COMBUSTION OF BIOMASS chemical reaction between fuel and oxidizer involving significant release of energy as heat.

Biomass Power Potential (MW)-2000 Source Potential (MW) From surplus Biomass 16000 From bagasse based 3500 co-generation in the existing sugar mills Total 19500 Ref: MNES Annual Report, 1999

Source

Biogas plants Improved wood Stoves Biomass power 1700 MW and gasifiers Biomass based cogeneration 3500 MW

Approximate Status Potential (as on 31 MARCH 1998) 12 million 2.71 million 120 million 28.49 million 29.5 MW 84 MW

Whether the use of biomass is to be made by direct combustion or by including other conversion processes is decided by considering the fuel moisture content, density, thermal value and the physical form of the material particularly as related to its mechanical handling. PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION:
[FUEL OXYGEN TEMPERATURE PRODUCT REMOVAL- HEAT TRANSFER]

COMPARISON OF COAL AND WOOD AS FUEL FOR COMBUSTION: Coal Wood 1. Solid fuel, high ash content, Solid fuel, less ash, more volatile content, reactive, used for Raising HP steam, can be used for Raising HP steam, power power production with Rankine production with Rankine cycle cycle 2. Gas Turbine cycles, More difficult Brayton cycle 3. Can be used for producing Can be used for producing process steam for direct process steam for direct heating heating 4. Large scale availability Assured availability is only on small scale-near mines and ports assured Variable 5. Technology for handling, Large scale processing. storage and energy storage and Processing well conversion technology not established in India established 6. Sulfur content and ash content Moisture content, low bulk density, are problems Location specific availability are problems

Combustion is a chemical process involving oxidation of reduced forms of carbon and hydrogen by free radical processes. Chemical properties of the biomass fuels determine the higher heating value of the fuel and the pathways of combustion. Biomass fuel enters a combustor in a wet (50% moist), dirty, light in weight, heterogeneous in particle size, and quite reactive condition. Moisture content lowers the combustion efficiency and affects the economics of the fuel utilization. Biomass fuels are highly reactive, volatile, oxygenated fuels of moderate heating value. (See Table 1.) Changes during the process of combustion are due to the effect of heating and decomposition as the exothermic oxidation proceeds. Drying, pyrolysis of solid particle, release of volatiles and formation of char are followed by pre-combustion gas phase reactions and char oxidation reactions. PROXIMATE & ULTIMATE ANALYSIS AND HHV: For expressing the complete composition of any solid fuel, besides the organic composition, proximate analysis and ultimate or elemental analysis are used. Typical values of chemical composition of some biomass are shown in Table 1. Table 2. shows average composition, ultimate analysis and bulk density of hardwood. Table 3. and 4.are data of typical compositions of solid fuels. To determine the quantity of air required for complete combustion of a fuel, the ultimate analysis is useful. C + O2 = CO2 +97644 cal /mole [15o C] H2 +O2 = H2O + 69000 cal / mole [15o C] Calorific value of a fuel is the total heat produced when a unit mass of a fuel is completely burnt with pure oxygen. It is also called heating value of the fuel. When the c.v. is determined, water formed is considered as in vapour state, net c. v. is got. Gross calorific value or higher heating value of a fuel containing C, H and O is given by the expression: Cg =[C x 8137 + (H--O/8) x 34500]/100 where C, H and O are in % and Cg is in calories. Net calorific value is the difference between GCV and latent heat of condensation of water vapor present in the products AIR REQUIRED FOR BIOMASS COMBUSTION: Excess air % = (40*MCg)/(1- MCg) where MCg is moisture content on total wt basis (green). For typical biomass fuels at 50 % moisture content, for grate firing system about 40% excess air may be required. For suspension fired and fluidized bed combustion, air required may be 100 % excess. They are high because the air must keep the particles in suspension or fluidize the bed medium. Distribution of air and whether it is pre-heated is also important. COMPOSITION PARAMETERS AFFECTING COMBUSTION Net energy density available in combustion of biomass varies from about 10 MJ/kg (green wood) to about 40 MJ/kg (Oils/fats). Water requires 2.3 MJ/(kg of water) to evaporate. Moisture content (MC) influences efficiency more than any variable. A system

which gives a thermal efficiency of about 80% while firing a fuel of MC 15%, gives reduced efficiencies of 65% when the fuel MC is 50 % or more. Cellulose embedded in a matrix of hemi-cellulose and lignin is the main constituent of woody biomass. Compared to coal, biomass has less mineral content and wood gives less ash than agro-residue.

Table: 1. Chemical composition of some biomass material

Total ash Solvent Water Lignin Hemi-cellulose Cellulose % Soluble % Soluble % % % Soft wood 0.5 2.0 27.9 24.0 40.8 Hard wood 0.3 3.1 19.5 35.0 39 Wheat Straw 6.0 3.1 7.1 16.0 28.1 39.7 Rice Straw 16.1 4.6 13.1 11.9 24.1 30.2 Bagasse 2.2 8.3 10.0 18.4 28.0 33.1 Species

Table2.Av. Comp. & properties of hardwood: GROUPWISE COMPOSITION, percent air dried
Cellulose Lignin Hemi-cellulose Fats, waxes, and resins Water Carbon % Hydrogen % Oxygen, % Ash, % Density,kg/m2 Calorific value, kcal/kg 45-55 25-35 4-6 0.5-2 10-15 50 6 43.5 0.5 650 4,600

Ultimate Analysis and other properties, dry basis

Types

TABLE 3.TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS OF SOLID FUELS Proximate Analysis Ultimate Analysis Moisture Volatile Fixed Ash C H O N S carbon ----------56.8 34.8 3-20 85.6 87.0 26.0 28.2 16-40 13.0 12.8 11.2 30.8 4080 17.0 87.1 83.1 1.4 0.7 6.0 6.2 3.040 2.5 10.7 3.0 58.2 52.2 23.1 42.4 6050 48 85 84 6.0 7.0 9.6 6.7 3.0-6 6.0 0.8 2.3 43.3 40.2 59.6 43.3 3.06 43.2 1.2 10.7 0.1 0.2 1.3 0.7 11.5 0.3 1.3 -0.4 0.7 0.34.3 0.1 1.0 --

Heating Value, dry basis, kcal/kg

Wood Oak(dry) Pine(dry) Peat Lignite Coal (Range

Of property)

4622 5338 4625 6110 4000 to 8000 4430 7105 7130

Bagasse Coke Charcoal

----0.8 12.0

80.5 1.4 1.9

Table 4.

Douglas Western Bagasse Rice Fir Hemlock Husk wood All on oven dry basis 85.8 13.4 0.8 6.3 52.3 40.5 0.1 -0.8 21.05 83.8 14.0 2.22 5.8 50.4 41.4 0.1 0.1 2.22 20.05 83.8 12.7 3.5 5.8 48.8 41.7 0.2 -3.5 19.32 64.5 12.9 22.6 4.4 38.3 33.9 0.8 -22.6 13.81

Pittsburgh Bitum. coal

Proximate-Wt % Volatiles Fixed Carbon Ash Ultimate-Wt% Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Ash Higher Heating Value, MJ/kg

33.9 55.8 10.3 5.0 75.5 4.9 1.2 3.1 10.3 31.74

Conditions for efficient Combustion: 1. Sufficient air to provide oxygen needed for complete burning of the fuel. Higher than stoichiometric amount of air is supplied. 2. Free and intimate contact between fuel and oxygen by distribution of air supply. 3. Secondary air to burn the volatile mass leaving the fuel bed completely before it leaves the combustion zone. 4. Volatile matter leaving the fuel bed should not cool below combustion temperature by dilution with the flue gas. Flow path should assure this.

5. Volume of the furnace should be arranged so as to provide for expansion of gases at high temperature and complete burning of volatile matter before flowing away. DRAFT: The pressure difference required to make the air flow through the fuel bed and to the flue gas discharge height is called draft of air in a furnace and is expressed in millimeters of water. The draft is produced either naturally by means of a chimney or mechanically by a fan. Mechanical draft can be either induced draft or a forced draft depending on whether the fan is used to suck the gases away from the furnace or to force the air required for combustion through the grate. COMBUSTION PROCESS Combustion of solid biomass like wood involves heating and drying, pyrolysis of solid particle, forming volatiles and char; Pre-combustion gas phase reactions and char oxidation reactions.

The pyrolysis and combustion of the biomass fuel takes place as the temperature rises when the particle is in the hot fuel bed. At lower temperature, pyrolysis produces a gas mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapor and carbonaceous char. The released volatile mass and secondary air mixes and undergoes flaming combustion raising temperature further. Oxidation of the active char results in glowing or smoldering combustion at a lower rate. Intensity of combustion can be expressed by I c = H25 dw/dt -----(1) Where I c is intensity of combustion, H25 is heat of combustion at 25 o C, For the reaction: fuel +oxygen CO2 +H2O, and dw /dt is rate of loss of mass The rate of burning depends upon the composition and the size of the fuel, air to fuel ratio, and the heat and mass transfer of the whole system. At the lower temperature, the chemical kinetics of pyrolysis and combustion control the burning rate, whereas at higher 6

temperatures when these reactions take place at a very high speed, the heat and mass transfer become the controlling factors. Bioenergy options and their carbon reduction potential: Bioenergy technologies draw energy from the biomass derived from plants and have the advantage of restricting the emission of air pollutants. Their development and use not only decreases CO2 emission but also lessens our dependence on fossil fuels, improves air quality and creates rural employment. Table 5. Examples of appropriate fuel delivery and furnace technologies according to the form and particle size of the fuel: Form Maximum Particle size (mm) <5 Appropriate delivery system Appropriate Furnace technology Direct-fired furnaces, Muffle furnaces, cyclone burners, CFB Underfeed stokers, grate firings, BFB, CFB Grate firing, BFB Grate firing, BFB Direct-fired furnaces, Grate firing, BFB, CFB Under-feed stokers, BFB, CFB Grate firing, BFB

Bulk material Bulk material Bulk material Bulk material Standard or cut bales Pellets Briquettes

Direct injection, Pneumatic conveyors Screw conveyers Vibro-conveyers, Troughed chain conveyers Sliding bar conveyer, Sliding bar conveyer Cutters/shredders followed by Pneumatic conveyors or screw conveyers Screw conveyers Sliding bar conveyer, Sliding bar conveyer

<50 <100 <500 <50

<30 <120

Availability of annual crop/agro-residue in India (1995-96) MT = Million tons Agro-residue India, MT T.Nadu, MT Wheat Straw 83.3 9.2 Rice Husk 39.8 3.3 Sugar Cane Bagasse 93.4 9.2 Coconut shell 3.4 0.4 Coconut pith 3.4 Groundnut shells 2.6 0.6 Cotton Stalks 27.3 0.8

Rice husk based power plant: (Nandini Chemical Journal, 6(8): 54, 1999) A power plant that can generate 6 MW of power has been inaugurated in Raipur district of M.P. It uses 7 tonnes of rice husk an hour to produce high pressure steam (at 480 o C) that is used to produce electricity. To burn the husk, the plant uses fluidized bed combustion type boiler supplied by Thermax. The plant is owned by Indo-Lahari Power Limited. The estimated capital cost for a megawatt of power produced is 35 million rupees as against 40 million rupees for a coal based power plant. In Raipur area one tonne of rice husk costs about rupees 550 per tonne as compared to rupees 1400 per tonne of coal. Combustion equipment for solid biomass (wood): Inclined step grate furnace: In the inclined grate system, fuel is fed to the top of the grate.In this system, heating and drying can occur very near to the fuel feed shoot. Solid phase pyrolysis can occur as the fuel is sliding down the grate. Char oxidation can occur at the base of the grate and on the dumping grate. Gas phase reactions can be controlled by over-fire air distribution and separated completely from solid phase reactions. Spreader Stoker: In the spreader stoker, fuel particles are fed into the firebox and flung, mechanically or pneumatically across the grate. Some heating and drying and possibly some pyrolysis occurs while the particle is in suspension. For the most part however, solid phase pyrolysis and char oxidation occur on the grate. Pre-combustion gas phase reactions occur between the grate and the zone where secondary air is introduced. Gas phase oxidation occurs either throughout the firebox or in the vicinity of the zone where secondary air is introduced if the under-grate air is limited to sub-stoichiometric quantities. Combustion equipment for solid biomass (particulates--wood and agro-residue): CYCLONIC, SUSPENSION FIRED COMBUSTION SYSTEM Horizontal Cyclone Furnace: A horizontal cyclone furnace consists of a horizontal or slightly inclined cylinder lined with firebricks into which air is ejected tangentially at a velocity of 6000- 7000 m/min so that the flame in the furnace revolves at a rpm of 1200 to 1800 .The fuel introduced at the cyclone tip is entrained by the revolving mass and is thrown against the cyclone walls where it burns. The flue gases that escape at high velocities through the aperture at the other end of the cyclone are substantially free from fly ash. The heat release rate of (2-5) X 106 kcal/m2-hr can be achieved for pulverized coal in a cyclone furnace. The rotary motion imparted to the flame results in an intensive mixing of the flame mass and the fuel particles are subjected to the action of centrifugal force. This increases the residence time of the fuel in the furnace and combustion is complete. FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION SYSTEM In fluidized bed combustion, bio-fuel is dispersed and burned in a fluidized bed of inert particles. Temperature of the bed is maintained in the range of 750 to 1000 o C so that 8

combustion of the fuel is completed but particle sintering is prevented. The gaseous products leave the bed at its operating temperature, removing about 50% of the heat generated. The remainder of the heat is available for direct transmission to heat transfer surfaces immersed within the bed; in boiler applications these comprise a set of steam raising tubes. The heat transfer to immersed surfaces is uniformly high in comparison with the variation of radiation heat transfer through a conventional combustion chamber. Consequently less heat transfer surface is required for a given output and a boiler system occupies a smaller volume.

Principles of furnace design calculations:

Thermal load of furnace grate area: It is the amount of heat generated in kilo-calories by the complete combustion of a solid fuel on one square meter of grate area per hour. Thermal load of furnace grate area , QA = W.Cn / A kcal/m2.hr QA = Thermal load of fire grate area, kcal/m2.hr W = Fuel burned kg / hr, Cn = Net calorific value of fuel, kcal / kg A = furnace grate area, m2 Thermal load of volume of furnace: It is the amount of heat generated in kilo-calories by the complete combustion of a solid fuel, in one cubic meter of furnace volume per hour. Thermal load of volume of furnace, QV =. W Cn / V kcal/m3.hr QV = Thermal load of volume of furnace, kcal/m3.hr V = volume of furnace space, m3 Thermal efficiency of furnace: Thermal efficiency of furnace is the ratio of actual heat delivered by furnace to the available heat in the fuel Thermal efficiency of furnace, F = (Heat generated Heat losses) / (Net calorific value of fuel) = (M.h) / (W Cn) H = enthalpy of flue gas kilocalories/ m3 M = Flow rate of fluegas, m3/hr

Example1. Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): The ultimate analysis of MSW is given below. C- 30% H- 4% O- 22% H2O 24% and ash-- metal, etc-20%;Compute the actual air required and the flue gases produced per kg. of MSW if 50% excess air is supplied for complete combustion. Solution: Basis: 100 kg MSW Constituent Constituent kg C 30 H 4 O 22 H2O 24 Total Constituent kg-mole 2.5 2.0 0.7 1.3 Oxygen required kg-mole 2.5 1.0 -0.7 -2.8 Products, kgmole 2.5 2.0 -1.3 5.8

Theoretical O2 required = 2.8 kg-moles Actual O2 supplied = 2.8x1.5 = 4.2 kg-moles Excess O2 present in the flue gas = 1.4 kg-moles Actual air supplied = [100/21] x 4.2 x 29 = 600 kg Weight of air supplied per weight of unit weight of refuse = [600 / 100] = 6 kg / kg refuse Quantity of N2 present in air supplied = [79 / 100] x 20 =15.8 kg-moles Total amount of flue produced =5.8 + 1.4 +15.8 =23 kg-moles = 23 x 29=667 kg (assuming M.W. of flue gas is 29) Weight of flue gas produced = 667 /100 =6.67 kg / kg refuse

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Example 2: Combustion of rice husk: The ultimate analysis of rice husk is as follows: C- 39 %, H- 5 %, O- 32.7 % , S- 0.1 %, N-.0 %, H2O- 3.6%, and ash =17.6 % Assuming M.W. of air and flue gas as 29 compute the actual air required and flue gas produced per kg of rice husk, if 20% excess air is supplied for complete combustion of rice husk. Solution: Stoichiometric air required and flue gas produced for combustion of 100 kg rice husk. Basis: 100kg rice husk

Rice husk constituents C H O S N H2O Total

Constituent, kg 39.0 5.0 32.7 0.1 2.0 3.6

Constituent, kg-mole 3.250 2.500 1.022 0.003 0.071 0.200

O2 required, kg-mole 3.250 1.250 --1.022 0.003 --3.481

Products, kg-mole 3.25 2.250 -0.003 0.071 0.200 6.024

Theoretical air required for combustion is as follows: Theoretical air required per kg husk = [100 x 3.481 x 29] / [21 x 100] =4.8 kg. Actual air supplied and actual flue gas produced are as follows: Actual O2 supplied = 3.481x1.2 =4.18 kg-moles Actual air supplied = [100/21]x 4.18 =19.9 kg-moles Actual air supplied per kg husks = [100x4.18x29]/[21x100] =5.77 kg N2 present in the actual air = [79/100]x19.9 = 15.72 kg-moles Therefore total flue gas produced Stoichiometric Chemical products + Inert Nitrogen + Excess O2 in air = 6.024 + 15.72 + 0.79 = 22.434 kg-moles Therefore flue gas produced per kg husk = [22.43x 29] / [100] = 6.5 kg.

Example 3: Design of a cyclone Furnace: Design a cyclone furnace to supply hot flue gas-air mixture required for drying 2 tonnes parboiled paddy per hour assuming the following data: 11

Initial and final moisture contents of parboiled paddy = Latent heat of vaporization of paddy moisture = Average net calorific value of rice husk = Excess air supplied = Flame Temperature = Ambient air temperature = Average inlet and outlet drying gas-air mixture temperatures = Average wet & dried parboiled Paddy temperatures Mean sp. Heats of paddy, flue gas[600], Flue gas [80] =

30% and 15% (w. b.) respectively 580 kcal./kg 3000 kcal / kg

40% 1100 o C 25 o C 100 and 60 o C respectively 35 and 60 o C respectively 0.4; 0.28; and 0.26 kcal./ kg o C respectively Average M.W.s of air& flue gas = 29 Efficiency of cyclone furnace = 78% Length/ diameter = 1.5 Thermal load on furnace volume for rice husk = 2x105 kcal/m3-hr

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Reference books for Combustion: 1. A. Chakraverthy, Biotechnology and Alternative Technologies for Utilisation of Biomass/Agricultural Wastes, Oxford & IBH publishing Co., N.Delhi, 1989. 2. Fuels and Combustion, 2nd Edition, Samir Sarkar, Orient Longman, 1990 Chapters on Combustion process Stoichiometry and Thermodynamics, Combustion Kinetics and Combustion Appliances. pages 217 to 326 3. JournalBiomass and Bio-energy, a) 1996, 11(4): 271-281 Biomass Combustion for power generation b) 1998, 14(1): 33-56 Decentralized biomass combustion: state of the art and future development 4. Wood Combustion, Tillman, Ch. 5 Heat production & release from wood combustion, 5. Progress in biomass Conversion, vol 3, Edited by K V Sarkanen, D A Tillman and. E C Jahn, Academic Press, 1982 6. Sharma S.P. and Chandramohan, Fuels and combustion Tata McGraw Hill (1987).

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