1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Viscosity and creep

A system of forces has been applied in a concrete
structure of elastic material. In this situation, struc-
ture assumes a deformed configuration, but when
forces have been removed, their effects have been
removed too.
Experimentally, it has been demonstrated that hy-
pothesis of elastic material is acceptable if the sys-
tem of forces has been applied on the structure for a
limited time. In fact, if forces remain on the structure
for a long time, there is also a new kind of strain be-
sides the elastic one. The new strain increases with
time. If forces have been removed, this strain does
not disappear, but it decreases with time until a de-
terminate value that is different from zero. Therefore
it is partially irreversible.
Increment of strain respect to elastic strain is
called creep. The property of material to have in-
crements of strain caused by stress that remains on
the structure for a long time is called viscosity.
1.2 Effects of creep
Creep and shrinkage cause strain and new stress
distribution. There are some cases in which this
phenomena are very important: 1) in non-
homogenous sections formed by material with dif-
ferent rheologic characteristics, for example precast
sections with cast-in-place parts, sections with more
types of steel, mixed-sections (concrete-steel); 2) if
there are different behaviors in the structure, in
structures built for progressive erection, if structure
endures restrains variations; 3) if this situations are
contemporary.
Another effect of creep is reduction of stress in
concrete, but at the same time there is an increase of
stress in steel. In precast concrete, creep generates a
loss of prestress.
1.3 Linear viscoelasticity theory
In this work concrete is a material characterized by
linear viscoelastic behavior therefore creep gener-
ated from a constant load is linear function of stress.
This hypothesis on concrete behavior is suitable for
a practice study of structure, moreover with it is pos-
sible to apply superposition principle.
For a specimen of concrete subjected to a con-
stant monoaxial state of stress
c
, with application of
stress since t
0
, in the generic time t, strain is:
( ) ( )
0 0
t , t J t , t
C C
= (1)
where J(t,t
0
) = creep function (Fig. 1). Creep func-
tion is the strain history for unitarian constant stress
applied in a determined time. Generally it is formu-
lated by:
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
0
1
t E
t , t
t E
t , t J

+ = (2)
where E(t
0
) = elastic modulus in the time of applica-
tion of load; (t,t
0
) = creep coefficient that defines
the shape of creep function. The first component of
creep function is an elastic one, the second compo-
nent represents creep. The shape and the evolution
in time of creep function for different time of appli-
cation of load is visible in Figure 2.
If stress is variable in time, with superposition
principle is possible to obtain:
Approximate methods for analysis of viscoelastic behavior of concrete
structures
D.Veglianti
Structural Engineer, Rome, Italy
L. Sgambi
University of Rome La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the viscoelastic behavior of concrete structures and especially the ap-
proximate methods for estimation of creep. In particular it studies the so-called Degenerate Kernel Method.
This method approximates the creep function with a Dirichlet series. As comparison, creep has been esti-
mated also with Eurocode 2.
( ) ( ) ( )

=
t
d , t J t , t
0
0
(3)
that is Stieltjes integral.
Dual of creep function is relaxation function. With
it is possible to calculate a stress history generated
from a strain history.
Fundamental theorems of the linear viscoelasticity
reassume the theory of viscoelasticity. The first
theorem says that in an homogenous structure with
rigid restrains and constant Poissons ratio, elastic
stress caused by a variable system of forces is not
influenced from creep, but the state of elastic strain
is modified in accord to Equation 3. The second
theorem says that in an homogenous structure with
rigid restrains and constant Poissons ratio, elastic
strain caused by yielding of restrains is not influ-
enced from creep, but the state of elastic stress is
modified in accord to Equation 4:
( ) ( ) ( )

=
t
d , t R t , t
0
0
(4)
where R(t,t
0
) = relaxation function.
2 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP AND
APPROXIMATE METHODS
2.1 Stress-strain relationship: creep models
In general creep analysis needs automatic programs
of calculation. In practice design are used approxi-
mate formulations. Integral stress-strain relationship
has been transformated in an approximate algebraic
form, but in this time physical phenomenon hasnt
been simplified. Actually, general formulation based
on mathematic algorithms for analysis of integral
equations is oriented to search and it is a reference
for approximate formulations. These approximate
methods represent a typical approach of engineering
to structural analysis in viscoelastic field.
Principal creep models are formulated by Comit
Euro-International du Beton (C.E.B. code) and by
American Concrete Institute (A.C.I. code). In both
cases, for creep function is proposed an expression
type (2), but with different creep coefficients. From
C.E.B. code derives also Eurocode 2 model (EC2)
for creep analysis. In particular, in appendix 1 of
EC2, creep coefficient is calculated with expression:
( ) ( )
0 0 0
t t t , t
C
= (5)
where
0
= nominal creep coefficient;
c
(t-t
0
) = co-
efficient that describes the development of load. Ex-
pression of
0
is:
( ) ( )
0 0
t f
cm RH
= (6)
instead for the second:
( )
3 0
0
0
0
.
H
C
t t
t t
t t
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

(7)
Terms in Equations 6 and 7 are functions of more
parameters, for example compressive mean strength
f
cm
, relative humidity RH, time of application of load
t
0
, equivalent dimension h
0
. For the expressions of
particular functions is possible to see EC2.
2.2 Approximate methods
Approximate methods for determination of creep
can be divided in three groups: 1) general character
methods; 2) algebraic methods; 3) simplified meth-
ods. Through the first is possible to obtain solutions
of elevated accuracy and with it is possible to ana-
lyze complex structures. Algebraic methods lead to
approximate solutions, but suitable for technical
problems. They approximate integral equations with
simpler expressions. Finally, with the third type of
methods that used particular formulations for the
stress-strain relationship, is possible to resolve the
integral equations in closed form. This type of meth-
ods are important because they permit to study sim-
ply characteristic behavior of structure.

Figure 1. Strain history deriving by the application of a con-

stant stress.

Figure 2. Creep functions for different loads times.

A general character method is based on quadra-
ture formulas. Strain is calculated as a sum of rec-
tangular or trapezoidal areas that approximate effec-
tive area defined by Stieltjes integral (Fig. 3). This
method has a disadvantage, in fact, is necessary to
know all load history. This problem does not exist
with Degenerate Kernel Method that approximates
creep function with a Dirichlet series:
( ) ( )
( )

(
(

=
n
i
t
i
i
e a , t J
1
1

(8)
where n = number of elements of series; a
i
() =
multiplicative coefficient of series;
i
= generic re-
tardation time. The single terms of series have a
shape of a step. The sum of all exponential terms is
the curve in the first diagram of Figure 4. A third
method to general character is the Reduct Relaxation
Function Method (R.R.F.M.) to study homogeneous
viscoelastic structures with elastic restrains, but it is
applicable also for structures with non-homogeneous
behavior in time.
Also algebraic methods use quadrature formulas,
but in this case there is only one period of time. In
other words, the period of time considered is not di-
vided in subparts. The solutions are approximate
through a rectangular with width defined by the
variation of stress and with height depending from
the particular algebraic method in use. In Effective
Modulus Method (E.M.M.) height is the maximum
value of creep function; in Mean Stress Method
(M.S.M.) height is the arithmetical mean between
maximum and minimum of creep function; in Age
Adjusted Effective Modulus Method (A.A.E.M.M.)
height is such that rectangular area is equal to exact
area defined by the curve, in other words, height is
such that S
1
area in Figure 5 is equal to S
2
area.
In simplified methods, when is defined the creep
kernel:
( ) ( )
( )

=
, t J
E , t (9)
creep is determined with the expression:

Figure 3. Determination of the strain with quadrature formulas.

Figure 4. Degenerate Kernel Method: creep function.

Figure 5. Determination of the strain with the algebraic meth-
ods.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+ =
t
t
d , t
E t E
t
t , t
0
0

(10)
Creep kernel is a function of temporal transfer.
The simplification consists in adoption of a particu-
lar formulation of creep kernel, for example an aging
kernel.
3 APPLICATION OF CREEP MODELS
3.1 Temporal discretization
Development of creep is fast when concrete is
young. With time it has an asymptotic development.
For these reasons, integration times must be thicker
in first times and in correspondence of variation of
stress, instead, for a lighter calculation, integration
times must be rarer for elevated times. In literature
there are more expressions for the calculation of in-
tegration times. For example is possible to maintain
the amplitudes of temporal intervals constant in
logarithmic scale. In one of these cases, the relation-
ship between two consecutive temporal intervals is
1.15:
15 1
1 2 1
1
.
t
t
t t
t t
k
k
k k
k k
=

(11)
but if there is a variation of stress, in the following
period, there is a temporal interval of 0.05 days
(Mola 1981).
3.2 Application of Normative Models
Considering an isostatic structure when is applied a
force that generates a normal stress. Strain history
has been estimated with EC2 and A.C.I. code. The
force of traction applied since t
01
= 30 days, till t
02
=
1730 days. For calculation of strain history is ap-
plied superposition principle. Load history has been
considered as sum of two constant loads with equal
value in modulus: first load is of traction and it is
imposed in t
01
, second load is of compression and it
is imposed in t
02
. Total load is 360,000 N, stress
reachs 6 N/mm
2
, concrete class is C25/30 of EC2,
relative humidity is RH = 50%.
For both the models creep function has instanta-
neous increment that is elastic strain at the time of
application of load; with time creep function has an
asymptotic development. Maximum difference be-
tween creep function estimated with EC2 and A.C.I.
code is about 14%.
3.3 Application of Degenerate Kernel Method
For application of this method is necessary a correct
determination of parameters.
First parameter is the number of elements of
Dirichlet series n: 1) the approximation with creep
function and Dirichlet series increases; 2) also the
onerosity of calculation increases; 3) numeric insta-
bility increases. Moreover successive terms of series
are less important. An optimal compromise between
good solutions and minimum onerosity of calcula-
tion is n = 3.
Retardation times are calculated with an expres-
sion proposed by Bazant (1973):
0,00000
0,00005
0,00010
0,00015
0,00020
0,00025
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Days
C
r
e
e
p
Figure 6. Creep calculated with the Degenerate Kernel Method.
0,0000
0,0001
0,0002
0,0003
0,0004
0,0005
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Days
C
r
e
e
p
EC2 M.N.D.
Figure 7. Strain history calculated with the Degenarate Kernel
Method and comparison with EC2.
0,0000
0,0001
0,0002
0,0003
0,0004
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Days
C
r
e
e
p
EC2 M.N.D.
Figure 8. Strain history for a continuos beam calculated with
the Degenerate Kernel Method.
-0,0016
-0,0014
-0,0012
-0,0010
-0,0008
-0,0006
-0,0004
-0,0002
0,0000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Longitudinal abscissa (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
)
M.N.D. t=85 gg M.N.D. t=13000 gg
EC2 t=85 gg EC2 t=13000 gg
Elastic deformed shape
Figure 9. Deformed shape in a continuos beam calculated with
Degenerate Kernel Method and for comparison with EC2.
1
1
10

=
i
i
(12)
where i = 1, 2, , n;
1
= first retardation time. If it
is 0.1, the other two are 1 and 10 respectively.
Multiplicative coefficient of series has been cal-
culated with least squares method to diminish differ-
ence between creep function and Dirichlet series.
Increments of creep have been calculated with the
expression:

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
i
t
i , k k
i
k
e A
1
1

(13)
where:
( )
1 1 1

+ =
k i k
t
i , k i , k
t a e A A
i
k

(14)
and in particular:
( )
1 1 2
t a A
i , i
= (15)
The first structure considered is the same as that
in the preceding paragraph, but with a different load
history. Three forces of traction have been applied
on the structure, their values are 12,000 N for each
force; time of application of load are to 8, 14 and 28
days. Total force, from 28th day, generates a stress
of 6 N/mm
2
.
Creep is shown in Figure 6. Total strain history is
shown in Figure 7. Maximum difference between
the two models is 5% to 10,000 days.
Instead, in a continuos beam with two equal
spans of 3 m, with the same geometric, mechanics
and ambiental behaviors of preceding case, a uni-
formly distributed load is applied. Load is applied to
8th, 14th, and 28th days and in an instant of load is
added a load that is 50% of preceding applied load.
To 28th day load is 20,000 N. In this case, stress is
variable with longitudinal axis and it reachs 4.2
N/mm
2
in span and 7.5 N/mm
2
in correspondence of
the central restrain. Strain history calculated in the
point of span with maximum stress is shown in Fig-
ure 8. Figure 9 shows deformed shape calculated
with Degenerate Kernel Method to 85 and 13,000
days; as comparison they are calculated also with
EC2 model and also elastic deformed shape is
shown. Difference between the two models are
minimum to 85

days, instead, to 13,000 days they
are about 3%.
3.4 Application of Age Adjusted Effective Modulus
Method
Creep has been determined also with algebraic
methods and in particular with Age Adjusted Effec-
tive Modulus Method. For comparison, solutions
calculated with quadrature formulas method (it is
indicated in figures with F.Q.) and with EC2 model
are also shown.
For isostatic structure, load is a traction and it is
applied in six different times. In every time of appli-
cation of load, it is increases of 50% of load rela-
tives to preceding time. After 56

days load is con-
stant and its value is 360,000 N. The relative stress
is 6 N/mm
2
.
With the method considered, creep has been cal-
culated in different time (for example to 13,000 days
in Figure 10). If the solutions are reported in a tem-
poral scale, is possible to obtain the strain history
(Fig. 11). Differences between creep calculated with
A.A.E.M.M. and EC2 model are minimal: they are
inferiors than 1%. This result derives by creep func-
tion used for algebraic methods that is calculated
with EC2 model. Moreover A.A.E.M.M. is poten-
tially exact. The solutions calculated with other alge-
braic method are approximate above (E.M.M.) or
below (M.S.M.) respect to the exact value (Figs. 10,
11).
For continuos beam, the same load function has
been used, but the final value after 56 days is 20,000
N. Maximum stress is 4.2 N/mm
2
in span and it is
7.5 N/mm
2
in correspondence of central restrain.
The Figure 12 shows the deformed shape to 85 days
calculated with A.A.E.M.M. It is always between
deformed shape calculated with E.M.M. and M.S.M.
0.000414
0.000416
0.000418
0.000420
0.000422
E
C
2
F
.
Q
.
E
.
M
.
M
A
.
A
.
E
.
M
.
M
M
.
S
.
M
.
C
r
e
e
p
Figure 10. Strain calculated with A.A.E.M.M. to 85 days and
comparison with the other algebraic methods.
0,00030
0,00032
0,00034
0,00036
0,00038
0,00040
0,00042
0,00044
0 5000 10000 15000
Days
C
r
e
e
p
E.M.M. A.A.E.M.M. M.S.M.
Figure 11. Strain history calculated with A.A.E.M.M. and with
the other algebraic methods.
-0,0015
-0,0010
-0,0005
0,0000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Longitudinal abscissa (m)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
)
E.M.M. A.A.E.M.M. M.S.M.
Figure 12. Deformed shape in a continuos beam calculated
with A.A.E.M.M. and with the other algebraic methods.
3.5 Application of Second theorem of linear
viscoelasticity
In the preceding examples the First theorem of linear
viscoelasticity has been applied. In fact, after the ap-
plication of a constant load a strain history has been
calculated. Instead, for Second theorem of viscoe-
lasticity, after the application of a perturbation
(variation of static configuration, application of a
prestress, restrain displacement, etc) there is a
variation of stress state in structure. In particular
have been studied the following cases: 1) union of a
series of isostatic beams in a iperstatic beam (con-
tinuos beam); 2) restrain displacement in central re-
strain of a continuos beam with two equal spans; 3)
stress state variation caused by creep in a prestressed
concrete beam. The solutions of some cases are
show in Figures 13-15.
4 CONCLUSION
In Degenerate Kernel Method, creep function is ap-
proximate with a Dirichlet series. This method has
same advantage respect the other exact methods: 1)
it uses a relative low parameter number; 2) the solu-
tions are quiet accuracy; 3) it is not necessary to
know all the load history, but only the increase of
stress from two consecutive steps to calculate the
strain in a particular time. Respect to EC2 model
there are difference of 5% in strains. After all De-
generate Kernel Method results reliable and solu-
tions supplied are next to real for a greater number
of elements of series.
Another method considered for calculation of
creep is Age Adjusted Effective Modulus Method.
It is potentially exact. Its difference respect EC2
model are inferior than 1%. However it is conven-
ient to determinate strain in a particular time, but it
is more complex to determinate all strain history.
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Days
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
N
/
m
m
2
)
Figure 13. Stress history in a continuos beam built for union of
a series of isostatic beams (solid curve). As comparison beam
diretly continuos built is shown (dashed curve).
-6000
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Longitudinal abscissa (m)
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
N
m
)
M el. M(t=0) M(t=13,000)
Figure 14. Bending moment in a continuos beam with a dis-
placement in correspondence of the central restrains.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Days
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
N
/
m
m
2
)
Figure 15. Stress history caused by creep in a prestressing
steel.
5 REFERENCES
A.C.I. Committee 209/11 1971. Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage
and Temperature effects in Concrete structures. A.C.I.-
SP27 Designing for effects of Creep, Shrinkage and Tem-
perature.
Bazant, Z.P. 1972. Numerical Determination of Long-Range
Stress history from Strain history in Concrete. Material and
Structures 5.
Bazant, Z.P. 1975. Theory of Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete
structures, a precis of recent development. Mechanics today
2.
Bazant, Z.P. 1982. Inelasticity and Failure of Concrete.
Mathematical models of Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete
1.
Bazant, Z.P. & Wu, S.T. 1973. Dirichlet Series Creep function
for aging Concrete. Journal of Eng. Mech. Div. 99.
F.I.P./C.E.B. 1984. CEB Design manual on structural effects of
the time dependent behavior of concrete. Bullettin
dinformation 142-142bis.
Mola, F. 1979. Metodo Generale e Metodo Approssimato per
la risoluzione di strutture non omogenee a comportamento
elastoviscoso lineare. Studi e Ricerche 1.
Mola, F. 1981. Metodi di analisi di strutture in c.a. e c.a.p. a
comportamento elastoviscoso lineare. Studi e Ricerche 3.
UNI ENV Eurocodice 2 1992. Progettazione delle strutture di
calcestruzzo.