1

E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

2. TRANSMISSION LINES

2.1 Introduction
Overhead lines are used whenever possible on grounds of economy. An overhead line utilises air
to insulate the bare conductors for the majority of its length, apart from the very small sections
connected to insulators on the line supports. The absence of further insulation and the relative
ease of construction results in an inexpensive method of transporting electric power compared
with an underground cable, particularly at MV and higher voltages.

2.2 Overhead conductors
Although aluminium-alloy conductors are generally used at the smaller conductor sizes for LV
and MV distribution, the more common type of overhead line conductor in service is made from
aluminium wires, which conduct the current, wound around a core of steel strands which provide
the mechanical strength for the whole conductor. This is designated as aluminium-conductor
steel-reinforced (ACSR) conductor. Aluminium-alloy conductors use aluminium alloy (instead
of steel) as the core with aluminium conductors. Aluminium alloy conductors have better
corrosion resistance, lighter weight, and simpler splices. Copper conductors are also used in LV
systems, however, due to their high cost and the possible stealing of the conductors, they are
giving way to aluminium conductors.

The following categories of conductors are available:
(a) All aluminium conductor (AAC)
(b) All aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC)
(c) Aluminium conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR)
(d) Aluminium conductor, aluminium alloy reinforce (ACAR)
(e) Copper conductor

The proper design and choice of conductor material and size is of considerable importance. An
over-dimensioning of the overhead line system can have serious financial implications for the
investment, whilst under-dimensioning might not serve operational (with respect to voltage drop)
or future expansion requirements as the load on the system increases.

2.3 Properties of overhead conductors
An ideal conductor system should possess some properties. These include:
(a) Capability of carrying the specified load current and short-circuit current
(b) High electrical conductivity (low impedance) to reduce drops and losses, and hence
improve voltage regulation
(c) High tensile strength to withstand mechanical stresses or forces on it due to its situation;
these forces comprise:
(i) forces due to its own weight and weight of any othe conductors or equipment that
depend on it for their support
(ii) atmospheric forces, i.e., wind and ice load
(d) Corona-free at the rated voltage
(e) Minimum number of joints
(f) Minimum number of supporting insulators
(g) Economical or low cost

2
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

All the above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore while selecting a
conductor material for a particular case, a compromise must be made between the desire for low
cost and the required electrical and mechanical properties.

The two most suitable and common materials for overhead conductor systems are copper and
aluminium. Steel has been used, but it has the obvious limitations of poor conductivity and high
susceptibility to corrosion.

(a) Copper
It is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and greater
tensile strength. It is always used in the hand drawn form as stranded conductors. It has high
current density, i.e., the current-carrying capacity of copper per unit cross-sectional area is quite
large. This leads to two advantages:
(i) Smaller cross-sectional area of conductor required and hence lower cost
(ii) Smaller cross-sectional area offered for wind loading
The copper metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has a high scrap value. However, copper is
very expensive and not readily available.

There is no doubt that copper is most ideal for transmission and distribution of electric power.
However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, it is rarely used for these purposes. As such,
the trend these days is to use aluminium in place of copper.

(b) Aluminium
Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper. Being light, aluminium conductors are
subject to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms are required. It has much smaller
conductivity and tensile strength. The lower conductivity necessitates increased cross-sectional
area. Due to lower tensile strength and higher coefficient of linear expansion of, the sag in
aluminium is greater than in copper.

Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight, etc.,
aluminium is gaining more edge over copper. It is particularly economical to use aluminium for
heavy-current transmission, where the conductor size is large and its cost forms a major portion
of the total cost of complete installation.


2.4 Construction
There are four basic components of an overhead transmission line. These are
(a) Conductors they carry power from the sending-end to the receiving-end.
(b) Ground (or Shield) wires
(c) Insulators
(d) Supports wooden poles, steel poles, reinforced concrete poles, towers

2.4.1 The earth wire
Earth wires are bear wires supported at the very top of transmission line towers. The radius of the
earth wire is smaller than that of the phase conductors because the earthwire carries very little(or
no) current. It performs the following functions: (a) improve the capability of the phase
conductors by reducing the series impedance of the conductors, (b) shield the phase conductors
3
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

from direct lightning strokes and thus minimise faults due to lightning strikes on them (they
intercept the lightning strikes and conduct them to ground).

The protective angle of the earth wire is defined as the angle between the normal through the
earth wire and a slanting line connecting the earth wire and the phase conductor.
o
Earth Wire
Phase
Conductor
angle protective = o

Figure 1: Protective angle of earth wire
The protective angle should not be more than 30
0
for sufficiently good shielding of the line
conductor. To achieve effective shielding for towers of low height and for towers in areas
susceptible to high rate of thunderstorms, two ground wires are employed.

2.4.2 Supports
The required properties of overhead line supports are:
(a) High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and loading due to wind
and/or (ice)
(b) Light weight without loss in mechanical strength
(c) Cheap in cost and economical to maintain
(d) Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance
(e) Longer lifespan

The supports must keep the conductors at a safe height from the ground and at adequate distance
from each other. They must be strong enough to withstand not only the dead weight of the
conductors, but also the loads due to ice and other things that might adhere to them and to wind
pressure. The line supports used for transmission and distribution are of various types. These
include wooden poles, steel poles, reinforced concrete poles and lattice steel towers. The choice
of supporting structure for a particular case depends on the life span, cross-sectional area of
conductors, line voltage, cost and local conditions.

(a) Wooden poles
Wooden poles are made of treated wood (e.g. teak) and are suitable for lines of moderate cross-
sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, about 40 50 m. They are cheap, easily available,
provide insulating properties and are therefore widely used for distribution in rural areas as an
economic proposition.

Wooden poles have the tendency to rot below the ground level, causing foundation failure. To
prevent this, the portion of the pole below ground level is impregnated with preservative
compound like creosote oil. They have comparatively lower lifespan (20-25 years), less
4
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

mechanical strength and require periodic inspection. Wooden poles are therefore not
recommended for voltages above 20kV.

(b) Steel poles
Steel poles are normally employed for distribution in cities and they support longer spans (50
80 m). They posses greater mechanical strength, and have longer lifespan. They can be
galvanized or painted in order to prolong its life. Three types of steel poles exist: rail poles,
tubular poles and rolled steel joints. Steel poles are mostly now employed for in street lighting.

(c) Reinforced concrete poles
Reinforced concrete poles have greater mechanical strength, longer lifespan and also permits
longer spans (80 100 m) than steel and wooden poles. They require little maintenance but have
heavy weight.

(d) Steel towers (Pylons)
Steel towers are mainly employed in HV and EHV systems. They support the conductors
themselves and are, of course, the most visual part of a transmission line. Due to a growing effort
to reduce the visual impact of transmission lines and to make towers more economical, a great
variety of tower designs and materials have evolved. Towers have the greatest mechanical
strength, longest lifespan, can withstand severe climatic conditions and permit much longer
spans (100 300 m). For Extra high voltages, the spans can be larger (370 460m). Tower
footings are usually solidly grounded.

2.5 Spacing between conductors
Conductors must be sufficiently spaced to prevent arc-over under strong wind conditions. The
spacing between conductors increases with increasing spans and increasing line voltage. The
spacing can be obtained by empirical formula.

2.6 Sag in overhead lines
While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the
conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the
stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value, and in certain cases, the conductor may break
due to excessive tension.

In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed to
have a dip or sag. The difference in level between the points of supports and the lowest point on
the conductor is called sag.
S
sag = S
O
A B

Figure 2: Sag in an overhead line
5
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana




2.6.1 Sag calculation when supports are at equal levels.
S
O
A B
l
l
2
1
l
2
1
T
y
x
wx
x
2
1

Figure 3: Sag calculation for supports at the same level
It must be recalled that tension is governed by conductor weight, wind effects, ice loading (not
applicable in Ghana) and temperature variations. A standard practice is to keep conductor tension
less than 50% of its ultimate tensile strength, i.e., a minimum factor of safety in respect of
conductor tension is 2.

Let = l length of span
=
c
w weight per unit length of conductor
= T tension in the conductor
= O reference point for measuring the coordinates of different points on the conductor.

Let us assume that the curvature is small, that is, the length of curved surface x OP = , the
horizontal projection. Then the two forces acting on the portion OP of the conductor are:
(a) The weight x W
c
of the conductor acting at a distance
2
x
from O.
(b) The tensionT acting at O.

Mathematically, we have
T
w
y or
x
x w y T
x c
c
2

2
2
=
=
Eq. 3.1
For the minimum sag, the coordinates are: S y
l
x = = ,
2
. Substituting these values into equation
(3.1), we obtain:

T
w
S Sag
l c
8
2
= =
Eq. 3.2
The following points about sag must are worth noting:
6
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

(a) Conductor sag and tension are important considerations in the mechanical design of
overhead lines
(b) Sag should be kept minimum in order to reduce conductor material required, as well as
avoid extra pole height for sufficient conductor clearance above ground level.
(c) Sag and stresses vary with temperature on account of thermal expansion and contraction of
the line conductors.
(d) When a conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, the sag-span curve
approaches that of a parabola, if the sag is very small compared with the span.
(e) Tension in the conductor material must be low to avoid mechanical failure.
(f) The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially, and so the tension at the
minimum point of sag is horizontal.
(g) The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire
(h) The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at any point
on the wire.

2.6.2 Sag calculation when supports are at different levels
1
S
A
B
h
2
S
O
1
x
2
x
l

Figure 4: Sag calculation for supports at different levels
From equation (3.1), the sag at support A is given as
T
X W
S
c
2
2
1
1
= Eq. 3.3
Similarly at support B, the sag is given as

T
X W
S
c
2
2
2
2
= Eq. 3.4
But l x x = +
2 1
, Hence,

( )
( )( )
( )
x x
x x x x
x x S S
T
l w
T
w
T
w
c
c
c
1 2
1 2 1 2
2
1
2
2 1 2
2

2

2
=
+ =
=
Eq 3.5
If h S S =
1 2
, then
7
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana


l w
Th
c
x x
2
1 2
=
Eqn 3.6
Combining equations (3.5) and (3.6), we obtain
l w
Th l
c
x
+ =
2
2


l w
Th l
c
x
=
2
1

Once the values of
1
x and
2
x are determined, the sags
1
S and
2
S can be easily found.

2.6.3 Effect of wind and ice loading on sag calculation
The expressions derived for sag earlier are only true if the conductor were acted upon by its
weight only. In practice, however, a conductor is always subjected to wind pressure and, in the
temperate regions, to ice loading or coating.

t
d
Ice skating
Wind

w
w
t
w
( ) w w
i
+
u

Figure 5: Effect of ice coating and wind
Ice coating acts vertically downwards while wind loading acts horizontally, i.e., at right angles to
the projected surface of the conductor

If we denote
i
w as the weight of ice per unit length,
c
w the weight of conductor per unit length
and w
t
the total weight of conductor per unit length, then
w w
w
w
w t i c
2
2
) ( + = +


But length unit per ice of Volume ice of Density w
i
=
| | 1 ) 2 (
4
2 2
+ = d t d ice of Density w
i
t

( ) d t t ice of Density + = t

Also length unit per area projected area unit per pressure Wind w
w
=

( )
) 2 (
1 2
t d pressure wind
t d pressure wind
+ =
+ =


The conductor sets itself in a plane at an angle u to the vertical, where
8
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

w
w
i c
w
w +
= 0 tan

The slant sag in the conductor is given by the relation
T
l
w
S
t
slant
8
2
=

where
slant
S represents the slant sag in a direction making an angle u to the vertical. If no
specific mention is made of the problem, then the slant sag is calculated by using the above
formula.
u cos = sag slant sag Vertical

Example 2.1
A 132kV transmission line has the following data:
Weight of conductor km kg 680 =
Ultimate strength kg 3100 =
Span m 260 =
Safety factor 2 =
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should be supported. The ground
clearance required is 10m.

Solution
m kg w
c
68 . 0
1000
680
= =
kg T 1550
2
3100
= =
m
T
l w
Sag
c
7 . 3
1550 8
260 68 . 0
8
2 2
=

= =
Conductor should therefore be supported at a height of m 7 . 13 7 . 3 10 = +

Example 2.2
A transmission line has a span of 150m between level supports. The conductor has a cross
sectional area of
2
2cm , the tension in the conductor is 2000kg. if the density of the conductor
material is
3
99 . 9 cm g and wind pressure is m kg 5 . 1 length, calculate the sag. What is the
vertical sag.

Solution
Weight of conductor per meter kg cm cm g 98 . 1
1000
100
2 99 . 9
2 3
= =
Total weight m kg w w w
w c t
48 . 2 5 . 1 98 . 1
2 2 2 2
= + = + =
48 . 3
2000 8
150 48 . 2
8
2 2
=

= =
T
l w
Sag
t

For vertical sag, ' 14 37
98 . 1
5 . 1
tan
98 . 1
5 . 1
tan
0 1
=
|
.
|

\
|
= = =

u u
c
w
w
w

9
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

m sag Vertical 77 . 2 ' 14 37 cos 48 . 3
0
= =



Example 2.3
The effective diameter of a line is 1.96 cm and it weighs 90 kg per 100 m length. If the line is
subjected to a loading due to ice of radial thickness 1.25 cm and density 920 kg/m3, as well as a
horizontal wind pressure of 30 kg/m2, and the maximum stress in the line is not to exceed of
the ultimate strength of 4000 kg/cm2, then calculate (a) additional loading due to the ice and
wind pressure, (b) total weight per metre run of the ice, (c) maximum sag in still air, and (d)
maximum vertical sag under additional loading due to ice and wind.

Solution
(a) Additional loading due to ice and wind pressure

m kg r d r w
i i i i
/ 16 . 1 10 ) 25 . 1 96 . 1 ( 10 25 . 1 920 ) (
2 2
= + = + =

t t


| | m kg r d w
i w w
/ 34 . 1 10 ) 25 . 1 ( 2 96 . 1 30 ) 2 (
2
= + = + =

(b) Total weight per metre run

m kg w w w w
w c i r
/ 46 . 2 34 . 1 ) 9 . 0 16 . 1 ( ) (
2 2 2 2
= + + = + + =

(c) Maximum sag

kg cm kg area stress imum T 58 . 3017
4
96 . 1
/ 4000
4
1
max
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= =
t


cm m
T
l w
S
c
373 373 . 0
58 . 3017 8
100 9 . 0
8
2 2
0
= =

= =

(d) Maximum sag under additional ice and wind pressure loading
The sag under additional loadings is

m
T
l w
S
r
r
02 . 1
58 . 3017 8
100 46 . 2
8
2 2
=

= =

The vertical sag is
cm m
w
w w
S S S
r
i c
r r vertical
854 854 . 0
46 . 2
16 . 1 9 . 0
02 . 1 cos = =
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
= = u

2.7 Current rating of conductors
The current capacity of overhead conductors is decided by thermal, i.e. the temperature rise,
considerations. Because of electrical limitations, long lines are not usually operated close to their
thermal rating especially with bundled conductors. The conductor operating temperature is
limited (70
o
C is often used) by mechanical aspects such as allowable mid-span sag, creep in the
conductor, and long-term mechanical effects. Perhaps the most limiting aspect on lines is the
temperature of joints and clamps. Heat is dissipated in overhead lines by radiation and
convection.

2.8 Insulators
10
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

Overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles and towers in such a way that current
from conductors do not flow to earth through the supports. The insulators provide the necessary
insulation between line conductors and supports. The desirable properties of insulators are:
(a) High mechanical strength to withstand the line load.
(b) High electrical resistance to surface leakage current. To increase the leakage path and
hence the leakage path resistance, the insulators are moulded in the shape of a skirt.
(c) Sufficient thickness to prevent puncture under the high voltage stresses they have to
withstand.
(d) High dielectric strength or relative permittivity
(e) Non-porous, free from impurities and cracks, so as not to lower the permittivity

The most commonly used material for insulation of overhead lines is porcelain, but glass and
other synthetic materials are also used. The most common types of insulators are (i) pin type (ii)
suspension type (iii) strain insulators (iv) Shackle insulators


2.8.1 Pin-type insulators
Groove for
conductor
Galvanised
Steel Pin

Figure 6: Pin-type insulators
It has several porcelain skirts and the conductor is fixed at the top in a groove. A steel pin screws
into the insulator so that it can be bolted to the support. The skirts are fixed together by portland
cement. This type is used for lines up to about 50kV. They may be constructed in one piece for
voltages to about 25kV and in two or three pieces from 25kV to 50kV.

2.8.2 Suspension-type
String of
Insulators
Line
Conductor

Figure 7: Suspension-type insulators

Suspension type insulators are known as disc or string insulators. They are employed for higher
transmission voltages (greater than 33kV). They are not generally used on distribution circuits
except at turning points and dead ends where pin-type may not provide sufficient strength.
Suspension insulators consist of a number of discs made of glass or porcelain strung together by
ball and socket metallic parts. Each disc in the string is usually designed for 11 kV. A number of
11
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

them are connected in series to form a chain and the line conductor is carried by the bottommost
insulator. The main advantages of the suspension type insulators are:
(a) Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages higher than 33
kV.
(b) The conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, thereby providing protection
against lightning.
(c) Ease of selecting the number of discs for a particular voltage.
(d) If any disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged disc
can be easily replaced.
(e) In the case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of
conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained
in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.

2.8.3 Strain-type insulators
Suspension type insulators, when used in horizontal position, are known as strain insulators.
They are used to handle the tension off conductors at sharp curves/corners or at the end of
transmission lines or at anchor towers where lines are dead ended at road or river crossings.

2.8.4 Shackle insulators
They are used for low voltage distribution lines. They can be used either in the horizontal or in
the vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. For
voltages up to 11kV, they are generally employed at turning points and dead ends.

Figure 8: Shackle insulator

2.8.5 Potential distribution over suspension insulator string
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of units connected in series through
metallic links, the number of units depending on the transmission voltage. Each insulator units
constitutes a capacitor. There exists therefore mutual or self- capacitance between different units.
In addition, there exists capacitance to ground (tower) because of the nearness of the tower,
cross-arm and line.

Due to this shunt capacitance to ground, the charging current is not the same through all the
units. Consequently, the total system voltage is not equally distributed over the different units of
the string. See the Fig below.
12
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

1
V
2
V
3
V
V
Conductor

C
C
C
A
B
D
1
I
2
I
3
I
Conductor
1
i
2
i
3
i
kC
kC
kC

Figure 9: Suspension insulator string and voltage distribution

Concerning the suspension insulator string, the following points must be noted:
(a) The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself equally
across the individual insulator units.
(b) The inequality of the voltage distribution between individual units becomes more
pronounced as the number of insulator units increases, and it is also dependent on the ratio
(capacitance of insulator/capacitance of earth).
(c) The unit closest to the line conductor carries the maximum percentage of the line voltage,
the figure progressively decreasing as the unit nearest to the tower is approached.
(d) The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum stress and is likely to be punctured
first.

2.8.6 Calculation of potential distribution along insulator units
Suppose that the shunt capacitance to ground is a fraction k of the self-capacitance C of each
insulator unit. That is;
C = self capacitance of insulator unit
kC= shunt capacitance to ground (tower)

It is seen that
V
C
C / 1
V
I 1
1
1
e
e
= =
Similarly
V
Ck
kC / 1
V
i
1
1
1
e
e
= =

Applying Kirchoffs current law (KCL) at node A,
) 1 k (
V
C
i I I 1 1 1 2
+ = + = e

) 1 k (
V V
Ck
V
C
V
C
V
1 2
1 1 2
+ =
+ = e e e

The shunt current i
2
is produced by the voltage combination of (
2 1
V V + ).

Appyling KCL at node B,

13
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana


i I I 2 2 3
+ =

{ }
) 1 k 3
k
(
V

) 1 k ( ) 1 k (
V
k
V

) 1 k (
V
k
V V
Ck )
V V
( C
V
C
V
2
1
1 1
2 1 3
2 1 2 3
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + =
+ + = e e e

Similarly, the voltages on the nth unit can be determined.

2.8.7 String efficiency of string insulators
Owing to the proximity of the supporting structure which is not at earth potential, the distribution
of voltage along the insulator string is not uniform. The disc nearest to the conductor is most
highly stressed.

If the string has n units, the total voltage across the string is given as:
V
..........
V V V V
V
n 4 3 2 1
+ + + + =
The string efficiency is then given by

line the to unit the across voltage
string the across voltage total
efficiency String
closest n
= q

The string efficiency is an important consideration, since it decides the potential distribution
along the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution.
Thus 100% efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each unit will be exactly the
same. Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, it can be improved.

2.8.8 Improving the string efficiency
The inequality of voltage distribution along the string increases with the number of units in the
string. Therefore shorter strings have more efficiency. The greater the value of k, (i.e., the ratio
of capacitance to earth/capacitance per unit), the more non-uniform is the potential distribution
across the string, and hence the lesser is the efficiency.

If the insulation of the most stressed insulator unit is punctured or flash over takes place, the
breakdown of the other units will take place in succession. There is therefore the need to equalize
the voltage distribution across the various units, i.e., to improve the string efficiency.

The string efficiency can be improved by:
- Making the ratio of capacitance to earth/capacitance per unit as small as possible, through
longer cross-arms.
- Use of graded insulators
- Providing a guard ring to surround the lowermost unit, which is connected to the metal
work at the bottom. This ring increases the capacitance between the metal work and the
line, and helps in equalizing the voltage distribution along the different units.
-
(a) Longer cross-arms
The value of the string efficiency depends on the value of k, i.e., the ratio of shunt capacitance to
self-capacitance. The lesser the value of k, the greater the string efficiency, and the more uniform
is the voltage distribution. The value of k can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance.
14
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

The shunt capacitance is reduced by increasing the distance of the conductor from the tower,
i.e., the use of longer cross-arms. The extent of the reduction is, however, limited by cost and
the mechanical strength. In practice, k = 0.1 is the limit achievable by this method.

Conductor

Figure 10: Reduction of shunt capacitance

(f) Use of graded insulators
The insulators are capacitance graded, that is, they are assembled in the string in such a manner
that the top unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively towards the bottom unit
that is nearest to the conductor. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance, this
method tends to equalize the potential distribution across the units in the string. The main
problem is that it requires different-sized insulators.
(g) Use of guard Ring
Guard rings are metal rings electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom
insulator. See Figure below.

A
B
1
I
2
I
3
I
1
i
2
i
Conductor
1
1

i
1
2

i
Guard
Ring

Figure 11: Use of guard ring for uniform voltage distribution

The guard ring increases the capacitance between the metal fittings and the line conductor which
was neglected in the earlier model. The guard is contoured in such a way that the shunt
capacitance currents
1
i ,
2
i ,
3
i etc., are equal to the metal fitting line capacitance currents. This
results in the same charging current flowing through each unit of the string. Consequently, there
will be uniform potential distribution across the units.







15
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana


Example 3.4
Each line of a 3-phase 11 kV system is suspended by a string of 3 identical insulators. The self-
capacitance of each disc is found to be 10 times the shunt capacitance to ground. Find the voltage
distribution across each insulator and the string efficiency.

Solution
1
V
2
V
3
V
V
Conductor

C
C
C
A
B
D
1
I
2
I
3
I
Conductor
1
i
2
i
3
i
kC
kC
kC

The phase voltage is given as kV 35 . 6
732 . 1
11
3
V
V
L
ph
= = =
) 1 (
1 2
+ = k V V and ) 1 3 (
2
1 3
+ + = k k V V
Where 1 . 0
10
1
= = =
self
shunt
C
C
k
But
ph
V V V V = + +
3 2 1


Hence,
| |
kV V
V V V
k k V k V V
86 . 1
35 . 6 1 ) 1 . 0 ( 3 1 . 0 ) 1 1 . 0 (
35 . 6 ) 1 3 ( ) 1 (
1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1 1
=
= + + + + +
= + + + + +


Hence, kV V V 05 . 2 86 . 1 1 . 1 1 . 1
1 2
= = = kV V V 44 . 2 86 . 1 31 . 1 31 . 1
1 3
= = =

String efficiency,
% 7 . 86 867 . 0
44 . 2 3
35 . 6
3
3
= =

=
V
V
V n
V
ph
n
ph
string
q

2.8.9 Contamination of insulator surfaces
Dust, acids, salts and other pollutants settle on the insulators. When the pollution layer becomes
moist due to rain, fog or dew, it becomes conductive and a surface leakage current of much
higher magnitude than the dry value flows. Insulator pollution may lead to short circuits during
storms or under momentary overvoltage conditions.

16
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

To prevent flash over due to pollution, the leakage length of the insulator is increased. Greasing
of the entire insulator surface prevents the formation of a continuous film. However, a fresh
application of grease is required periodically, say 1 to 2 years. The washing of surfaces with
water from hoses when the equipment is live is also effective.

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type is
primarily due to excessive line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator. Electrical
breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flashover or puncture.

In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (earth), and the
discharge jumps across the air gaps, following the shortest distance. The insulator will, however,
continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the
insulator.

In the case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the
insulator. Puncture breakdown permanently destroys the insulator due to excessive heat. The
ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor.

2.9 Corona discharge
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is large
compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of the atmospheric air
surrounding the wires, if the applied voltage is low.

However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called the critical disruptive voltage,
the conductors are surrounded by a faint luminous glow of bluish colour called corona. The
phenomenon of corona is always accompanied by (i) a hissing sound production (ii) production
of ozone which is easily detected because of its characteristic odour and (iii) radio interference.
The higher the voltage is raised above the critical disruptive value, the large and higher the
luminous envelope becomes, and the greater the hissing sound, the power loss and the radio
noise.

If the applied voltage is further increased to the breakdown value, the hissing and glow increase
so much so that a flashover or spark will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown of
air insulation. If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform
throughout the entire length; otherwise the rough points will appear brighter.

If the transmission voltage is DC instead of alternating, there will exist a difference in the
appearance of the two wires. The positive wire will have a uniform glow about it, whilst the
negative conductor will have spotty glow.

2.9.1 Disadvantages of corona
(a) Corona is accompanied by loss of energy (dissipation of power), although it is not so
important except under abnormal weather conditions like storms, etc. This loss of energy
affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
(b) Ozone produced as a result of corona may react chemically with the conductor and cause
corrosion of the conductor.
17
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

(c) The current drawn by the line due to corona losses is non-sinusoidal, and hence non-
sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause interference with neighbouring
circuits due to electromagnetic and electrostatic induction.
(d) Corona current tends to introduce a large third harmonic component.

Corona effects are intense for voltages of 35 kV and higher. Corona discharges round busbars are
extremely undesirable, because the intense ionization of the air reduces its dielectric strength
and makes it easier for flashover to occur in insulators and between phases, particularly when
the surfaces concerned are dirty or soiled with other deposits/impurities.

Notwithstanding these unwanted effects of corona, it produces some desirable effects
(a) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
the virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the
electrostatic stresses between conductors.
(b) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

To minimise corona in lines using one conductor per phase, an expanded (larger diameter)
conductor has been developed. In one method, non-metallic strands of fibrous material are
inserted between the steel core and aluminium conductor wires. Another incorporates air pockets
formed by wrapping aluminium strands helically around the steel core. The usual way to reduce
corona with its attendant problems of audible and radio noise is to use more than one conductor
per phase forming a bundle. The effect of having two or more sub- conductors per phase is to
reduce the maximum surface electric field and hence the magnitude of corona discharge. A
further effect of bundled conductors is reduced inductive reactance. The sub-conductors are
spaced apart by steel spacers at frequent intervals along the line. Three or four conductors are
frequently used in the 400 765kV range.

2.10 Vibration
If a coating of sleet (partly melted falling snow) is deposited on a line during windy conditions,
the line may begin to oscillate (frequency of oscillation is about 1Hz). Under certain conditions
(for example when there is irregular coating of sleet), the oscillations may become so large
(amplitude of about 6meters) that the line is seen to actually gallop or dance. Galloping lines
can produce short circuits between phases or snap the conductors. High frequency oscillations (5
to 100Hz of about 25mm amplitude) are also produced in lines due to the formation of eddies.
The conductor vibrates in a number of loops, depending on its length, mass per unit length and
tension. This vibration can cause the conductor to suffer fatigue and eventually break at the
clamps of supports.

To eliminate the problem of vibration, lines are sometimes loaded with special mechanical
weights to dampen the oscillations or to prevent them from building up.

Figure 12: A vibration damper
18
E. A. Frimpong, KNUST, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ghana

Another type of damper different from the one shown in the figure above consist of a box
containing a weight resting on a spring. The fatigue may also be reduced by reinforcing the
conductor for a few meters on either side of the clamp by binding metal rods or same length of
the same conductor to the main conductor outside.