectives of the sole learner in question. Taking into account the NA implications (1.4) for Paco, and having identified the priority areas (2.5a-d) which are hindering him from achieving his broader goal of increased mastery of English for social interaction, I have set out to design a course built on three main pillars: a)encouraging better noticing skills (2.5a); b)enhancing autonomy and responsibility (2.5d); c)maximizing learner-generated content (1.2b).

3.3 Content and materials a)Noticing hypothesis postulates that intake, or the integration of knowledge into ones interlanguage, (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:262), occurs more effectively to the extent that the language which a learner hears or receives (ibid.), i.e., input, alerts them to their deficiencies. Working on this assumption, I have made the content of the course rich in authentic materials which exploit the subtleties of advanced social interaction. The selection of these materials will be jointly negotiated (1.4a) based on the learners personal preferences and the teachers recommendations. b)Advanced-level grammar issues: as the learner is not very keen on traditional focus-on-form lesson formats (2.3c), in order to address the issue of higher level L1L2 grammar interference (2.5), I have adapted content from published materials with an emphasis on natural-sounding English (informed by corpus

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research), such as those found in Thornbury (2004) and Gairns & Redman (2003). c)For specific focus on the micro-skills required for speaking at an advanced level, such as dealing with interruption or encouraging a conversation partner to continue speaking, I have borrowed ideas from Nolasco and Arthur (1987).

3.4 Organisation of content Pacos mastery of basic grammatical structures and preference for real communication over teacher talk (2.3c) seemed to invalidate the choice of a structural syllabus for this course. Nor did a functional/notional syllabus seem appropriate, given the learners familiarity with the vast majority of common core exponents of essential language functions. By contrast, I found that the basic tenets of the (a) lexical syllabus (Willis, 1990), with its emphasis on identifying collocational patterns, provided a good foundation for addressing Pacos needs and goals. This type of syllabus allows great flexibility in content and sequencing of lessons (1.4a, 1.4f), and is perfectly compatible with a negotiated syllabus (1.4a). It also allows the learner to take the wheel, with the teacher as navigator, guiding him through those parts of the terrain of social language with which he needs to become more familiar. Parts of my course design are also influenced by Communicative Language Teaching and the (b) communicative syllabus, particularly the concept of breaking down a skill (e.g., speaking-3.3c) into its component micro-skills (Richards, 2006:11). 3.5 Approach to teaching this course a) The diagnostics (Appendix 2b) reveal that Paco has a tendency to create grammatically correct sentences, but with a choice of words that is not typical of native speakers, but as Willis (1990:40) aptly points out, the distinction between the possible and the typical is of the greatest importance. In other words, in order to communicate more effectively, Pacos non-idiomatic uses of the language need to be replaced by more idiomatic ones. Following Richards and Rodgers (1986), a sound teaching approach should have both a theory of language and a theory of language learning. Regarding the latter, given the extensive exposure Paco has had to native speakers of English (see learner history, Appendix 2A), I believe Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, though compelling to a degree, does not account for the fossilisation which has become of feature of Pacos interlanguage. To offset this tendency, I believe extensive reformulation activities (1.2d) are necessary within the framework of priorities established in 2.5. In this regard, my theoretical assumption about learning echo Swains notion of comprehensible output, i.e., that producing the target language may be the trigger that forces the learner to pay attention to the means of expression (1985:249) and thereby convey meaning more successfully.
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b) My own view of language itself is that it is rather like an organism which evolves and adapts to its environment. This coincides with Larsen-Freeman, who views language as not unlike the dynamic, complex, non-linear systems (1997:141) which occur in nature. Applied to the one-to-one course, I feel this view of language helps the teacher to adapt to situations in which, following the metaphor, the language content of a given lesson takes on a life of its own.

3.6 Other considerations and constraints Institutional constraints do not apply to this course, which is on a purely freelance basis. This may place a considerable financial burden on the teacher who does not already have them to acquire the published materials I have recommended (3.3). The teacher (and possible substitute teachers) of this course will ideally conform to the following profile: a)Proficiency in Spanish, which will allow detection of errors arising from negative transfer (2.5b), prevalent in Pacos discourse. Teachers not proficient in Spanish should consult the research on error types for Spanish learners, e.g., Coe (2001). b)Knowledge of the Spanish political system and the current state affairs in Spain, which the learner frequently refers to. c)Appreciation for the classics, as the learner often makes references to Shakespeare, Cervantes, and other authors. d)Teaching style: this course carries with it a component of friendly social interaction with the learner (1.2a, 2.3c), which may involve conversations on a personal/semi-personal level. The course is also to take place in the learners home. For these reasons, teachers who generally prefer to keep an emotional distance between themselves and the learner may not be comfortable in this setting.

4. Assessment
4.1 Principles and rationale for assessment types; constraints and opportunities. a) Informal assessment. Due to the highly personalised nature of the learners needs and objectives, this course does not lend itself to standardised testing or
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formal assessment procedures. Instead, I have applied techniques of informal assessment, which Richards and Schmidt (2002:257) define as the collection of data on the students performance under normal classroom conditions. This assessment scheme has allowed me to create tests which are exclusively designed for the sole learner on the course. b) Direct testing (Appendix 5b). Hughes (2003:17) defines direct tests as those which require learners to perform precisely the skill that we wish to measure. However, if learners are aware they are in a test situation, the test cannot really be authentic (ibid.). I have tried to offset this lack of authenticity inherent in direct tests by broadening the scope of assessment to include analysis of audiorecorded conversations (lessons 3, 4, 9 & 18), which I feel is legitimated by the following: i) it provides a more reliable sample of learner talk to analyse, as the learner is at ease and not trying to pass a test; ii) it provides additional data for the teacher to contrast with other assessments; iii) it serves as a basis for feedback and self-assessment. c) Indirect testing. Corpus research has shed some light on how contemporary native speakers actually speak in real-life situations; patterns which have emerged from this research form the basis for catalogues of high-frequency expressions and collocations, e.g. Natural Grammar (Thornbury, 2004). Sets of lexical items extracted from such resources constitute high-frequency samples of the potentially indefinite large number of manifestations (Hughes, 2003:18) of meanings which underlie the speaking construct. With this justification for the concept of indirect testing, my assessment scheme includes tests of discrete lexical items of practical value due to their high degree of frequency and idiomaticity. These assessments can be said to have content validity, as they contain a representative sample of the language skills, structures, etc., with which (they are) meant to be concerned. (Hughes, 2003:26) d) Self-assessment (Appendix 5a). The ultimate purpose of assessment on this course is to measure to what extent the learner is progressing towards his overall goal of being able to interact in social settings in English on a par with native speakers. It can be argued that there is no better judge of this than the learner himself, for two reasons: 1) unless the teacher is part of the learners social circles, he or she will not be present on the occasions in which the learner is put to the test, and 2) in order for the assessment to be psychologically acceptable to the learner (Thornbury, 2006: 227) , i.e., in order for it to have face validity, it makes sense for the learner to assess his own performance, rather than rely exclusively on the judgment of an outsider. Self-assessment also helps learners to modify their own learning objectives, (Hughes, 2003:5) as they become more aware of the areas they need to work on.
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4.2 Formative assessment and evaluation Formative assessment, which informs both the student and the teacher how well the student is doing, (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:210) goes hand in hand with evaluation, and is introduced at strategic points in my course plan to allow for adapting course content and/or approach. This is manifested by the following points in the course plan: a) Lessons 7, 12 and 17 include an evaluation of activities segment (Appendix 5c), in which learner has the opportunity to rank the different activities in terms of their effectiveness in helping him towards his goal. The results of these evaluations may call for a certain activity type to receive greater or lesser predominance in the course plan, or for the teacher to adapt his or her approach to error correction, for instance. b) In lessons 6 and 13, I have made some target language suggestions, but have also left room for adapting the content as the teacher sees fit. 4.3 Reliability This course includes an element of subjective testing (lessons 3, 4, 9 & 18), defined by Rea-Dickins and Germaine (1992:52) as a type of assessment where marks are awarded on the basis of a teachers overall impression. On account of this impressionistic scoring, there is a widely held assumption that reliability, or the degree to which a test gives consistent results (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:454), is necessarily compromised. However, Hughes (2003:53) offers a different view: It is often said that sufficiently high reliability cannot be obtained when a form of testing requires subjective scoring. This is simply not the case. Encouraged by this validation, I have adapted some basic principles from Hughes (2003:124-6) for making subjectively scored assessments of oral ability more reliable: a) Use a second tester (collaborative marking): ask a colleague to listen to a segment of an audio-recorded lesson and assess the learner with the score sheet (Appendix 5b); the same service can be offered to your colleague, in turn. b) Set appropriate tasks or topics, i.e., ones that incorporate naturally occurring language and would not cause the learner difficulty in their own L1. c) Put the learner at ease: assess in a non-overt way so that it does not appear to the learner that he or she is being tested (4.1b.i); show interest through verbal and non-verbal signs. d) Collect enough relevant information to assess what it is you want to assess. As social interaction is the focus of this course, I have adapted Bygates (1987:34-5)

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categorisation of interactional routines to devise a detailed score sheet of the behaviours used in social interaction (Appendix 5b).

4.4 Evaluation for future use. Due to its flexible design and non-fixed content, this course contains ideas for lessons which are transferrable to learners who, like Paco, seek to acquire native-like discourse strategies in social situations. The summative evaluation questionnaire in the final lesson is designed to provide valuable feedback for any teacher who intends to use these ideas for one-to-one courses with learner profiles similar to Pacos.

5. Conclusion
5.1 Limitations of this course. a) This twenty-hour course can only go so far in providing the learner with the exposure he needs to fulfill his overall goal of being able to interact with nativelike fluency in social situations; the success of this course depends, in large part, on the study time the learner has available between lessons and how effectively he applies the techniques designed to make him more autonomous. b) The issue of cultural differences sometimes impedes otherwise proficient speakers from participating comfortably in social settings within a given target speech community. As Paco has friends and acquaintances from different corners of the English-speaking world, the task of addressing the cultural idiosyncrasies thereof surpasses both my qualifications and the scope of this essay. An objective observer of the course, therefore, may bemoan a lack of focus on cultural/paralinguistic awareness.

5.2 Benefits for the learner. This course offers the learner the opportunity to reap the key benefits associated with one-to-one instruction. Firstly, the course involves much more talking time with the teacher than would be possible in a group setting, both quantitatively (for obvious reasons) and qualitatively, because it admits more natural and spontaneous interaction and builds rapport. This is one of the main reasons why learners choose one-to-one in the first place ( 1.2a, 1.3a), but in Pacos case it takes on added importance due to his stated goals and the courses corresponding focus on social interaction. Secondly, the course is rich in exercises which encourage the learner to work at noticing discrepancies between his current use of the language and the way it is
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used by members of the target speech community, i.e., native speakers. In this sense, the course is faithful to the principles advanced in 1.2d, 1.3b and 1.4b. Thirdly, the course content is not fixed; the course plan is a skeleton, to which flesh is added on the basis of negotiated content reflecting the learners needs and objectives. These, in turn, are continually updated via self-assessment and formative evaluation, allowing the course to re-align itself with the learners evolving needs and to provide the variety of content required to address them. This dimension of the course obeys the principles forwarded in 1.2b-c, 1.2e, 1.4a and 1.4c. And finally, perhaps the courses most enduring potential benefit is that it encourages the learner to become more autonomous (1.4d) by recording vocabulary more effectively, learning reformulation techniques, and adopting a more active approach to film-watching all of which can be incorporated into the learners long-term strategy for improving his English.

Bibliography
Bygate, M. (1987). Speaking. Oxford: OUP. Coe, N. (2001). Speakers of Spanish and Catalan in M. Swan and B. Smith (eds.). Learner English: a teachers guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge: CUP. Davies, A. (2002). Using teacher-generated biography as input material ELT Journal 56/4, 368-379. Dudley-Evans, T. and St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: CUP. Gairns, R. and Redman, S. (2003). Natural English Upper Intermediate Teachers Book. Oxford: OUP. David Lind Teaching One-to-one for Advanced Social Interaction Page 16

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Graves, K. (2000). Designing Language Courses. Boston: Thomson Heinle. Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers: Second Edition. Cambridge: CUP. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/Complexity Science and Second Language Acquisition Applied Linguistics 18/2, 141-165. Murphey, T. (1991). Teaching One to One. New York: Longman. Nolasco, R. and L. Arthur. (1987). Conversation. Oxford: OUP. Osborne, P. (2005). Teaching English One to One. Brighton: Pavilion Publishing Ltd. Rea-Dickins, P. and K.Germaine (1992). Evaluation. Oxford: OUP. Richards, J.C. and T.S. Rodgers. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP. Richards, J.C. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP. Richards, J. C. and R. Schmidt. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Richards, J. C. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: CUP. Songhori, M.H. (2008). Introduction to Needs Analysis. English for Specific Purposes World, 4/2008. Seedhouse, S. (1995). Needs Analysis and the General English Classroom. ELT Journal 49/1, 59-65 Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development in S. Gass and C. Madden (eds.). Input in SLA. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Thornbury, S. (1997). Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote noticing. ELT Journal 51/4, 326-335. Thornbury, S. (2004). Natural Grammar. Oxford: OUP. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Thornbury, S. (2010). An A-Z of ELT: Scott Thornburys blog. Retrieved 21 October, 2011 from: http://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2010/12/05/r-is-for-repetition/ Trench, J. (1993). Review: Teaching One to One ELT Journal 47/1, 87-89. Wilberg, P. (1987). One to One: A Teachers Handbook. London: Language Teaching Publications. Willis, D. (1990). The Lexical Syllabus: A New Approach to Language Teaching. London: Collins CoBUILD. David Lind Teaching One-to-one for Advanced Social Interaction Page 17

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Wisniewska, I. (2010). Learning One-to-One. Cambridge. CUP. Woodward, T. (2001). Planning Lessons and Courses. Cambridge. CUP.

Appendix 1: Course Plan


Duration/location: 20 hours, weekly one-hour lessons; in learners place of residence in Madrid, Spain. References to concepts and objectives mentioned in this essay: in red (one-to-one, in general); in blue (specific to learner); in purple (course proposal ideas); in green (assessment concepts). indicates links to other lessons. Some concepts from the essay inform the overall David Lind Teaching One-to-one for Advanced Social Interaction Page 18

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course (1.2a, 1.2c, 1.2e, 1.2f, 1.3a, 1.3b 3.6b-d), and are therefore not specifically referenced in particular lessons; Published materials used in bold (complete list following the course plan). Assessment (in green) monthly (every 4 lessons), after audio-recorded lessons, and in final lesson.
Lesson No. Language Area Focus/Content Skills/Aims

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Needs Analysis Interviews: Learner history; learner objectives; learner style. 2.1 Diagnostic Tests based on NA (see Appendices 2b, 4) 2.4b, 2.4c Selection of authentic materials: Joint negotiation of the type of authentic materials to be used on the course (films, interviews, etc.) 1.4a, 3.3a Film scene 1: reconstruction exercise in the form of disappearing dialogue from the script of a film previously selected by the learner; subsequent viewing of the film scene to reinforce noticing. Post-listening conversation with learner (audio-recorded), discussing opinions/impressions of the content of the film scene (recording to be used for feedback session lesson 5). HW: watch rest of film lesson 8. 1.2d, 2.5a, 2.5b, 2.5c, 3.2a, 3.2c, 3.3a, 4.1b.i Multi-word verbs in social interaction/Learner training: Recording vocabulary categorizing multi-word verbs (intransitive, separable and inseparable). Have learner start a chart in notebook in which to record multi-word verbs as they emerge during and outside of lessons. Watch interview with a celebrity in which various phrasal verbs are used; learner records them accordingly. HW: record multi-word verbs encountered out-of-class and make a note of contexts in which they are used (ongoing assignment to be done throughout the course lesson 14) Audio record conversation with learner, discussing impressions of the celebrity interview (recording to be used for feedback session lesson 5). 1.2b, 1.4d, 2.3e, 2.5d, 3.2b, 3.2c, 3.3b, 3.4a, 4.1b.i Idea taken from Natural English Upper Intermediate Teachers Book (Gairns and Redman, 2003), p. 136, Wordbooster Feedback from audio recordings of previous lessons: Playback segments of recording and get learner to identify areas in his language which contain grammatical inaccuracies and/or lack idiomaticity; help learner to reformulate nonidiomatic language to form more natural sounding utterances. Compare learners self-assessment with yours and second testers, using score sheets (Appendices 5a-b). 1.2d, 1.4b 2.5a, 2.5b. 2.5d, 3.2a, 3.2b, 3.5a, 4.1a, 4.1b, 4.3a-d

Awareness of broader goals and needs. Identify weak areas; notice gap betw. passive and active vocabulary; personalise content Notice gap between learners interlanguage and native-speaker talk

Vocab retention; noticing; learner autonomy; personalise content.

Enhance noticing skills; reverse fossilisation process; recycle vocabulary; maximize reliability of assessment.

David Lind

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December 2011 Increase learners repertoire of fixed and semi-fixed expressions and enhance idiomaticity.

De-lexicalised verbs in context: Disappearing dialogue activity, using expressions featuring de-lexicalised verbs get, give, and go (or other lexical items which the teacher finds appropriate-Appendix 5e); requires learner to reconstruct a dialogue which he has read previously, using cues provided by the teacher. Criteria for selection of expressions: high degree of frequency based on corpus research, and usefulness in social interaction. HW 1: worksheet gap-fill with expressions covered in todays lesson HW 2: revise lesson notes to prepare for assessment 1 lesson 7. 1.2, 2.5b, 3.3b, 3.4a, 4.2b Natural Grammar (Thornbury, 2004), p.42-47 Correct HW 1 lesson 6. Formative assessments block 1: lessons 3,4,5,6. a) Ask 10 hypothetical questions which encourage the learner to produce specific language items covered in lessons 3-6 b) Learner completes 10-question gap-fill on lexical items from lessons 3-6. c) Learner evaluation of activities (Appendix 5c). 1.4c, 2.5d, 3.2b, 4.1a, 4.1c, 4.1d, 4.2a Speaking micro-skills 1: interrupting and dealing with interruptions. Target language for the lesson will include stock phrases used in social English for interrupting (e.g. Can I just interrupt a second), and also for continuing the flow of conversation after an interruption (e.g., As I was saying); see first in context (below), and then try to use them in a conversation with the teacher; listen to two film critics (on the Internet) debating their opinions on film previously seen by learner ( lesson 3); observe how they interrupt each other and how they deal with interruption. HW 1: Watch another talk show/debate of learners choice on Internet and notice language used for interrupting and continuing a discussion. HW 2: Think of a personal anecdote (3-5 min. in length) to share with the teacher, perhaps something embarrassing or unusual which happened to you. lesson 9 1.3b, 2.5b, 3.2a, 3.2c, 3.3c, 3.4b Conversation (Nolasco and Arthur, 1987), p.56-7 Telling anecdotes: Teacher tells learner personal anecdote (perhaps something embarrassing which happened recently), and learner is encouraged to use language of interruption ( lesson 8) while teacher tells story. Learner then tells his anecdote (which he has prepared in advance for HW), and will have to deal with teachers interruptions by using the appropriate language lesson 8. (Audio-record this lesson for feedback session). 1.3c, 1.4e, 2.5b, 3.2a, 3.2c, 3.3c, 3.4b, 4.1b.i Feedback from audio recordings of previous lesson: Playback segments of recording and get learner to identify

Test learners retention of language items from previous lessons; encourage learner to reflect on his own progress. Gain idiomaticity and confidence in social situations by increasing repertoire of chunks.

Create opportunity for using real English and for recycling vocabulary.

Enhance noticing skills; reverse

David Lind

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December 2011 fossilisation process; recycle vocabulary; maximize reliability of assessment.

areas in his language which contain grammatical inaccuracies and/or lack idiomaticity; help learner to reformulate nonidiomatic language into more natural sounding utterances, and record appropriately in notepad. Compare learners selfassessment with yours and second testers, using score sheets (Appendices 5a-b). 1.2d, 1.4b 2.5a, 2.5b. 2.5d, 3.2a, 3.2b, 3.5a, 4.1a, 4.1b, 4.3a-d Pronunciation Using previously prepared list of words which cause problems for Spanish learners (including specific problem words in Pacos case, e.g., variety), elicit these words in conversation and correct for pronunciation; have learner record himself saying these words, together with correct teachers model, for later study ; make learner aware of phonemic transcription and its usefulness for ascertaining proper pronunciation via use of dictionaries; provide examples of variations in pronunciation across different native speaker accents. HW: practice the pronunciation of words on learners problem list 1.4d, 2.5d, 2.5e, 3.2b, 3.6a Formative assessment block 2: lessons 3-11 a) Ask 10 hypothetical questions which encourage the learner to produce specific language items covered in lessons 8-11 b) Learner completes 10-question gap-fill on lexical items from lessons 8-11. c) Learner reads extract containing 5 problematic words (lesson 11) as they appear in context. d) Learner evaluation of activities (Appendix.5c). 1.4c, 2.5d, 2.5e, 3.2b, 4.1a, 4.1c, 4.1d, 4.2a Back translation of dialogue using expressions featuring de-lexicalised verbs stop, take, and tell (or other lexical items which the teacher finds appropriate); requires learner to translate first from English to his native Spanish, and then back to English again. Criteria for selection of expressions: high degree of frequency based on corpus research, and usefulness in social interaction; learner chooses five of the expressions he learned today which he finds most useful and shares his impressions with the teacher. HW 1: write 5 sentences about yourself with the most useful expressions selected above four true, one false. Teacher does the same. HW 2: do one or two back translations with short texts of your choice 1.2d, 1.4d, 2.5a, 2.5b, 3.3b, 4.2b Natural Grammar (Thornbury, 2004), p.140-145 1. Conversation activity based around sentences from HW 1 lesson 13, and incorporating speaking micro-skills lesson 8 2. Learner chooses five multi-word verbs from list-in-progress lesson 4 which he finds the most useful for social

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Increase learners awareness of his pronunciation problems and their origin. Ultimate aim is to lessen negative effect on target community listeners.

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Test learners retention of language items from previous lessons; encourage learner to reflect on his own progress. Enhance noticing skills; increase learners repertoire of fixed and semi-fixed expressions and enhance idiomaticity.

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Increase awareness of conversation strategies and boost confidence

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December 2011 in social situations Gain idiomaticity and confidence in social situations.

interaction. Discuss reasons for choices with the teacher. 1.2a, 1.4d, 2.5d, 3.2b, 3.4a

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Speaking micro-skills 2: expressing opinions and degrees of interest. Have learner read the questions asked by a street reporter on various social issues to elicit opinion; compare learners responses with sample native speaker response (Appendix 5f); ask learner to comment on native speakers responses form a language point of view (and take notes on useful language). HW: Decide on a topic you feel strongly about and prepare some arguments on the topic for debate lesson 16 1.3b, 1.4a, 2.5b, 3.2a, 3.2c, 3.3c, 3.4b Natural English Upper Intermediate (Gairns and Redman, 2003), Teachers Book p.68 & students Listening Booklet p.22 Debate on social issue: incorporating speaking micro-skills lessons 8&15 and multi-word verbs useful for social interaction lesson 14 and expressions incorporating delexicalised verbs lessons 6 & 13, learner and teacher engage in debate on issue previously selected and prepared by learner. Teacher will play devils advocate if necessary. HW: Prepare another debate topic and revise lesson notes lesson 17 1.2b, 1.4a, 2.5b, 3.2c Formative assessment block 3: lessons 3-16 a) Short back translation of text similar to one previously used lesson 13 b) Debate incorporating new language and micro-skills learned throughout the course. lessons 3-16 c) Learner evaluation of activities (Appendix 5c). 1.4c, 2.5d, 3.2b, 3.3b, 3.3c, 4.1a, 4.1c, 4.1d, 4.2a Film scene 2: reconstruction exercise in the form of disappearing dialogue from the script of a film previously selected by the learner; subsequent viewing of the film scene to reinforce noticing; discuss how difficult this scene was to follow, compared with film scene 1 lesson 3 Post-listening conversation with learner (audio-recorded), discussing opinions/impressions of the content of the film scene (recording to be used for feedback session lesson 19). HW: watch rest of film. 1.2d, 2.5a, 2.5b, 2.5c, 3.2a, 3.2c, 3.3a, 4.1b.i Feedback from audio recordings of previous lessons: Playback segments of recording and get learner to identify areas in his language which contain grammatical inaccuracies and/or lack idiomaticity; help learner to reformulate nonidiomatic language to form more natural sounding utterances. Compare learners self-assessment with yours and second testers, using score sheets (Appendices 5a-b). 1.2d, 1.4b 2.5a, 2.5b. 2.5d, 3.2a, 3.2b, 3.5a, 4.1a, 4.1b, 4.3a-d

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Integrate lexis and skills covered in previous lessons; provide opportunity for practicing real English with personalised content. Test learners retention of language items from previous lessons; encourage learner to reflect on his own progress. Notice gap between learners interlanguage and native-speaker talk

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Enhance noticing skills; reverse fossilisation process; recycle vocabulary; maximize reliability of assessment.

David Lind

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Delta Module 3

December 2011 Encourage learner to assess his own progress and evaluate effectiveness of course; end on a friendly note.

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Summative Assessment and Learner Feedback: a) Extensive self-assessment and course evaluation interview, including discussion of whether learner feels more confident and proficient in social situations with his native speaker friends and acquaintances than in the beginning of course (with concrete examples of this), and the extent to which the learner feels the course has helped him achieve this goal. (Appendix 5d). b) Informal, friendly chat on learners plans for the future and how he will continue to improve and his English on his own and keep up to date with the constantly evolving language. 1.4c, 1.4d, 2.5d, 3.2b, 3.5b 3.6d, 4.1a, 4.1d, 4.1d, 4.2a

Published materials used in course plan:


Gairns, R. and Redman, S. (2003) Natural English Upper Intermediate Teachers Book. Oxford: OUP. Nolasco, R. and L. Arthur. (1987). Conversation. Oxford: OUP. Thornbury, S. (2004). Natural Grammar. Oxford: OUP.

Appendix 2a: Needs analysis summary


These notes were taken from audio recordings of questionnaire-based interviews (see Appendix 3 for instruments used): 1. Learning history and motivations:

(1988) Realizing it would be a professional asset for him, Paco attends a one-month beginners immersion course in Ireland at the age of 30. (1989) Paco returns to Ireland with same host family, takes unpaid leave from job and stays 10 months. Passes FCE. (1990-91) Returns to Spain; sets up export company with Irish partner; makes regular trips to Ireland and conducts business in English. (1992-2004) Business venture runs its course, Paco lands job in well-known Spanish bank (still employed there today); makes annual trips to Ireland to visit his host family. Does not use English at work except to keep abreast of financial news. (2005) Paco relieved of more onerous duties at bank, has more time for intellectual pursuits, e.g., reading poetry/plays/history books in English; Paco and I become

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acquainted, and begin informal one-hour, weekly conversation classes to discuss literature, history, politics or whatever topics emerge in the course of conversation.

(2006-present) At my urging, Paco attends first of several summer courses in universities in the UK and USA on various subjects within domain of literature and social sciences.

2. Current motivations and language goals:

Paco currently uses English 5-7 hours a week outside class; approximately an hour of this time is employed for workrelated reasons (reading financial press), and the rest for personal reasons (communicating with English-speaking friends via Skype or email, watching films, and reading for pleasure). Every summer he attends a two-week university course abroad - Paco understands the lectures he attends, as long as he is familiar with the subject. What he would like to do better is participate in conversations with native speakers without forcing a grading of the language.

3. Learner style:

Highly autonomous learner who prefers to employ class time for practicing what he calls real English. Enjoys a content-based approach (a preference cultivated after attending many university courses in English). Prefers the teacher to use ungraded language and not dwell on language points during the lesson. Recognizes the value of correction, but prefers not to be interrupted at midsentence. Enjoys short feedback sessions on errors, but admits is not efficient about keeping notes (does not use notebook). Data gathered from Instrument no. 3 reveal a balance of kinesthetic, visual and auditory learner styles, without a clear preference for any of the three.

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Appendix 2b: Diagnostic Test Results:


Below is an analysis of a selection of errors which are representative of the type committed by the learner; In the interest of simplicity, I have divided the errors from lesson audio recordings into four broad categories: negative transfer, collocation, grammar, pronunciation. Due to overlap, some errors fall simultaneously under two categories, indicated by a forward slash, e.g., grammar/transfer. The diagnostic source of the errors is as follows: errors 1-20, audio recordings of lesson (see also fig. 1, section 2.5); errors 2115, indirect speaking test (Appendix 4a); errors 26-30, listening comprehension test (Appendix 4b). Entries 1-20: learner utterances from audio recordings of lessons (errors are underlined) 1. She died of an stroke. David Lind Error analysis:

Transfer/Pronunciation error: Spanish learners

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tend to add epenthetic /e/ before consonant clusters /st/, /sp/, /sk/, causing incorrect intrusion of /n/ in the preceding indefinite article.

2. This must be you who makes that evaluation.

Grammar error (modality): the message is obscured by misuse of modal verb must, which after demonstrative pronouns denotes probability (extrinsic modality), e.g., That must be the postman. Correct reformulation of the learners intended meaning: You must be the one to make that evaluation (not me). Transfer/collocation error: short does not collocate well with vocabulary. Learner is thinking of his native Spanish, in which the word for short can be used to express a limited vocabulary.

3. At the time I had a very short vocabulary.

4. Theres not another way

Collocation error: learner is unfamiliar (on a productive level) with the use of determiner no for emphasis: Theres no other way, which collocates better than the learners utterance- Theres not another way, which is grammatically possible, but lacking in idiomaticity. Transfer/grammar error: In Spanish, the equivalent of since can also be used to delimit the starting point of a completed period of time which does not necessarily lead up to the present time (for which the word from would be used in English). Transfer/grammar error: Spanish is more flexible than English with the position of the subject, which is often placed after the verb. In English, this occurs only for dramatic effect, e.g., Down came the Fairy Godmother. Spanish learners also tend to insert a duplicate subject in the form of the impersonal it. Pronunciation error: Articulating the palatoalveolar, approximant /r/ can be difficult for Spanish learners, particularly when it appears in the middle position and before a triphthong, as it does in the word variety /vra ti:/. Error analysis: Transfer/grammar error: The binary connective neither/nor is expressed in Spanish by repeating the coordinating conjunction.

5. I was visiting my host family every summer since 1988 to 2005.

6. Then it came the idea, out of the blue.

7. variety /vaja:rT/

Learners utterances: (error underlined) 8. neither one thing neither the other

9. This only fact means that David Lind

Collocation error: The word only is seldom used as a predicative adjective (exception: an only child), and Teaching One-to-one for Advanced Social Interaction Page 26

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therefore only fact does not collocate well. Learner was trying to say This fact alone

10.Must happen to you as well. 11.A couple not - several times!

Transfer/grammar error: Omission of impersonal pronoun it, resulting from negative transfer (subject pronouns in Spanish are typically omitted). Transfer/grammar error: Syntax error caused by negative transfer (in Spanish, determiners for negation are usually placed after the noun); correct word order: not a couple Transfer error (vocabulary): In Spanish, the meanings of the verbs deduce and deduct are expressed by a single verb, deducir.

12.You have to deduce it from your salary

13.The service is given previous payment. 14.Must have some reason.

Transfer error (vocabulary): The meaning the learner was intending to express is upon payment (in Spanish, previo pago). Transfer/grammar error: The learners intended meaning is There must be some reason. Advanced Spanish learners who in other contexts would correctly use the dummy referential subject there, sometimes omit it when followed by a modal verb, and incorrectly replace be with have, due to interference of the Spanish haber, which is the infinitive form of the there is/there are construction. Transfer/grammar error: Word order and adjective form (southern half) are incorrect, due to interference from Spanish. Transfer/grammar error: In Spanish, the latter half of the binary connective for comparisons does not change as it does in English, e.g. more.than vs. so as ), causing many Spanish learners to overgeneralise and use than when they should use as. Collocation error: The learners intended meaning is the opinions of others (plural). His original utterance is grammatically sound, but the meaning is obscured by the unlikely collocation of the others opinions, which the learner pronounces more like the others (singular) opinions, which was not his intended meaning. Grammar error: Learner is applying the form used to express past habits and states, used to + base form, instead of the used to + ing form needed here (a case of intralingual interference) Pronunciation error: Learners pronunciation sounds like the sea mammal porpoise; possible

15.In the half south of France.

16.I wasnt so shocked by the French than by the English culture.

17.The others opinions dont concern me

18.Were used to use the same tools.

19.for a good purpose /p ps/ David Lind

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negative effect on the listener. 20.Its possible to pick a language by living in a country. Entries 21-25 (indirect speaking test, Appendix 4a); original text in brackets: 21.When we first met, I didnt like you at all. (that much) 22.Youre as hard as a nail (as nails) 23.Whats the statute of apologies? (statute of limitations on apologies) 24.I can do it under the wire. (just get it in) Transfer error (vocabulary): In Spanish the meanings pick (fruit) and pick up (a language) are expressed using the same verb and without a particle (multiword verbs are rare in Spanish). Error analysis: learners attempts at reconstruction

Learner does not distinguish the degree of intensity between not like at all and not like that much. Fixed expression, hard as nails; learners reconstruction grammatically sound, but nonidiomatic Metaphor from legal jargon, often used figuratively in American English. Learner was unfamiliar with the expression. Learner is unfamiliar with use of the verb get in the multi-word expression get + object + in (perform a certain action before a time period expires), the action in this case being the apology referred to in the previous utterance (13); the learners reconstruction, do it, omitting the emphatic just may not have the desired communicative effect on the listener.
Learner was unfamiliar with the meanings of the multi-word verb write + object + off and the compound noun character flaw, and was therefore unable to make any attempt at reconstruction. write off (v.t.) - concede the loss or worthlessness of something or somebody (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/write+off)

25.You had to put it in that way. (write it off as a character flaw)

Entries 26-30: listening comprehension test, Appendix 4a; learner answers followed by original text in brackets: 26.He walked out (He walked out on me) 27.He gave up writing (He was a washed- up writer) 28.A deceived lover (a deceased lover)

Error analysis:

Learner uses a truncated form of the multi-word verb walk + out + on + personal object, which in this context obscures its meaning. Learner was unfamiliar with the figurative use of to be washed up (like a beached whale), i.e., to be finished, professionally Gap in learners vocabulary: unfamiliar with the word deceased

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29.Chauffeur wasnt his main skill (He wasnt much of a chauffeur) 30.Dont look him up (Dont rule him out)

Learner unfamiliar with structure not much of a, meaning not very good at being a Learner did not know the meaning of rule (a person) out, as applied to possible candidates for something.

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