Types of Sensors

The major classification of sensors according to the principle of working is as follows: 1. Thermistors 2. Thermocouples 3. Inductive sensors 4. Hall effect sensors 5. Strain gauges 6. Variable capacitance sensors 7. Variable resistance sensors 8. Accelerometer (Knock sensor) 9. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 10. Hot-wire air flow sensors 11. Vortex flow sensors 12. Pitot tube 13. Turbine fluid flow sensors 14. Optical sensors 15. Oxigen sensors 16. Rain sensors

Thermistors
Thermistors are the most common device used for temperature measurement on motor vehcile. The principle of measurement is that a change in temperature will cause a change in resistance of the thermistor, and hence an electrical signal proportional to the measured can be obtained. Most thermistors in common use are of the negative temperature coefficient (NTC) type. Typical values for those used in motor vehicle will vary from several kilohms at 0 0C to a few hundred ohms at 1000C. The large change in resistance for a small change in temperature make the thermistor ideal for most vehicle's use. It can also be easily tested with simple equipment.

Thermistors are constructed of semiconductor materials such as Cobalt or Nickel Oxides. The change in resistance with a change in temperature is due to the electrons being able to break free from the covalent bonds more easily at higher temperatures. Note the supply must be constant and the current flowing must not significantly heat the thermistor. These could both be sources of error. Temperaure of a typical thermistor will increase by 10C for each 1.3mW of power dissipated. Resistance against temperature and varying voltage signal preportional to temperature is shown below

The resistance Rt of a thermistor decreases non-linearly with temperature according to the realationship:

Rt=Ae(B/T)
Where Rt = Resistance of the thermistor, T = Absolute temperature B = Characteristic temperature of the thermistor (Typical value 3000K) A = Constant of thermistor

Thermocouples
If two different metal are joined together at two junctions, the thermoelectric effect anown as the Seebeck effect takes place. If one junction is at a higher temperature than the other junction, then this will be registered on the meter. This is the basis for the sensor known as the thermocouple.

Figure shows the thermocouple principle and appropriate circuits. Notice that the thermocouple measures a difference in temperature that is T 1-T2. To make the system more practical, T1 must be kept at a known temperature. Lower figure shows cold junction compensation of temperatue T1 using a thermistor circuit. Thermocouples are in general used for measuring high temperatures. A type B thermocouple has a useful range of 0-1500 0 C. Vehicle applications are in areas such as exhaust gas and turbo charger temperature measurement.

Inductive sensors
Inductive-type sensors are used mostly for measuring speed and position of a rotating component. They work on the very basic principle of electrical induction(a charging magnetic flux will induce an electromotive force in a winding). A typical device used as a crankshaft speed and position sensor.

The output voltage of most inductive type sensors approximates to a sine wave. The amplitude of this signal depends on the rate of change of flux. This is determined mostly by the original design: the no: of turns, magnet strength and the gap between the sensor and the rotating component. Once in use though, the output voltage increases with the speed of rotation. The most common way of converting the output of an inductive sensor is to pass it through a Schmitt trigger circuit or a quench oscillator. This produces constant amplitude but a vairable frequency square wave.

Hall effect sensors

Hall Effect Sensors are sometimes referred to as switches rather than sensors because of the on-off digital voltage signal they produce. Unlike magnetic sensors that produce an alternating current (AC) signal which varies in voltage with speed, Hall Effect Sensors produce a constant voltage signal that can change abruptly from maximum voltage to nearly zero and back again regardless of engine speed. This produces a square wave output signal that can be easily used by the onboard computer for timing purposes. Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that varies with current, and a Hall sensor can be used to measure the current without interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is integrated with a wound core or permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.

Hall effect sensors are becoming increasingly popular. This is partly due to their reliabiity but also the fact that they directly produce a constant amplitude square wave in speed measurement applications and a varying DC voltage for either position sensing or current sensing.

Strain gauges
Strain gauges also works by converting its change in resistance into a voltage signal but the way it changes its resistance is different. Simply, when a strain gauge is streched its resistance will increase, and when it is compressed its resistance decreased. Most strain gauges consist of a thin layer of film that is fixed to a flexible backing sheet, usually paper. This inturn is bonded to the part where strain is to be measured. The sensitivity of a strain gauge is defined by its gauge factor.

K = (R/R)/E
where K = gauge factor R = change in resistance R = Original resistance E = Strain (change in length / original length)

Most resistance strain gauges have a resistance of about 100 and a gauge factor of about 2. Strain gauges are often used indirectly to measure engine mainfold pressure. When changes in mainfold pressure act on the diaphragm the gauges detect the stain. The actual size of this sensor may be only a few millimeters in diameter. Changes in temperature are compensated for, as all gauges would be affected in a similar way, thus the bridge balance would remain constant.

Vairable capacitance
The value of a capacitor is determined by the surface area of its plates, the distance between the plates and the nature of the dielectric. Sensors can be constructed to take advantage of these properties. There are three kinds of variable capacitance sensors: 1. Liquid level sensor:- changes in liquid level changes dielectric value. 2. Pressure sensor:- Distance between capacitor plates changes. 3. Position sensor:- Detects changes in area of plates.

Variable resistance sensors

Two best examples of vehicle application for variable resistance sensors are the throttle postion sensor and the flap-type air flow sensor. Variable capacitance sensors are used to measure small changes; but variable resistance sensors are used to measure larger changes in position. Throttle position sensor is a potentiometer in which, when supplied with a stable voltage (often 5V) the voltage from the wiper contact will be preportional to the throttle position. The throttle potentiometer is used to indicatethe rate of change of throttle position. This information is used whten implementing acceleration enrichment or, inversely, over-run fuel cut-off. Output voltage of rotary potentiometer can be calculated by: Vo = Vs (ai / at ) Where, Vo = Voltage out Vs = Voltage supply ai = angle moved at = total angle possible.

Accelerometer (Knock sensors)

A piezoelectric accelerometer is a seismic mass accelerometer using a peizoelectric crystal to convert the force on the mass due to acceleration into an electrical output signal. A typical accelerometer (or knock sensor) for vehicle use. The crystal is sandwiched between the body of the sensor and the seismic mass and is kept under compression by the bolt. Acceleration forces acting on the seismic mass cause variations in the amount of crystal compression and hence generate the piezoelectric voltage.

The natuaral or resonant frequency of a spring mass system is given by: f = (1/2)[(k/m)] Where, f = Resonant frequency k = Spring constant (very high in this case) m = Mass of the seismic mass (very low in this case) When used as an engine knock sensor, the sensor will also detect other engine vibrations. These are kept to a minimum by only looking for knock a few degrees before and after top dead centre(TDC).

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

This sensor is used for measuring displacement in a straight line (hence linear). Devices are available to measure distances of less than 0.5mm and over 0.5m, either side of a central position. The device has primary winding and two secondary windings. The primary winding is supplied with an AC voltage and AC voltages are induced in the secondary windings by transformer action. The secondary windings are connected in series opposition so that the output of the device is the difference between their outputs. When the ferromagnetic armature is in the central position the output is zero. As the armature now moves one way or the other, the output is increased in one winding and decreased in the other, producing a voltage which, within the working range, is proportional to the displacement.

For a device moving 12mm gives a sensitivity of 0.42V/mm. LVDTs are used in some manifold pressure sensors where a diaphragm transforms changes in pressure to linear movement.

Hot wire air flow sensor

The distinct advantage of a hot wire air flow sensor is that it measures air mass flow. The basic principle is that, as the air passes over a hot wire it tries to cool teh wire down. If a circuit is created such as to increase the current through the wire in order to keep the temperature constant, then this current will be preportional to the air flow.

A resistor is also incorporated to compensate for temperature variations. The 'hot wire' is made of platinum, is only a few millimetres long and about 70 m thick. Because of its small size the temie constant of the sensor is very short in fact in the order of a few milliseconds. This is a great advantage as any pulsations of the air flow will be detected and reacted to in a control unit accordingly. The resistance of a hot wire and the precition resistor are such that the current to heat the wire varies between 0.5A adn 1.2A with different air mass flow rates. The temperature compensating resistor has a resistance about 500 which must remain constant other than by way of temperature change. The compensation resistor can cause the system to react within 3 seconds. The output of this device can change if the hot wire becomes dirty, so everytime the engine switched off, the hot wire is heated to a very high temperature for 1sec. To burn off any contamination.

Thin film air flow sensor The thin film air flow sensor is similar to the hot wire system. Instead of a hot platinum wire a thin film of Nickel is used. The response time of this sysem is even shorter than hot wire.

Vortex flow sensor

This sensor has a bluff body, which partially obstructs the flow. Vortices form at the downstream edges of the bluff body at a frequency that is linearly depedent on the flow velocity. Detection of the vortices provides an output signal whose frequency is proportional to flow velocity. Detection of the vortices can be done by an ultrasonic transmitter and receier that will produce a proportional square wave output.

The main advantage of this device is the lack of any moving parts, thus eliminating problems with wear. For a vortices flow sensor to work properly, the flow must be great enough to be turbulent, but not so high as to cause bubbles when measuring fluid flow. As a rough guide, flow velocity should be less than 50 m/s.

Pitot tube A pitot tube air flow sensor is a very simple device. It consists of a small tube open to the air flow such that the impact of the air will cause an increase in pressure in the tube compared with the pressure outside the tube. This same system is applied to aircraft to sense air speed when in flight.

P1 and P2 are known as the impact and static pressures, respectively.

Turbine fluid flow sensor Using a turbine to measure fluid flow is an invasive form of measurement. The act of placing a device in the fluid will affect the flow rate.

The output of the turbine, rotational speed proportional to flow rate, can be converted to an electrical signal in a number of ways.

Optical sensor The optical rotation sensor and circuit consist of a photo-transister as a detector and a light emitting diode light source. If the light is focused to a very narrow beam then the output of the circuit shown will be a square wave with frequency proportional to speed.

Oxigen sensors
The vehcile application for an oxygen sensor is to provide a closed loop feedback system for engine management control of the air-fuel ratio. The amount of oxygen sensed in the exhaust is directly related to the mixture strength, or air-fuel ratio. The ideal air-fuel ratio of 14.7:1 by mass is known as a lambda () value of one. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensors are placed in the exhaust pipe near to the manifold to ensure adequate heating. The sensors operate reliably at temperatures over 300 0 C.

The main active component of most types of oxygen sensors is zirconium doixide (ZnO 2). This ceramic is housed in gas permeable electrodes of platinum. A further ceramic coating is applied to the side of the sensor exposed to the exhaust gas as a protection against residue from the combustion process. At temperature in excess of 300 0 C, the zirconium dioxide will conduct the oxygen ions. The sensor is designed to be responsive very close to a lambda value of one. As one electrode of the the sensor is open to a reference value of atmospheric air, a greater quantity of oxygen ions will be present on this side. Due to electrolytic action these ions permeate the electrode and migrate through the electrolyte (ZnO 2). This charge builds up a charge rather like a battery. The size of charge is dependent on the oxygen percentage in the exhaust. A voltage of 400mV is the normal figure produced at a lambda value of one. Using lambda sensor allows very accurate control of engine fueling and results close control of emissions.

Light sensors

A circuit can be configured to switch on or off in response to an increase ot decrease in light. Applications are possible for self-dipping headlights, a self-dipping interior mirror, or parking lights that will automatically switch on at dusk. Thick-film air temperature sensor The advantage which makes a Nickel thick film termistor ideal for inlet air temperature sensing is its very short time constant. In other words its resistance varies very quickly with a change in air temperature.

The response of a thick film sensor is almost linear. It has a sensitivity of about 2 / 0C and as with most metals, it has a positive temperature co-effecient (PTC) characteristic.

Rain sensor Rain sensors are used to switch on wipers automatically. Most work on the principle of reflected light. The device is fitted inside the windscreen and light from an LED is reflected back from the outer surface of the glass. The amount of light reflected changes if the screen is wet, even with a few drops of rain. Dynamic vehicle position sensors These sensors are used for systems such as active suspension, stability control and general systems where the movement of th vehicle is involved. Most involve basic principle of an accelerometer.