OBSTACLES FOR NON-MOTORIZED TRANSPORT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A CASE STUDY OF NAIROBI, KENYA Thilo Becker TU Dresden, Friedrich List

t Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Research School DIKE True Cost in Transport 1. INTRODUCTION Walking and cycling are considered to be the most sustainable modes in urban transport in industrialized countries there are no local environmental effects like noise or air pollution, the need of space is minimal, they have very low energy consumption and from the users perspective it is healthy and affordable for everyone. Many European cities showed progress in increasing the modal share of non-motorized transport (NMT) throughout the last decade. A well-known example is Copenhagen, Denmark, where the modal share for work and educational trips of bicycle and walking reached 35 % and 7 % in 2010 (City of Copenhagen 2011, p. 6). Analyzes of travel surveys from developing countries let the local mode choice appear to be even more environmentally friendly. In Nairobi, Kenya, 49 % of all trips are done by NMT (no subdivision in bicycle and walking in the statistic). The public transport achieves a modal share of 42 %, while the role of cars stays as low as 9 % (Aligula et al. 2005, p. 84). The current Nairobi share of NMT (mostly walking) is already close Copenhagens target goal of a bicycle share of 50 % by the year 2015 (Copenhagen 2011, p. 7). The transport system and its modal share in developing countries seem to be very achievable! How much can European cities learn from developing countries like Kenya? The answer can already be given here: Teachers and students always interchange knowledge both ways, so European cities can certainly learn from Kenya. But in this case the exclusive analysis of modal share in travel surveys is too simplified for a qualified evaluation of the transport system. Many environmental, social, economic and health problems are (in-)directly associated to the use of NMT in Kenya. So the answer has to be very little. This applies especially for the current road infrastructure investments in Nairobi which strongly favor the increasing demand of cars. The question remains why the good starting conditions in terms of modal share are not turned into a fundamental promotion of NMT for urban transport. The objective of this analysis is to identify the underlying reasons why most investments currently done are for the advantage of cars, although policy papers emphasize the benefits of NMT. After an introduction into the geographic, economic, political and transport-relevant circumstances of Nairobi, the methodology of the literature analysis and the expert interviews is described. The main chapter describes the results of the two analyses. It consists of expert interviews and the main objective is to give an overview of the current knowledge, opinion and problem awareness of transport professionals. Conclusions and recommendations for researchers and
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stakeholders are derived in order to improve the transport policy and planning. The whole analysis is based on a three month research visit in Nairobi between October and December 2010. This stay was independent from other projects and was purely funded by academic scholarships. 2. STRUCTURE AND PATTERN OF NAIROBI 2.1 General structure Nairobi is the capital and economic center of the East-African country Kenya. It is situated 150 km south of the equator and 1,600 meters above sea level. The city area has a slightly hilly terrain and the area has a subtropical highland climate with 24-hours average temperatures around 20 Celsius and two rain seasons per year. The settlement area of the metropolitan area is about 30 km from east to west and 20 km from north to south. Nairobi is the economic and administrative center for the country if not for the whole East-African region. Modern office buildings host regional headquarters of international companies, embassies coordinate activities for neighboring countries and the headquarters of UNEP and UN-Habitat are located in the northern part of town. About 43 % of the national GDP is generated in Nairobi (UN-Habitat 2006, p. 9). In contrast to the fairly good development of the city, Kenya is rated as a country with Low Human Development (Human Development Index Rank 2010: 128) and has a GDP per capita (2008) of 1,622 $ (UNDP 2011). Of the 38,610,097 inhabitants of Kenya (2009), 3,318,369 live in the city of Nairobi (KNBS 2010, p. 16) and the population steadily increases due to birth surplus and urbanization processes. Although literature sources differ, a considerable number of the inhabitants live below the poverty level. For example, the number of people living in informal settlements varies between 60% of Nairobis population (UN-Habitat 2006, p. 10) to around 500,000 individuals (Daily Nation 2010). Another indicator is poor sanitation condition: according to census results, 40.3 % of the Nairobi households depend on pit latrine (KNBS 2010, p. 28). At the same time, the increasing upper and middle class can afford a living standard comparable to levels in industrialized countries. 2.2 Transport structure Many parts of the urban structure and the general design of the transport system still dates back to the British colonial time, which ended in 1963. Examples are the land use designation, the railroad system, the routes of some arterial roads and the strict segregation of residential areas between social groups. Although the Growth Metropolitan Study from 1973 proposed many road investment projects, most of them have not been realized yet. However, some of the current road constructions are based on this old plan. Major roads are all paved, residential roads in several areas have earth surface. The condition of the asphalt roads can be rated 'good'. The railway, the original reason for the foundation of Nairobi, does not play a significant role nowadays. The central station at the edge of downtown is serviced by four local trains per peak hour in/from two main directions. The railway carriages are generally heavily overloaded.
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The public transport (PT) system is unregulated and/or uncontrolled to a large extent today. Several larger bus companies operate in parts of town on certain routes with 25+-seaters. The main market share have mini buses, locally called Matatus, which operate on routes with 14-seaters (plus driver and conductor) and are owned by small businesses. According to estimates, 15,000 matatus operate within town (Graeff 2009, p. 3). All PT-vehicles have no schedule and operate on a first fill up, then start basis. Fares vary by route, distance, direction of travel, time and weather. The operation, especially of the matatus, can be characterized by aggressive driving behavior, low safety and security, flexible and demand-oriented operation intervals, selforganized market and the risk of bribery. The most noticeable problem of the road system is congestion. Trips with a free-flow travel time of 20 minutes often take more than two hours during long periods of the day. The congestion affects PT too since there is no separate infrastructure available. The main cause of congestion is the operation above capacity levels in combination with poor traffic management schemes (Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development 2008, p. 2). A less noticed, but even more severe problem, are road traffic accidents. 2,893 road fatalities were reported in 2007 for the whole country, which mean 2.88 casualties per 1,000 registered vehicles (WHO 2009, p. 125). To give a comparison, this factor is 32 times higher than in Germany (BMVBS 2009, p. 134, 158). NMT includes mostly walking, cycling and goods transport with different types of handcarts. No statistic is available, but the modal share of cycling is around 1 % and the remaining 48 % modal share are pedestrians. In terms of available infrastructure, many roads in the inner city are equipped with sidewalks. A large proportion of the roads in outer districts are built as rural roads without any NMT-features and pedestrians have to improvise. Pedestrians are often prevented from crossing the road by guard rails and fences. A few pedestrian bridges exist, but their poor design generally discourages their usage. Bicycles are not considered in infrastructure design. Only one section of bike path (one way!) exists in the city of Nairobi, but the intensive use and the acceptance of car drivers underlines the need. Handcarts for cargo transport, which are often organized as a micro-business, were banned lately from large parts of the city. 3. METHODOLOGY Before the start of the project and the precise definition of the research question, a general overview of accessible literature sources was undertaken to identify key issues. This step was accompanied by observations at different locations in Nairobi from the users perspective. After identifying problems in the area of NMT, a questionnaire for experts covering the following fields was designed: current transport development, role of stakeholders, obstacles and opportunities of NMT, social aspects, education and marketing. The formulation and phrasing of the questions was done in collaboration with the government funded research institute KIPPRA (Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis), which provides objective public policy advice to the government and other stakeholders. In total, 16 oral expert interviews were conducted with individuals working in
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different hierarchy levels in the field of transport- and NMT-planning. Four of the interviewees were female. The interviews were spread among different institutions and all interviewees were involved in urban transportation. Not all stakeholders and institutions could be included and the individuals were chosen by recommendation or official inquiry at the institutions. Therefore the exploratory design of the analysis cannot provide a full picture of the situation, but gives an overview on the current state (Wessel 1996). Table 1: Interview partner per type of institution Type of institution Ministries Road administration Nairobi City Council Universities and research institutions International organizations Planning consultancies NGO and special interest groups Number of interviewees 1 2 1 3 3 3 3

The in-depth interviews lasted up to two hours and took place at varying locations. Instead of recording the interviews, detailed notes were taken during and after all meetings. This way, many interview partners, especially the individuals working in a political environment, were able to speak out their personal opinion freely. Parallel to the interviews, a literature analysis was undertaken. It focused on academic literature as well as gray literature like strategic plans, public relation documents, newspapers and design plans for road construction. Especially the gray literature turned out to be hard to access because some of the documents were described as not accessible to the public or the barriers to get them were high. However, new sources were regularly pointed out by the interviewees. In this paper, results from the literature analysis and the subjective interviews are combined. The recommendations in the conclusion are independently derived from the survey. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Land-use planning The current land use structure in Nairobi is related to the large population growth during the past decades and the limited capability of the authorities to cope with it. Several interviewees stated severe problems in the field of urban development. Decisions related to land use issues are not based on the welfare perspective, but instead focus on business interests of the developers. Issues mentioned were urban sprawl with low-density neighborhoods, car Association For European Transport and Contributors 2011

oriented location of work-, shopping- and leisure destinations, gated communities and properties impeding direct NMT-connections. The city and its settlement area are sprawling out into formerly rural areas, especially along major road corridors (e.g. Tatu City). The symptoms are usually related to the small influence of the planning authorities. Hope is expressed by three independent interviewees that the land use plan the Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development is currently working on will improve the situation. Several interviewees consider land use planning as a key determining factor, but here further reading in the literature is recommended (e.g. Anyamba 2008). According to two international interviewees, a positive example of current land-use is the dense distribution of local merchants in residential and business areas. Stalls along the roadside or merchants on simple rags on the sidewalk ensure very short and walkable distances to fulfill shopping needs. This is one attribute planners in more developed countries try to reintroduce. One problem is often mentioned as a barrier for infrastructure investments: the road and planning authorities are in a complex legal situation when they need space for road expansions. During the last decades, land, which was designated as a road reserve, has been sold to private investors. From todays point of view, those transactions are classified as illegal actions, but investments have been made on that land and the current land owners do not accept the cancellation of the original deals. Extra costs to relocate the current land users increase the infrastructure project costs. 4.2 Institutional setup and stakeholders role The institutional setup is probably a point of critic, at least from some perspectives, in any administration worldwide. In case of Nairobi transport, specific issues were concordantly stated by several interviewees. This can be seen as an indicator for the need of reforms. A rather high number of governmental stakeholders are directly involved in urban transport planning in Nairobi: Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Roads, Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development, Ministry for Local Government, City Council of Nairobi and two separate road agencies. Although some of the organizations were recommended as a reform by the JICA Transport Masterplan (JICA 2006), about one half of the interviewees openly criticized the current structure. The large number of ministries originates partly from the government crisis 2007/2008 and it was emphasized that the number of institutions was helpful to establish many high-official positions. Hope was expressed by three individuals that the number of ministries would decrease after the next elections in 2012. A result of the segmentation of responsibilities is lack of cooperation. Even the majority of the government officials admitted that there are no formal consultation procedures on the working level. Some collaboration exists, but this is more based on knowing each other from former unified ministries than from a legal framework for cooperation. Government officials said that only the ministers themselves meet on a regular basis with official procedures. The large number of involved institutions impedes the processes. One nongovernmental interviewee summarized the situation as follows: There a so
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many ministries that a meeting for an overlapping topic requires a whole classroom. Unfortunately the lack of consultation is not limited to the institutions among each other. Public consultations exist only on a minimum level. Certain public hearing are required by Kenyan laws (e.g. Environmental Impacts Studies), but they are organized by private consultancies. The number of participants, the methods of getting response from all affected individuals and the overall quality and impact of the report are rated quite low. In addition to the Kenyan studies, international donors often require special reports covering specific issues or fulfilling their guidelines. The different processes increase the inhibition to take part in public participation even further for any affected individuals. The participation of the public in the planning processes cannot be substituted by local NGOs because they are almost absent. Besides representatives of business groups, no organization speaks for the interests of the transport users (all modes!). The only relevant exception for cyclists is the federation Uvumbuzi, but there are no procedures in place to formally include them in the planning and consultation process. Donor countries like the EU, USA or Japan as well as World Bank or African Development Bank play an important role in shaping the planning and development process because of their individual preferences of projects and topics they support. Although they work independently, they cooperate to ensure that their support is not contrary to other donor countries. Meetings are scheduled on a regular basis. Interviewees working for international organizations view it very critically that China does not participate in the meetings although they are a key player, providing a large share of the donor funding. 4.3 Political strategy: integrated transport policy? There are four relevant strategy papers and plans that were identified to be relevant for current activities. All of them deal with the transport system as a whole. The pure existence of plans like this is a good progress which has to be pointed out. They can be described and appraised as followed: A Report on Integrated National Transport Policy: Moving a Working Nation The national transport strategy defines the policy and covers many fields beyond infrastructure. All person and cargo modes are included and environmental effects, road safety, education and health issues are dealt with in separate chapters. (Ministry of Transport 2009) To call the plan integrated is fully justified. The policy openly addresses problems, emphasizes the role of all modes, proposes modern economic measures like the user-pays-principle and values the economic benefits and potential of NMT. Due to the diverse conditions in rural and urban areas of Kenya, its use for Nairobi is limited. However, it demands a separate urban transport policy for Nairobi and other Kenyan towns which should aim at developing an integrated, balanced and environmentally sound urban transport system (Ministry of Transport 2009 p. 29). The national plan could act as a good model for any local plan.
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Road Sector Investment Programme & Strategy 2010 2024 This is the newest document and it lists precisely the future road investments on a nationwide basis. It justifies the reasons for investments in the road sector, describes ways of financing them (incl. user pays), proposes an institutional framework and allocates money to organizations, road types and specific projects. (Ministry of Roads 2010) The traffic growth forecast for 2030 does not include NMT at all as an urban mode (Ministry of Roads 2010, p. 32). Although regular road projects can be expected to include financial resources for NMT, the share of the budget for separate NMT-facilities of 0.13 % of the total budget till 2024 is rather low (Ministry of Roads 2010, p. 47). It has to be judged very positively that a 15page chapter addresses cross cutting issues. However, this chapter differs in terms of content and language style significantly from the rest of the document. Nairobi Metro 2030 The policy document, published by the Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development, is a general strategy for different types of politics and planning. Transport is addressed on six pages, making general statements about road infrastructure, mass rapid transit, logistics and land use. NMT barely plays a role in this general plan. In the transport section, it just says a critical concern is to ensure adequate provision for metropolitan wide non-motorized transport, [sic] mobility network. While proposing a mass rapid transit program, the false statement is made: Rail transport increases penetration of the city centre, and [sic] particularly effective in reducing walking distances (Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development 2008, p. 63). Usually, rail transport, compared to other forms of public transportation, is associated with large catchment areas and therefore long walking distances. The Study on Master Plan for Urban Transport in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area in the Republic of Kenya According to interviewees, the majority of all current investments in the road infrastructure are based on a comprehensive study on transport planning that was funded by Japanese development assistance. Even international interviewees consider the report with 31 chapters and 753 pages, from the methodological perspective, a state-of-the-art transport plan. The foundation is a broad analysis of the present condition, covering fields like national and economic development, inventory of the supply side (roads, PT), involved organizations, financial aspects and traffic surveys and counts. Based on an economic growth rate of 4.6 % and population growth of 2.1 %, a macroscopic model is employed for a forecast till 2025. A wide variety of measurements are examined and specific alternatives are decided. It includes investments of 43.4 Billion Kenyan Shilling (~ 420 million Euro) from 2006 till 2025. (JICA 2006) NMT is mentioned in the report, the dependency of the poor on NMT is pointed out and the large role in terms of modal split is emphasized. However, the appraisal of NMT in the plan does not correspond to its importance. It is stated as a component of many measures, but it is always among other
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aspects to consider. Neither the different needs of cycling and walking are taken into consideration. Nor are quality standards besides the width of NMTlanes defined. When quantifying the text elements dealing with NMT for more than ten lines, only a chapter of five pages of text remains. With those general conditions, it is surprising that the modal share of NMT is forecasted to just decrease from 49 % to 44 % by 2025. Overall, the plan can be rated as a supply-oriented approach, which is two to three decades behind modern planning principles like the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (Bhrmann et al. 2011) in the European Union. Further documents No specific plan for NMT in Nairobi is existent. This would not be necessary at all as long as the needs of NMT are taken into consideration by the multimodal transport plans. As shown above, this is only valid to a very small extent so it is fully understandable that many interviewees demanded a separated plan for cycling and walking. 4.4 Economic implications of transport strategies Economic effects of activities in the transport sector are seen from different perspectives, often depending on the stakeholders role. Especially government officials emphasized the importance for economic development. New infrastructure means less congestion and higher travel speed, both resulting in time savings which can be valued monetarily. Especially the connection of the urban to the rural areas is seen as a measure to open up new business opportunities for agricultural products and open up new markets. This argumentation, also stated in transport plans (Ministry of Roads 2010, p. 1-2), is criticized by other interviewees who point out the adequate level of existing infrastructure in Nairobi itself. From their perspective, the infrastructure already provides good access to key location, but lack of alternatives to car use results in overuse of the roads. Those diverse opinions have been discussed in transport economics for a long time (e.g. Button 1993, p. 234-240) and skepticism towards the relationship of economic growth to infrastructure investments seems to be justified. Other stakeholders, especially bicycle advocates, pointed out the economic benefits of the cycling industry. A large part of the value chain remains within the country, ranging from manufacturing and maintenance shops to laborintensive infrastructure construction. Furthermore, the barriers of entry, especially in terms of financial capital, are low for NMT-businesses. This could establish new enterprises and income opportunity for poor individuals. 4.5 Relationship of transport to social issues and poverty When asked about social disparity in transport, 100 % of the interviewees mentioned upper social classes as the main car users and lower social classes as NMT-oriented. Results from travel surveys from 2004 confirm this perception. In upper class districts, around 20 % of the modal share is NMT and up to 50 % of the trips are done by private car. In districts with informal settlements, the NMT-share goes up to 75 % and the share of car is below 5 % (Aligula et al. 2004, p. 86). A conclusion of a travel survey in informal settlement areas goes even further: First, it is clear that most people living in
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the slums of Nairobi do not have travel choicesthey cannot afford motorized transport, so they walk. Second, it is also clear that women and children are disproportionately affected. (Salon, Gulyani 2010, p. 655). In the interviews, cycling was often mentioned as a solution which would help to extend the activity range to 10 to 15 kilometers at very low cost, but other reasons inhibits them from doing so. Social fairness is closely related to economical aspects. The need to expand the road infrastructure is communicated by politicians as a prerequisite to achieve economic growth to successfully gain support for the investments. While questioning this correlation in general, interviewees pointed out that the beneficiary of the current projects are effectively only the upper and partly the middle class. The silent majority, using mostly NMT, does not have any benefits, but partly has to pay for the investments with taxes. In addition, the increasing traffic volumes impose a higher accident risk. Surprise was stated by three interviewees that the vast majority of society believes in the political explanation of the current actions of the government. A sentence in the Environmental Impact Study of the Thika Road project about the public participation shows it best: Close to 100 % of the participants appreciated the road project as an important undertaking by the Government. A sample comment from the participants went like this: This is such a wonderful public investment []. If I had land, I would donate it to the project [Republic of Kenya 2007]. 4.6 Road safety Road accidents are a key issue in Nairobi. Disaggregated police data with reported fatalities and injuries are not accessible for Nairobi, but the total number of 2,893 fatalities and 12,470 injuries (2007) for Kenya as a whole already underline the magnitude of the problem (WHO 2009, p. 125). The number of road fatalities per one million inhabitant and year (2007) is 75 (Germany: 61), the number of fatalities per registered vehicle and year is 2.88 (Germany: 0.09). More than one half (56 %) of the road fatalities nationwide are pedestrians and cyclists, the rest divided up into different motorized vehicles (WHO 2009, p. 125). As a comparison, the share of fatalities of NMTusers is 22 % in Germany (BMVBS 2009, p. 134, 158). There are no statistical details about the social background of the victims available, but the dependency of mode choice on social background is an indicator that a large proportion of the casualties belong to poor social groups. One interviewee stated that any accident with long-term health effects on an income earner in this social group implies serious problems for the subsistence of the whole family. Road safety is a widely recognized problem. 100 % of the interviewees mentioned the topic, although it was not emphasized during the interviews. The stated solutions for the problem vary widely. Some have a very technical approach and expect improvements from the currently constructed roads and new vehicles, others emphasize behavior and enforcement. A simple solution cannot be provided because it involves many issues covered in this paper, ranging from road design through reputation to driver behavior. Special issues are discussed as follows: An issue for cyclists is the bicycle conditions. Low-price imports from Asia
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have poor quality and a high risk of material failure. In addition, very few bikes are equipped with lights and just a low percentage of cyclists substitute the light with a reflector vest. Alcohol and drinking is mentioned by all foreign interviewees as an unrecognized problem in Kenya. Strong legislation in industrialized countries sensitized drivers through strict laws, consistent controls and education very effectively (Schade, Schlag 2003). In contrast, Kenyan police is currently not conducting large scale preventive alcohol tests and the risk attribution of the drivers to alcohol can be rated as very low. Another topic mentioned is speed. A speed limit of 50 km/h exists on urban roads, but actual speeds often reach up to 90 km/h as long as congestion does not cause lower levels. Foreigners and two Kenyans recognized a holistic approach to reduce speeds to 30/50/80 km/h (residential, trunk roads and fully segregated highways, respectively) as an essential approach to reduce the risk of all road user and especially NMT-users. The more modern roads designed for high speeds are built, the more effort is needed to keep the driven speeds at a safe level. An issue related to safety is security. Cars and even public transport are generally valued as a secure mode of travel. Crime is seen as a highly relevant deterrent from using NMT. It is not the direct responsibility of transport planners to provide solutions, but it is a prerequisite for a more widely use of NMT during the day and especially at night. 4.7 Environmental pollution Environmental and ecological issues play a minor role in the perception of the interviewees. Seven mention air pollution as a problem, but none turned out to be familiar with detailed effects of different pollutants. Four interviewees personally notice the difference between air quality in Nairobi and in rural areas. Other problems seem to exceed environmental issues in the perception by far. The misinterpretation of the interviewees of the environmental situation in Nairobi is proved in Kinney et al. (2011): Exploratory measurements of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) show very high daytime concentrations (50.7 to 128.7 g/m3) at sites adjacent to roadways. Those values clearly exceed the World Health Organizations 24 h-average guidelines of 25 g/m3. (Kinney et al. 2011, p. 373) Taking the large number of individuals who walk, work or trade in informal businesses directly along the roadside, many are exposed to high long-term risks of respiratory diseases. The magnitude of the measured air pollution should be seen as a warning call for the compilation of an air pollution inventory and an effective action plan to reduce emissions. In the planning process of government agencies, environmental aspects play a larger role. Environmental project plans take issues like health and safety of workers, water pollution, waste management or regeneration of material sites after end of construction into consideration. [e.g. Thika Rd. Plan] Unfortunately an interviewee involved in these processes stated that the plans do not have a quality control system, the engaged personnel often have lack of capacity for the covered topics (high school students) and the supervision at the construction sites is done with low due diligence. In general, the
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environmental protection processes for the construction phase seem to be in place, but there is still lack of implementation. 4.8 NMT in current construction projects There are currently several major road infrastructure projects under construction or in the final planning stage. Examples are the eight-lane highway Thika Road, several Bypass Roads and the Missing Link Program. All projects are in accordance with JICA-Masterplan and are mostly planned and constructed by Chinese contractors and with support from different donor countries or organizations. Access to the road design plans was not possible despite several approaches to the relevant agencies. According to the Environmental Impact Assessment of Thika Road, a width of 2.25 m for the footpath on normal stretches and a width of 5.5 m for combined footpath and cycle lane are planned. In other chapters of the text, 1.5-2.5 m wide footpaths are proposed. (Ministry of Roads and Public Works 2007, p. 2-3, 20). Those widths appear to be suitable for the future usage, but the design of exits, crossings and public transport stops could not be further examined because the material was not accessible. In the interviews, skepticism was expressed that the original plans concerning NMT-facilities will be fulfilled. They were forgotten in past construction projects. To the author, the construction progress in December 2010 showed strong indications that the NMT-facilities would be designed with poor features and standards (Forest Road around Taarifa Rd.). In contrast to that, the interviewees at Kenyan planning agencies expressed their expectations for large improvements for NMT-users. For the highways built within the city, it can be argued that 8-lane roads do not need any NMT-facilities because their single purpose is car transport at high speeds. However, the roads have always been important connectors for pedestrians and cyclists in the past. No parallel side roads are available as an alternative. Unless a separate NMT-network matching to the origins and destinations of the users is put in place, every road should be useable by NMT as well. 4.9 Design manuals and professionals education Road design manuals are a helpful tool for planners to design roads according to the latest knowledge and to ensure consistent roads. Kenya has several guidelines, focusing on different fields of infrastructure construction. The presumptive latest version is a draft from 2001, which covers urban roads. (Ministry of Local Government, 2001) According to some interviewees, a new draft is in the discussion process, but it was not accessible. Infrastructure for NMT is valued in the document as an indispensable part of the transport system in urban areas (p. 8-1). However, the actual parameters set are only width and construction material. Footpaths, pedestrian bridges, cycle tracks and pedestrian islands are dealt with in one paragraph each. The total NMT-section in the road design guidelines consists of four pages. In the interviews, new design guidelines for an integrated planning were often requested and the lack of support for the design engineers was expressed. Even if the planners have the mandate to implement NMT-supporting
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infrastructure, they do not know how to fulfill this task. This was the personal impression of the author during the interviews, too. All interviewees at government agencies are highly motivated to design good roads, but some statements showed a complete lack of knowledge in the field of NMT. In past and current curricula, NMT plays a minor or no role. Information about modern design standards and international experience from industrial and developing countries does not reach the relevant stakeholders. Two foreign interviewees and one Kenyan consultant proposed a large scale education program with up-to-date international experience, addressing both university staff and students as well as continuing training for practitioners. All scientific backgrounds, ranging from transport economics to civil engineering, have to be included into training program. All stakeholders have to be comprised into this process because one interviewee stated that the high-level staff regularly visits best practice examples worldwide, but after their return to Kenya the new knowledge remains unused. 4.10 Drivers education and behavior Especially the interviewees with a non-engineering background see the driving behavior, especially of motorists, as a key issue in urban transport. Offensive, dangerous and self-centered travel behavior is common for almost all drivers irrespective of the current traffic and road situation. One Kenyan interviewee summarized it as follows: 80 % of the Kenyans should not be on the road. According to an interviewee, driving schools and license testing are a main source of the problem. Driving schools act in a highly competitive market so they do a lot of effort to make their students pass. Offices usually have no classroom environment for theoretic driving education, no written/oral test is required, no curriculum is existing, the number of practical driving lessons is low and driving schools are not subject to quality standards and governmental inspections. The driving test itself is sometimes just a few minutes long and the general public opinion does not consider it as a difficult task. Enforcement is the responsibility of the police, but their level of preventive controls is low. It was said by several interviewees that according to their own perception, only a small percentage of drivers who are stopped because of driving offenses are taken to court (the normal procedure). In case of offenses and light accidents, no register seems to be in place to recognize problematic drivers. Those circumstances lead to loose behavior of drivers in terms of alcohol, head distance and speed. Pedestrians and cyclists impose a much smaller risk to other road users, but they have a lack of knowledge in transport rules too. There is one traffic training park in Nairobi for children, but in most schools, education in mobility issues plays a minor role. Schools are said to teach a negative image of NMT and communicate individual car mobility as the goal of life. In combination with the poor infrastructure, those opinions can shape lifelong values and lasting travel behavior. 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS All interviewees considered transport as a key issue in the development of the
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city of Nairobi in the next decade. Users of all modes of transportation are highly unsatisfied with the current situation, but the proposed solutions by the interviewees vary widely. The fact that strategies exist is already noteworthy. One half of the interviewees see the current infrastructure programs as a big step for further development, but the remaining half consider a well designed combination of improved public transport (e.g. Bus rapid transit system) and NMT as the only long-term solution. It appears that due to the development support from donor countries funding itself is not a major obstacle; however, the allocation of the money needs drastic changes. The situation in Nairobi differs fundamentally from rural areas in Kenya. Several rural areas have a lack of roads and construction projects can be helpful to ensure a basic standard of living. To say it in Achim Steiners words (Head of UNEP): Before we can share roads, we need roads (UNEP Workshop, 29 November 2010). Nairobi has a good road work, but it is heavily overused by private cars and the roads are not shared with other road users. The urban roads do not fulfill the basic requirements to have them shared with NMT in terms of infrastructure design. Although there is no visible attempt right now, an integrated transport plan emphasizing walking and cycling has to be designed, discussed in public and implemented. Infrastructure by itself is not a solution. It has to go hand in hand with a largescale public awareness and education program, focusing on all groups of society. The following goals should be included: A public awareness campaign has to communicate NMT as useable by all groups of society for specific trips and NMT has to lose its negative stigma. A positive attitude has to be created. Drivers education system needs general reforms with the intention to introduce defensive driving and establish a new level of courtesy. Existing driver license holders and beginners have to be included. Education of professional planners has to incorporate all modes in correspondence to the actual modal share in the transport sector. Further training has to be provided for all planners in office. This included design manuals to assure good standards. Positive starting point for a shift in planning mentality can be seen at NMToriented meetings and congresses organized by international stakeholders. Senior staff members emphasize their commitment towards NMT and integrated transport concept (e.g. UNEP Workshop, 29 November 2010), but action is still required. Industrialized and best-practice developing countries should provide knowledge transfer to combine international experience with local circumstances. Donor countries should not do industrial development for their own national industries, but instead provide help to ensure a sustainable development in urban transport. That way they could prevent Nairobi from repeating their own unsustainable development they did themselves in their own countries. However, a declared intention to go this path by Kenya is a prerequisite. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The whole analysis is based on interviewees, who spent a considerable
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amount of time on the meetings. The whole study would have been impossible without the support from all the helpful individuals. The scientific staff at KIPPRA, namely James Gachanja, Nashon Adero and the program coordinator Eric Aligula supported the work by giving valuable suggestions, providing contact ideas and the whole framing of the study question. Basic funding is provided by the Heinrich-Bll-Stiftung and the Dr. Joachim und Hanna Schmidt Stiftung fr Umwelt und Verkehr. The specific research trip to Kenya was supported by the Promos-Program of TU Dresden. REFERENCES Aligula, Eric, et al. 2005. Urban Public Transport Patterns in Kenya: A Case Study of Nairobi City - Survey Report, ed. Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA). Nairobi. Anyamba, Tom J. C. 2008. "Diverse Informalities" Spatial Transformations in Nairobi: A study of Nairobi's urban process. Saarbrcken: VDM Verlag Dr. Mller. BMVBS - Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau- und Stadtentwicklung. 2009. Verkehr in Zahlen 2008/2009. Hamburg: Deutscher Verkehrs-Verlag. Bhrmann, Sebastian et al. 2011. Guidelines - Developing and Implementing a Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan - Working document, 14 July 2011. Cologne: Rupprecht Consult Forschung und Beratung GmbH. Button, Kenneth J. 1993. Transport Economics. 2.th ed. Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company. City of Copenhagen. 2011. Copenhagen - City of Cyclists - Bicycle Account 2010, ed. City of Copenhagen, The Technical and Environmental Administration, Traffic Department. Copenhagen. Daily Nation - Muchiri Karanja. 2010. Myth shattered: Kibera number fail to add up. Daily Nation2010. Graeff, Jennifer. 2009. The organization and future of the matatu industry in Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.fut.se/download/18.1166db0f120540fe049800011011/Graeff++Public+Transport+in+Nairobi.pdf. (accessed: 2011-08-28) JICA - Japan International Cooperation Agency. 2006. The Study on Master Plan for Urban Transport in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area in the Republic of Kenya. Nairobi. Kinney, Patrick et al. 2011. Traffic impacts on PM2.5 air quality in Nairobi, Kenya. Environmental Science & Policy 14, (4) (6): 369-78. KNBS. 2010. 2009 Population & Housing Census Results, ed. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Nairobi. Ministry of Local Government - Republic of Kenya. 200 Kenya Urban Transport Infrastructure Project (KUTIP): Road Design Guidelines for Urban Roads, 2nd draft. Narobi. Ministry of Nairobi Metropolitan Development - Republic of Kenya. 2008.
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Nairobi Metro 2030 - A World Class African Metropolis - Building a safe, secure and prosperous Metropolitan. Nairobi. Ministry of Roads - Republic of Kenya. 2010. Road Sector Investment Programme Strategy 2010 - 2024. Nairobi. Ministry of Roads and Public Works - Republic of Kenya. 2007. Feasibility Study, Detailed Engineering Design. Tender Administration and Construction Supervision of Nairobi - Thika Road (A2) - Phase 1 and 2, Feasibility and detailed Engineering Design - Environmental and social impact ass. study. Nairobi. Ministry of Transport - Republic of Kenya. 2009. A Report on Integrated National Transport Policy: Moving a Working Nation. Nairobi. Salon, Deborah, and Sumila Gulyani. 2010; 2010. Mobility, Poverty, and Gender: Travel Choices of Slum Residents in Nairobi, Kenya. Transport Reviews 30, (5) (04/20; 2011): 641-57. Schade, Jens, and Bernhard Schlag. 2003. Acceptability of transport pricing strategies. Amsterdam ; Heidelberg u.a.: Elsevier. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). International Human Development Indicators. 2011Only online available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/ (accessed 09.08.2011). UN-HABITAT. 2006. Nairobi - Urban Sector Profile, ed. United Nations Human Settlements Program. Nairobi: . Wessel, Karin. 1996. Empirisches Arbeiten in der Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeographie. Paderborn: UBT fr Wissenschaft Schningh. WHO World Health Organisation. 2009. Global status report on road safety: time for action. Geneva.

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