FAO Fish Culture in Undrainable Ponds

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Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

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FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER 325
Fish culture in undrainable ponds A manual for extension

TABLE OF CONTENTS
by Dilip Kumar Central Institute of Fisheries Education Indian Council of Agricultural Research Versova, Bombay, India The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. M-44 ISBN 92-5-103139-8 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, FAO
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

This document has been prepared within the framework of the Regular Programme activities of the Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service of the Fishery Resources and Environment Division. The primary objective of this document is to assist extension workers and other field personnel engaged in fish culture in undrainable ponds to increase production through the application of improved culture
technology. The original manuscript was prepared by Mr. Dilip Kumar of the Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay, India, based on the Indian experience of fish culture in undrainable ponds, and it was edited by Mr. P.C. Choudhury. It is hoped that this manual will be useful to extension workers and fish farmers in areas where fish ponds are not drainable.
Kumar, D. Fish culture in undrainable ponds. A manual for extension. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 325. Rome, FAO, 1992. 239 p. ABSTRACT This manual deals with the methods of freshwater fish culture in undrainable ponds as practised in India. The manual is primarily meant for extension workers and aquaculture training institutions. It outlines the basic principles of fish culture and the characteristics of undrainable ponds. The systems of composite carp culture and composite carp culture-livestock farming have been described. Methods of improvement of existing ponds and construction of new ponds have been included. The suitable species for culture, procurement of their seed, stocking ratios of various species under composite culture, etc., have been discussed. Pond management, both pre-stocking and post-stocking, including fish health management and management of common hazards have been dealt with. It also contains information on marketing and economics of fish culture in undrainable ponds.
Distribution: FAO Fisheries Department Inland Waters - General FAO Regional Fisheries Officers Author
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere gratitude is expressed to the Fisheries Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for suggesting and sponsoring the preparation of this manual and to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, for kindly permitting me to take up this job. The author is indebted to Drs. R.M. Acharya, P.V. Dehadrai, and M.Y. Kamal, ICAR Headquarters, New Delhi, who were instrumental in obtaining this permission. Sincere support, encouragement, valuable guidance and never-ending help is extended to Drs. V.R.P.Sinha, S.D. Tripathi, and A.G. Jhingran. The author extends his heartfelt thanks to Dr.N.G.S. Rao, Mr. M. Ranadhir, Mr. H.A. Khan, Mr. B.B. Satpathy and Dr. B.N. Singh for critically going through the relevant chapters of the manuscript. Finally, he is glad to acknowledge the tremendous help provided by his colleagues Mr. Kuldeep Kumar, Dr.S.K.Sarkar, Mr. C.D. Sahoo, Dr. S.N. Mohanty, Dr. N. Sarangi, Mr. M.S.Tantia, Mr. R.K.Dey, Mr. A.K. Sahoo, Mr.S. Ayyappan, Mr. C.S. Purushothaman, Dr. K. Jankiram, Mr. D. Narayanswamy, Mr. B.K. Mishra, Mr. Radheyshyam, Sri P. Jena, Sri R.C. Behera and at the end he also wishes to express his sincere thanks to his parents, wife and family members who gave their total support. Hyperlinks to non-FAO Internet sites do not imply any official endorsement of or responsibility for the opinions, ideas, data or products presented at these locations, or guarantee the validity of the information provided. The sole purpose of links to non-FAO sites is to indicate further information available on related topics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fish as food
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3. 3.1
3.2 4. 4.1 4.2
4.3 4.4 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6. 6.1
6.2
6.3
High multiplication capacity and minimal water requirement Low energy requirement for protein production Warm water favours fish growth Aquaculture production potential Employment potential PRINCIPLES OF FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE Pond ecosystem Oxygen budget Desirable fish species for culture Living space Supplementary feeding Pond fertility Diseases and their control CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDRAINABLE AND DRAINABLE PONDS Undrainable ponds 3.1.1 General morphometry 3.1.2 Physico-chemical environment 3.1.3 Community structure and function Drainable ponds PRESENT PRACTICES OF FISH CULTURE IN PONDS Carp culture Integrated carp farming 4.2.1 Integrated fish-pig farming 4.2.2 Integrated fish-duck farming 4.2.3 Integrated fish-poultry farming Air-breathing fish culture Sewage-fed fish culture RENOVATION OF EXISTING PONDS When to take up the renovation work Deweeding Dewatering and drying Contouring Desilting Reclamation of derelict water bodies Maintenance of dykes CONSTRUCTION OF NEW PONDS AND FARMS Site selection 6.1.1 Topography 6.1.2 Source of water and its quality 6.1.3 Soil type Designing 6.2.1 Water area ratio among pond types 6.2.2 Dyke Construction 6.3.1 Time of construction 6.3.2 Preparation of site 6.3.3 Marking the outlines
6.4 7. 7.1 7.2
8. 8.1
8.2
8.3
9. 9.1
9.2
9.3
10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5
6.3.4 Pre-excavation work 6.3.5 Pond excavation and construction of dykes 6.3.6 Water inlet structure Maintenance FISH SPECIES SUITABLE FOR CULTURE IN PONDS Criteria for selection of suitable fish species Fish species suitable for culture in undrainable ponds 7.2.1 Catla 7.2.2 Rohu 7.2.3 Mrigal 7.2.4 Silver carp 7.2.5 Grass carp 7.2.6 Common carp PROCUREMENT OF INPUTS Procurement of seed 8.1.1 Collection of spawn from riverine sources 8.1.2 Bundh breeding 8.1.3 Induced spawning by hypophysation 8.1.4 Production of common carp seed Feed 8.2.1 Natural food 8.2.2 Supplementary feed Fertilizers 8.3.1 Organic manures 8.3.2 Inorganic fertilizers POND MANAGEMENT Pre-stocking management 9.1.1 Eradication and control of aquatic weeds and algae 9.1.2 Eradication of unwanted fish 9.1.3 Eradication of predatory insects 9.1.4 Fertilization of ponds Stocking 9.2.1 Stocking of nursery ponds 9.2.2 Stocking of rearing ponds 9.2.3 Stocking of growout/stocking ponds 9.2.4 Method of stocking Post-stocking management 9.3.1 Feeding 9.3.2 Periodic fertilization 9.3.3 Pond environmental monitoring 9.3.4 Fish health monitoring MANAGEMENT OF COMMON HAZARDS Deficiency of dissolved oxygen Appearance of algal blooms Common carp problem Problem of no rain and plenty of rain Problem of predation
10.6 Poaching 10.7 Leakages in embankment 10.8 Outbreak of diseases 10.8.1 General considerations 10.8.2 Common diseases 10.8.3 Therapy of fish diseases 11. HARVESTING 11.1 Harvesting in nursery ponds 11.2 Harvesting in rearing ponds 11.3 Harvesting in growout ponds 11.3.1 Complete harvesting 11.3.2 Partial harvesting 11.4 Application of proper gear 11.5 Precautions 12. TRANSPORT AND MARKETING 12.1 Transport of fresh fish 12.2 Transport of live fish 12.2.1 Conditioning and preparation for transport 12.2.2 Open system of transport 12.2.3 Closed system of transport 12.2.4 Drugs and chemical aids 12.3 Marketing 12.3.1 Market potential 12.3.2 Marketing of table-size fish 12.3.3 Marketing of fish seed 13. ECONOMICS OF CULTURE OPERATIONS 13.1 Raising of fry 13.2 Raising of fingerlings 13.3 Raising of table-size fish 14. AQUACULTURE EXTENSION 14.1 Objective 14.2 Launching aquaculture extension programme 14.2.1 Programme planning 14.2.2 Programme implementation 14.2.3 Programme evaluation 14.3 Important considerations 15. REFERENCES APPENDICES

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1. INTRODUCTION
Fish culture is the rational cultivation of fish in a confined water area where the practices of both agriculture and animal husbandry are applicable. The soil and water management aspect of fish culture practice involving application of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers for the production of microscopic plants, the phytoplankton, is basically similar to agriculture while husbandry of fish such as feeding, breeding and health care is more or less similar to a livestock farming system. This farming system is also unique in that the farmed animal is cold-blooded or poikilothermic and lives in a water medium. Although this fish farming is approximately 2 000 years old, the importance of it has been realized only recently in the face of mounting pressure on land resources and scarcity of animal protein for the ever increasing human population. While introducing fish culture, it seems reasonable to discuss certain important aspects of fish farming systems and their relevance to the rural development programme of developing countries.
1.1 Fish as Food

Malnutrition and starvation are the two serious problems being faced by millions of rural poor in most of the developing countries. The problem of malnutrition is in fact more serious and of a bigger dimension than the starvation problem and is caused mainly due to animal protein-deficient diets. Animal protein is essential for proper growth, repair and maintenance of body organs and tissues. Fish contain about 16 20% protein compared to about 12% in egg, 3.5% in milk and 68% in rice and wheat. Moreover, it is wholesome, tasty, highly nutritive and an excellent source of essential minerals, vitamins and essential amino acids. At present about 31% of the total animal protein supply in the Asian region is in the form of fish protein. For the poorest segments of the population, fish is not only the most important animal protein source, but often the only one.
1.2 High Multiplication Capacity and Minimal Water Requirement

The reproductive potential of fish compared to any other farmed animal is also very high. A kilogram of female cultivable carp species yields on an average about 0.1 million eggs, each of which has the potential to become 1 kg fish in about a year. No livestock animal possesses this magnitude of fecundity. Although fish needs water as a medium to survive and grow, it consumes minimal quantity of water compared with any livestock or agricultural crop. Fish also enriches the water with its voided metabolites thus making the water more productive for agriculture.
1.3 Low Energy Requirement for Protein Production

Fish culture systems require a relatively less amount of energy for protein production than any other farming system. Carp culture, depending upon culture practices, requires energy at the rate of 22468 KJ/g of protein production while a land animal farming system needs over 550 to 3 400 KJ/g.
1.4 Warm Water favours Fish Growth

Fish are cold blooded or poikilothermic animals. In other words they cannot maintain a constant and high body temperature like other livestock animals. Instead, their body temperature fluctuates according to the surrounding temperature. In warmer climates, their metabolism accelerates and they grow faster, while in colder climates, the metabolic rate slows down, resulting in a reduced rate of growth. In this way they
save energy by not spending it for maintaining a higher and constant body temperature.
1.5 Aquaculture Production Potential

Although the world's total marine production now stands at more than 80 million tons per year, all trends indicate that a saturation point is quickly approaching. During the past decade the growth rate hovered around 2%, much lower than earlier decades. On the other hand, tremendous potential exists in aquaculture. Aquaculture presently produces over 8 million tonnes of fish and shellfish annually. It is estimated that Asian aquaculture production could be raised to 2030 million tonnes a year by the end of the century. Aquaculture production has increased at an annual growth rate of nearly 7% between 197584.
1.6 Employment Potential

Aquaculture is also considered to be a potential source of employment for poor farmers and displaced capture fishermen. Rapid development of aquaculture has already generated considerable employment through culture of marketable fish, fish seed production, and marketing of fish and fish seed. The National Agriculture Commission of India while estimating the employment potential of fish culture has indicated that every tonne of fish produced provides employment to 2.5 persons. The other important advantages of fish farming are that the production is carried out within easy reach of consumers and also the harvesting can be adjusted to demand, thus minimising distribution problems and spoilage. Rural ponds in Asia, hitherto producing at subsistence level, have succeeded in increasing production per unit area through improved culture practices involving higher stocking densities, polyculture combinations, pond manuring and feeding. The switch over from monoculture practice to polyculture has significantly contributed toward higher production and the prospect of polyculture appears very bright as the fish seed of desired species is becoming easily available due to the establishment of a large number of hatcheries. During recent years, advances have also been made in traditional aquaculture systems practised in rural India by the development of composite fish culture, a system of polyculture of a group of complementary and supplementary freshwater species of fast growing carps in undrainable ponds. With the successful demonstration in different agroclimatic zones of India, gradual improvements in technology have been made and it is now possible to obtain a production rate of over 10 t/ha/yr in experimental ponds and up to about 5 t/ha/yr in farmers' ponds against the traditional average rate of production of 600 kg/ha/yr. To meet the increasing demand of seed of culturable carps, hypophysation techniques have also been developed for both Indian and Chinese carps and as a result they are now being bred in captivity even by fish farmers in remote villages. The emergence of this culture technology suitable for undrainable ponds and the simultaneous development of hypophysation techniques for fish seed production has completely revolutionized fish farm productivity. This manual intends to provide the basic concept and practical guidelines of fish culture in undrainable ponds. Since it is prepared especially for extension agents and field workers, certain important things have been repeated and at times experimental results have been simplified with a view to making it more practical, simple and illustrative. It outlines the practices of procurement and propagation of fish seed, rearing of spawn to fry and fingerling stage, and production of table-size fish following simple sequential steps. Like other farming systems this culture system is also prone to certain unexpected hazards for which one has to be prepared and properly equipped. Such hazards are disease outbreaks, oxygen depletion, pollution, flood, drought, poaching, etc. The content of this manual is a synthesis of the author's personal field experience, the information gathered from published literature, and the observations of other workers in India. Based upon Indian experience, water resources in other developing countries with similar agroclimatic conditions may be utilized for the development of fish culture. It is hoped that this manual will serve as a practical guide to extension workers in popularizing freshwater fish culture in undrainable ponds.

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2. PRINCIPLES OF FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE

An understanding of the following basic principles of freshwater pond fish culture is essential.
2.1 Pond ecosystem

Like agriculture, fish culture is also based on a series of processes involving reception and transformation of solar energy. In the pond ecosystem solar energy is utilized for primary production by chlorophyllbearing plants such as planktonic algae and macrophytes. This conversion of solar energy into chemical energy (food) is guided by the photosynthetic and chemosynthetic activities going on in the aquatic plant community and the rate at which this is carried out is called primary productivity of that ecosystem. A part of the primary production is cycled through different trophic levels resulting in fish production. Here comes the community of consumers that comprise microscopic as well as large animals, which are unable to synthesize their own food and feed upon primary producers. Different forms of pond life are linked together through predator-prey relationship (Fig.1). This chain of food production, which follows a general pattern, primary producers - herbivores-carnivores - appears too simple and straight. But, in fact, it is a complex food web with various cross linkages. Fish populations may be classified into several trophic levels, depending upon their position in this food chain. Phytophagous fish such as grass carp and silver carp belong to the second trophic level as they feed upon the first trophic level organisms. Likewise, zooplankton, feeding upon phytoplankton, also belong to the same category. Carnivorous fish communities thriving upon zooplankton or herbivorous fishes occupy the third trophic level while other predatory fishes preying upon carnivorous fishes belong to the fourth trophic level (Fig. 2). A relatively simple food chain operates in fish ponds, but a complex one occurs in lakes and other larger aquatic ecosystems. The picture becomes even more complicated in large water bodies such as rivers and seas where complex food chains are referred to as food webs which in fact represent several interconnected food chains. There are some fishes which occupy mixed positions, between different trophic levels. They consume both plants and animals and as such, cannot be naturally categorised into any one particular trophic level. A properly managed pond presents an example of a simple food chain under simple conditions. Here the number of food chains is reduced by encouraging the growth of phytoplankton. The macrophytes such as rooted green plants, floating plants, etc., are not allowed to grow. Phytoplankton is consumed by the zooplankton in the water column, whereas its detritus is utilized by benthic invertebrates. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, detritus and benthic organisms serve as food for the stocked fishes such as the desired carp species. Thus, as much of the available solar energy as possible is utilized for fish production by proper pond management. Primary productivity is dependent on light, carbon dioxide, temperature and essential nutrients, each of which can be a limiting factor. Of these factors affecting primary production in ponds, the one that can be manipulated easily is the quantity of nutrient elements through the application of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers, as in agriculture. In ponds, only the top 2 to 5 cm of soil is concerned with nutriention exchange, and the soil below plays a negligible role in the production cycle. Undrainable ponds receive dissolved nutrients and sedimentary particles carried by rain water from the catchment area. Besides, production and decomposition of minute plant and animal organisms in ponds also modify the properties of the pond bottom to a great extent. The nature and quantity of fertilizers determines the species composition to be used in a culture system. At low phosphate concentration, diatoms are
common, but with increasing concentrations green algae become more frequent, eventually giving way to blue-green algae. In addition, excessive phosphate gives rise to phytoplankton blooms which check the light penetration and thus lower the pond productivity through autoshading (Prowse, 1968).
Figure 1. Pond Ecosystem
Figure 2. Food Pyramid Light energy is one of the major inputs in primary production and hence the success of fish culture depends largely on the efficient utilization of incident light. When incident light strikes the water surface, it is partially reflected and partially transmitted into the water where part of it is utilized in the process of photosynthesis and the rest is scattered or absorbed by suspended particles. In turbid waters, more light is scattered or absorbed, thus allowing the light penetration only to shallow depths. The rapid disappearance of light in such waters affects adversely the growth of diatoms. The bottom layer of water, being devoid of photosynthetic plants and also being in close contact with the decaying organic matter, suffers from oxygen depletion causing critical stress conditions for the fish. Thus, it is important that primary producers must provide oxygen to support the total biological respiration during darkness and also during the less favourable (warmer, overcast or rainy) days apart from providing food for the second and third trophic-level fish.
Temperature (C)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Table 1 Solubility of oxygen under different temperatures at 760 mm of Hg pressure (Adapted from APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1980) Solubility of Temperature oxygen (mg/l) (C)
9.76 9.56 9.37 9.18 9.01 8.84 8.68 8.53 8.38 8.25 8.11 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 7.99 7.86 7.75 7.64 7.53 7.42 7.32 7.22 7.13 7.04
Solubility of oxygen (mg/l)
2.2 Oxygen budget
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water, which depends on the temperature, is an essential component of the aquatic environment to govern the carrying capacity of a pond. Variations in concentration of dissolved oxygen may occur due to the following three important factors: the saturation level of oxygen in water decreases as the temperature rises; supersaturation is an unstable state, and plants not only photosynthesize to produce oxygen, they also respire and consume oxygen. The saturation value for dissolved oxygen available for fish life at 20C water temperature is more than that at 30C at a particular atmospheric pressure (Table 1). Dissolved oxygen (Do) concentration is always high at lower temperatures and gradually decreases with increase in temperature. In natural waters, including undrainable fish ponds, DO values are constantly changing because of biological, physical, and chemical processes (Fig. 3). The air above the pond water surface may be considered to have a more or less constant percentage of oxygen. However, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air may vary slightly at a given location because of differences in atmospheric pressure. Transfer of oxygen from air to water will occur when water is undersaturated with DO, and oxygen will diffuse from water to air when water is supersaturated with oxygen. However, the diffusion of oxygen into the pond water is very slow, except under conditions of strong turbulence, hence the most important source of oxygen is that generated during photosynthesis. As discussed earlier, light is the most essential source in photosynthesis where penetration into the water column is regulated to a large extent by suspended or colloidal particles (turbidity) and also by dense plankton levels. Sometimes, phytoplankton blooms or algal scums limit light penetration causing reduction in photosynthetic rates, even in waters with adequate nutrient concentrations. Oxygen production by phytoplankton is greatest near the surface and decreases with the increase in depth because of self-shading. When heavy infestation of aquatic weeds and dense bloom of plankton occur, the situation becomes much more complex. On the other hand, these are additional sources of oxygen at daytime; but on the other hand, they also respire and consume oxygen throughout day and night. At times the pondwater is supersaturated with oxygen during the day, which is a highly unstable state, while during the night, a greater proportion of oxygen is used up for their respiration, thereby reducing the availability of oxygen to fish. Thus, it creates a wide fluctuation in the level of dissolved oxygen, adversely affecting fish life. Figure 5 shows a situation created by algal bloom or weed infestation where wide variations between actual and expected oxygen production do occur (Figs. 4 and 5). In fact, under such situations oxygen production increases to its maximum during the daytime leaving surplus for the fish even after consuming for their own respiration, but at night this surplus level drops down to critical level. Under conditions of heavy algal blooms and weed infestation, the phytoplankton and aquatic weeds actually consume more available oxygen during day and night than they produce during the whole day (Fig. 6). During cloudy days, when the incident light is inadequate for phytosynthesis, the situation in terms of availability of DO becomes worse. Aerobic decomposition of organic matter by bacteria is also an important drain on the oxygen supply in ponds. Aerobic decomposition requires a continuous supply of oxygen and proceeds more rapidly when DO concentrations are near saturation. However, decomposition also occurs under anaerobic conditions, but the rate of degradation of organic matter is not as rapid and complete as under aerobic conditions. Under aerobic condition, the end product of decomposition is primarily carbon dioxide. At times high rate of bacterial decomposition of dead organisms and other organic bottom deposits lead to a condition favouring the increase of the level of carbon dioxide and other abnoxious gases, with a simultaneous depletion of DO, resulting in fish kills and planktonic collapses (Radheyshyam et al., 1986). Therefore, it is important that the pond water should provide adequate oxygen to support the total biological respiration during the hours of darkness.
Figure 3. Oxygen Cycle in Pond
Figure 4. Effect of Algal Bloom on Oxygen Production
Figure 5. Dial Oxygen Production/Consumption Pattern under Algal Bloom/Weed Infestation
Figure 6. Relation between Stocking Density and Production
2.3 Desirable fish species for culture

The choice of fish species is very important in maximizing production, both in terms of quantity and quality. Since considerable amount of energy is lost in successive trophic levels of the food chain, efficient fish culture always aims at making the chain as short as possible. Because of this, herbivorous fishes are always preferred to carnivorous fishes, the latter being mostly excluded because of their longer food chains. Mixed species farming or polyculture yields a higher production than single species farming. It is obvious that any single species cannot utilize all the available food in a pond because of its specific feeding habit and hence a combination of compatible species with complementary feeding habits are usually stocked to make better use of the natural food available in the pond. Selection of the species should be based on the productivity of a pond, availability of artificial food resources, availability of seed and the marketing prospects. The principal considerations in species combination are that they have complementary feeding habits, they occupy different ecological niches, they attain marketable size at more or less the same time, they tolerate each other, and they be non-predatory in nature. A combination of plankton and macrophyte feeders is most usual. Ungrazed phytoplankton is fed upon by zooplankton and to utilize them, the zooplankton feeders are included in the combination. The combination of the phytoplankton-feeding silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), the zooplankton-feeding bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) and the weed-eating grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is well known in China and Southeast Asia. In India, under composite fish culture, six species of fish viz. catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) along with three Chinese carps such as grass carp, silver carp and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are stocked together so as to utilize most of the fish food organisms present in the pond (Lakshmanan et al., 1971; Sinha et al., 1973; Chaudhuri et al., 1976). Other similar combinations may work just as well, but the most important aspect is to try to establish a balance between the species based on the food spectrum of the pond (Sinha, 1971).
Stocking density: Normally fish production increases with the increase in the number of fish stocked per unit area upto a level and then starts decreasing (Fig. 6). Higher stocking density results in increased total production, as there is better utilization of the available food, but in such cases the individual weight and size is reduced. On the other hand, lower stocking density yields larger individual fish. Proper stocking rate for a pond is that optimum level which results in a given time, usually a year, in a production which is highest in quantity and quality of fish, and most profitable. In ponds where no artificial feed is used, the total crop becomes dependent on the primary production and in such cases simply by increasing the stocking density, the increase in the total production is not possible. Even with supplementary feeding the scope of increasing stocking density and fish yield is limited; it increases to an optimum level and then starts decreasing. Under crowded conditions fish compete for food and space and are stressed due to aggressive interaction. Fish under stress exhibit decreased feed consumption and slow growth and are predisposed to many parasitic and microbial infections. Increase in stocking density simultaneously increases the total oxygen demand with obvious dangers. In undrainable ponds, accumulation of excretory products of the fish population also suppresses their growth rate. With efficient removal of such metabolites by aerating the pond water, the stocking rate can be increased further, thereby enhancing production.
2.4 Living space

It has been observed that under identical conditions of management levels and stocking density fish grow bigger in larger ponds. In Malaysia, grass carp, Puntius sp. and monosex Tilapia mossambica grew bigger in ponds of a larger area indicating the living space phenomenon (Chen and Prowse, 1966). In other words, the rate of production in a 0.2 ha pond will be more than double that of a 0.1 ha pond, despite the fact that the stocking rate per unit area is the same and all other management components including the genotype of the stocking materials and ecological conditions remain the same. The ponds having larger surface area are subjected more often to wind action resulting in greater rate of diffusion of atmospheric oxygen into the water. Larger ponds have other advantages also, viz. better cooling action by wind. In smaller ponds, water tends to stagnate and in hot weather tends to heat up quickly. Though it is preferable to have ponds of a large size, there is a physical limitation. Large ponds are difficult to fill and even more difficult to harvest. There must be an optimum size and shape of the pond to balance size with practicability of management, i.e. large enough to allow proper growth of fish, but at the same time small enough to be manageable. Recommended optimum size is 0.4 ha 1.0 ha (Sinha and Ramachandran, 1985).
2.5 Supplementary feeding

With the increase in carrying capacity of the pond either by aeration or circulation of water, fish growth can be increased further by supplementing the natural food with some artificial feed. This is the single most important management component for increasing production. In intensive and semi-intensive culture of fishes, supplementary feeding is indispensable. The quantity of feed and the form in which it is offered affect the rate of consumption. Temperature, dissolved oxygen level, crowding and health condition, etc., affect the rate of food consumption.
2.6 Pond fertility

Organic matter and mineral constituents of the pond soil supply the required nutrients for chemical and biochemical production processes. The pond bottom also provides a suitable environment for the decomposers like bacteria and fungi to mineralise organic components of the pond sediment and release soluble nutrients. Sometimes such nutrients are not available in sufficient quantity in the pond and hence they are added from outside in the form of fertilizers. Since plankton production is often limited by inadequate quantity of phosphorus which is essential for the assimilation of nitrogen into cellular matter, phosphatic fertilizers are widely used in fish culture. Unlike phosphorus, availability of nitrogen does not depend on the inherent status of soil, since it is brought to the soil by different processes. Nitrogen fixation by azotobacteria, blue-green algae, atmospheric electric discharges and photochemical fixation are some of the potential sources of pond
nitrogen. In a tropical climate, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by blue-green algae is of considerable importance. However, when nitrogen is added from outside, its form, viz., ammoniacal or nitrate is also very important. It is advisable to use the ammoniacal form of nitrogen in acid and neutral soils and the nitrate form in alkaline soil (Saha, 1969). Though there is a considerable loss of nitrogen from the ammoniacal form in alkaline soil, the use of ammonium sulphate in low doses is usually recommended, keeping in view the role of sulphate in reducing the soil alkalinity. Potassium is the other essential nutrient for plant growth. In ponds it is easily available both in soil and water and does not form insoluble salts and is rarely deficient except in acid peaty soil. Yet, a little potassium when added to the pond, stimulates the production of plankton. Organic matter of the pond sediment is also an essential factor regulating the bacterial activity. In this context, the ratio of organic carbon to total nitrogen (C/N ratio) is important. Periodic application of organic manures ensures to a certain extent replenishment of nutrients and also provides an energy base for bacterial activities. Apart from this, the organic matter and the bacterial flora are also directly consumed by zooplankton and some fish species.
2.7 Diseases and their control

Various intensification approaches such as increased stocking rates, increased feeding, fertilization programmes, etc., sometimes result in nutrient accumulation, frequent appearance of algal blooms, dissolved oxygen deficiency and other water quality problems in undrainable ponds. As a result of such water quality and environmental problems, the infectious diseases and their control assume importance. A fish farming system is unique in that the farmed animal is poikilothermic and lives in water where respiratory oxygen level compared to air is limited and becomes critical at times. Further, metabolic waste products, left-out feed materials and organic load of the pond bottom can affect certain exposed vital organs and tissues of fish. All such factors affect fish health and contribute to the risk of disease outbreaks. The above basic facts need careful consideration while planning for freshwater pond fish culture. The habitat of an undrainable pond is very varied and dynamic, but can be monitored and managed for increasing fish production.

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDRAINABLE AND DRAINABLE PONDS

In India ponds are relatively small and shallow bodies of impounded water with limited wind action. They may be called perennial if they retain water the year round or temporary/seasonal, if they do so seasonally. They may be further classified as drainable ponds and undrainable ponds, depending upon the drainage facility by gravity. Drainability imparts a very desirable feature to a pond and some authors prefer to call only the drainable type of ponds as fish ponds. However, Indian experience has shown that experimental fish production to the tune of over 10 tonnes/ha/yr can be achieved even from such undrainable ponds through a proper understanding of the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem and adoption of suitable culture technologies. Hence, before adopting any culture technology, it is imperative to have an idea about the basic biology of the pond types in terms of environmental factors, community structure and community metabolism.
3.1 Undrainable ponds

The periods of plenty rain and no rain usually prevail in regions having undrainable ponds. With the onset of monsoon, torrential downpours sweep across the land and the amount and frequency of rain decrease towards the end of the monsoon. Severe floods may occur, whereas a late monsoon or early monsoon of short duration may result in serious drought. Both flood/ rain and drought influence the ecosystem of the ponds on such lands. Small, shallow and seasonal ponds get filled or dry, whereas deeper perennial ponds exhibit considerable fluctuations in water levels accordingly. Though these ponds are basically constructed for storing water in such areas for multiple uses, ranging from supplying drinking water for human population, live stock, etc., to supplying water for agriculture, recent trend is to utilize them for fish culture. The description of the undrainable ponds is based upon the studies conducted at the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Dhauli, Bhubaneswar, India, under an extensive environmental monitoring programme of rural undrainable ponds.
3.1.1 General morphometry

Undrainable ponds in general are relatively small, perennial or seasonal water bodies constructed or excavated for multiple uses. Some of these ponds have proper embankments. They greatly vary in their dimensions ranging from 0.02 ha to over 2.5 ha in water surface area and 50 cm to 250 cm in depth. Larger ponds are relatively deeper while smaller and seasonal ponds are shallower. Unlike shallow seasonal ponds, the bottom of the perennial ponds is never exposed to sunlight and therefore the whole ecosystem of such ponds is quite different from those of shallow and seasonal ponds. Use of these ponds by villagers for multipurpose provides the source of organic enrichment. Usually the only source of water for these undrainable ponds is the heavy rainfall during the monsoons. However, in some cases, the pond bottom is cut below the water table so that ground water enters the ponds. As soon as the monsoon ceases, the water level starts decreasing gradually and shortage of water is quite common during the pre-monsoon season. Water is lost from the pond through evaporation, seepage and transpiration by aquatic macrophytes and the trees and shrubs planted along the pond sides. Macrophytes tend to appear in both perennial and seasonal types of ponds but with increased intensity in shallower ponds. Presence of thick sediment layers in the bottom is the most characteristic feature of these ponds which gradually get accumulated during the course of time and vary between a few centimeters to over a meter
and half in thickness. The quality and quantity of sediment deposition depend mainly upon the original soil, method of construction, nature of embankments, macrophyte cover, pond productivity, organic and inorganic additions, species cultured, etc. Although sedimentation is relatively faster in smaller ponds, there is a positive correlation between the age of a pond and its sediment thickness.
3.1.2 Physico-chemical environment

The water depth and total volume of water available for individual fish are crucial in fish culture systems. Adequate water depth is needed not only for optimum growth, but also to provide enough space and oxygen for fish life. Water levels in these ponds are mainly dependent upon monsoon rains. After the monsoon season, the water level starts decreasing gradually and shortage of water is quite common during the summer season which is the most crucial time for fish culture since the fish growth rate is faster in this period. In fact, during the time of lowest water level the ponds contain the maximum biomass. In shallow and seasonal ponds, sufficient phytoplankton population fails to appear and the soft sediment layer is vigorously stirred up by fish, making the water more turbid, thereby reducing the photosynthetic process by limiting light penetration. Eventually, the total amount of available dissolved oxygen may not be, at times, sufficient to meet the demand for total community respiration and the chemical oxygen demand of the sediment, resulting sometimes in mass fish kill and planktonic collapse (Radheyshyam et al., 1986). On the other hand, in deeper perennial ponds where the water column is more than 3 m, fish life is again adversely affected. In such ponds the photosynthetic or oxygen producing zone is less in comparison with the oxygen consuming layer. In addition, the sediment proper and the sediment community also consume a considerable amount of oxygen. All such conditions lead to a negative oxygen balance. The water in most of these ponds remains slightly alkaline (pH 7.09.0). The NH 4-N (ammonia-nitrogen) content of the waters remain below 0.02 mg/l with even lesser quantities of No 3-N (nitrate-nitrogen). The Po 4-P (phosphate) concentrations remain low and these chemical features of such ponds suggest that these waters are highly nutrient-deficient, particularly in nitrogen. On the contrary, the pond sediment is rich in organic and inorganic nutrients. The organic carbon ranges between 3 (in newly excavated ponds) and 50 mg/g dry sediment weight (in older ponds). The nutrient status of the sediment differs completely from that found in the overlaying water column (Olah, 1983). In general, all the basic nutrients in the pond sediment are about thousand times higher than in their respective water column. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are the most important gases affecting the pond community including fish. During the photosynthetic activity, carbon dioxide is usually at zero level while during the darker period its concentration increases. At higher concentrations it may be toxic to fish life. Carbon dioxide toxicity increases with decreasing level of dissolved oxygen. Carbon dioxide concentration can be tolerated upto 2030 ppm in these ponds provided oxygen is near saturation.
3.1.3 Community structure and function

Bacterioplankton and phytoplankton constitute the basic food for the fine filter feeder fish species and also for the zooplankton which form the main food of the rough filter-feeder species. The bacterioplankton population is always higher in those ponds which are associated with the activities of larger human and livestock populations. Most of the relatively older ponds with frequent appearance of Microcystis bloom have higher levels of bacterioplankton population (310 million/ml). On the contrary, the newly constructed and recently desilted ponds have less dense bacterioplanktonic community, around 12 million/ml. Macrophytic infestation also significantly limits the bacterioplankton production. The planktonic detritus originates mainly from decomposing fragments of the phytoplankton and zooplankton and has generally a concentration range of 2 000 20 000 number/l. The main groups of phytoplanktonic population are Myxophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Bacillariophyceae; whereas copepods, cladocerans and rotifers constitute the majority of zooplanktonic population. Some of the very old ponds having excessively thick sediment layer face Microcystis blooming. In such ponds the benthic animal fauna is represented by a very small number. In the majority of the ponds the benthic
animal communities are dominated by red chironomids and oligochaetes indicating the general oxygen deficiency in the sediment layer. The bacterial decomposition and nutrient recycling in ponds are greatly influenced by the anaerobic nature of the sediment. At the initial stage of Microcystis bloom in older ponds, the oxygen production has been found to be the highest (1) (over 15 g O2/m2 ), whereas the total community respiration remains considerably low (2) (below 10 g O2/m2 ). However, during the active decomposition stage of Microcystis (plantonic collapse stage) the total oxygen production level goes lower (3) (56 g O2/m2 ) than that of the community oxygen consumption (4) (67 g O2/m2 ). In older ponds, especially those having thick anaerobic sediment, the biochemical oxygen demand ranged between 70% and 90% of the total oxygen production, ultimately causing anoxic condition leading to fish kills. The majority of rural undrainable ponds are characterized by anaerobic benthic sediments. The dead and decaying organic matter settles down to the pond bottom (sedimentation) where it is subjected to further decomposition and mineralisation. The upper layer of the sediment remains aerobic while the deeper layers are deficient in oxygen and thus anaerobic. Some of the distinguishing features of drainable and undrainable ponds are summarised in Table 3. These perennial undrainable ponds in tropical monsoon lands with yearround warm water under plenty of light offer an excellent possibility for fish culture. Most of the species cultured greatly depend upon natural fish food resources and with a limited dependence upon artificial supplementary feed. However, without proper environmental management, the water remains infertile due to the overall nutrient deficiency with a very pronounced nitrogen limitation, although they possess a very high production potential. On the contrary, the pond sediments have extremely high level of organic nutrients in almost locked-up conditions which remain unutilized due to the anaerobic nature of the pond bottom (Fig. 7). However, though regular raking up of the pond sediment, either by manual or biological means, the organic nutrients could be released for making the pond water more productive. Proper management methods can optimise fish production in perennial ponds at most economical rates while seasonal ponds can suitably be utilized for fish seed rearing and also for short-term fish production depending upon the duration of water retention. The general feature of the properly managed and illmanaged undrainable fish ponds are shown in Figures 8a and 8b.
3.2 Drainable ponds

Ponds which can be supplied with water and drained of its water according to the requirements of the fish farming operation are known as drainable ponds. These ponds require suitable ground with proper embankments, inlet and outlet structures and adequate supply of water on regular basis. Studies conducted on the filling up of ponds from various sources of water supply showed the following cost figures (Table 2).
Figure 7. Microbial Decomposition Process at the Sediment - Water Interface
Figure 8a. Well Managed Pond
Figure 8b. Badly Managed Pond
Table 3 Chemical, biological and functional characteristics of undrainable and drainable rural fish ponds in Orissa province of India (Olah, 1983; Radheyshyam, pers.comm.) Undrainable ponds Drainable ponds Parameters (natural condition) (cowdung treated)
Water pH Total alkalinity (mg/l) Ammonia-nitrogen (mg/l) Nitrate nitrogen (mg/l) Phosphorus (PO 4 -P) (mg/l) Plankton Phytoplankton (number/l) Zooplankton (number/l) Bacterioplankton (million/ml) Benthos (number/m2 .) Decomposition rate of Eichornia leaves: Surface (% dry wt. loss/day) Bottom (% dry wt. loss/day) Gross production (g carbon/m 2 /day) Net production (g carbon/m 2 /day) Community respiration (g carbon/m 2 /day) Sediment oxygen consumption (g oxygen/m 2 /day) 2.88 3.86 4.02 10.99 1.76 10.99 (-)1.29 1.35 1.66 11.34 4.887 7.943 2.37 2.86 1.54 2.84 1.85 8.11 (-)2.4 1.875 2.261 6.071 0.1766 3.514 7.0 9.0 50 250 .005 0.300 .005 0.020 0.001 0.050 59 3 911 124 2 770 1.2 12.9 0 2 660 7.7 8.2 88 200 .005 0.25 .005 0.20 0.040 0.160 3 860 11 209 1.385 2.312 1 415 19 099

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4. PRESENT PRACTICES OF FISH CULTURE IN PONDS

4.1 Carp culture
The most successful system of pond fish culture is the polyculture of three Indian major carp species catla, rohu and mrigal along with three Chinese carps viz. silver carp, grass carp and common carp. In India this is commonly known as composite fish culture. The best results in terms of fish production in this system results not only through a judicious combination of species, but also due to appropriate management techniques including pond fertilization, supplementary feeding and health care. On the basis of growth performance of different species, modifications are often made in stocking density, species ratio, fertilization schedule and supplementary feeding programme in different agroclimatic conditions. High rates of fish production to the tune of over 5 500 kg/ha/6 months, 7 200 kg/ha/8 months and over 10 tonnes/ha/yr have been achieved in composite fish culture trials conducted in different agroclimatic conditions of India. The carp culture system as a whole is operated as a three-tier culture system where the practices are adopted for rearing fish during their different stages till they are harvested. Spawn (post larvae) are reared upto fry (23 cm) stage in nursery ponds, fry to fingerlings (812 cm) in rearing ponds and finally fingerlings to table-size fish in composite fish culture ponds or stocking ponds. Relatively smaller, seasonal ponds are mainly used for rearing spawn to fry stage and harvested after 23 weeks. Several crops (34) of fry are usually taken during the season. Pond fertilization by cattle manure and feeding with 1:1 mixture of oil cakes and rice bran is the usual practice. Fry raised in nurseries are reared upto fingerlings in slightly bigger ponds (0.05 0.1 ha) of seasonal or perennial in nature. Fingerlings are removed after 3 months and stocked in composite fish culture ponds.
4.2 Integrated carp farming

An integrated approach of composite fish culture together with compatible combination(s) with poultry, duckery, pig rearing and cattle raising is now being adopted. Under this system of farming small livestock and farm yard animals, viz. pigs, poultry, ducks, etc., are integrated with composite fish culture by siting animal housing units on the pond embankments in such a way that the animal wastes and washings are diverted into fish ponds for recycling. The fish not only utilize spilled animal feed but also directly feed on fresh animal excreta which is partially digested and is rich in nutrients. Surplus excreta supports the rich growth of planktonic fauna. Fertilizers and supplementary feed are not used, resulting in drastic cost reduction (Sharma et al., 1979; 1979a). Production potential through integrated carp farming is summarised in Table 4.
Integration
Fish + Pig farming Fish + Duck farming Fish + Poultry farming
Table 4 Annual production through integrated carp livestock farming Fish production Animal production (live weight)
6 7 ton/ha 3 4 ton/ha 45 ton/ha 4 0005 000 kg pig meat 500 kg duck meat + 17 00020 000 eggs 60 00070 000 eggs + 1 500 2 000 kg meat
The salient features of the various types of livestock/carp integrated culture systems are described below.
4.2.1 Integrated fish - pig farming

Pigstyes are constructed either on the pond embankment or near the pond to facilitate easy drainage of waste directly into the pond which acts as pond fertilizer and supports dense growth of natural fish food organisms (Figs.9A and 9B). Besides, fish also feed directly on the pig excreta. No other feed or fertilizer is applied to the pond. A pond is prepared by following the usual pond preparation techniques (Section 9.1) and stocked with fingerlings of all the six species of carps cultured under composite fish culture at higher of 8 0009 000/ha with surface, column, bottom feeders and grass carp in the ratio of 40:20:30:10. Marketable size fish are sold by partial harvesting while final harvesting is done only after 12 months of farming. About 2 months-old weaned piglets are fattened for six months when they attain slaughter size (6070 kg) and similarly a second crop is raised within the next six months. About 3040 pigs should be kept for proper fertilization of the pond. Pigs are fed on mash at an average rate of 1 kg/day. Green grasses or animal fodder is also provided. Grass with interlocked soil in root system (sod) are provided once a week to avoid mineral deficiency. Grass carp is fed with aquatic weeds or green animal fodder. Fish yields ranging from 6 0007 000 kg/ha/yr are generally obtained.
4.2.2 Integrated fish - duck farming

This is also an efficient integrated system based on the principle of waste recycling. Pond preparation technique is basically the same. A duck house is normally constructed on the pond embankment or on the pond water on a floating platform (Figs. 10A and 10B). When given free range, ducks feed on aquatic organisms such as insect larvae, tadpoles, molluscs, weeds, etc. The duck droppings like pig excreta act as fertilizer. Ponds are prepared and stocked with fingerlings of all the six carp species at 6 000 ha with surface, column, bottom feeder and grass carp in the ratio of 40:20:30:10. Fingerlings of over 10 cm are preferred for stocking. About 200400 ducks are sufficient to adequately fertilize a l ha pond. Normally 2 3 months old ducklings are preferred. Although ducks are able to feed upon natural food from the pond, they are also provided with duck feed at the rate of 100 g/bird/day. Ducks start laying after 56 months and continue for 2 years. Fish yields ranging from 3 0005 000 kg/ha/yr are generally obtained.
Figure 9a. Fish-cum-pig farming (wooden pigsty)
Figure 9b. Fish-cum-pig farming (concrete pigsty)
Figure 10a. Fish-cum-duck farming (duck house in pond)
Figure 10b. Fish-cum-duck farming (duck house in pond dyke)
4.2.3 Integrated fish - poultry farming

Under this system of integration the poultry birds are raised in cages under a shed normally constructed over the pond embankments or in the vicinity of the pond. The space requirement in such a system of poultry raising is about 1 sq.ft. per bird. The droppings of the birds fall on the floor from where these are collected and applied to the pond. The chicken house can also be built directly over the pond water so that the excreta may fall in the pond water underneath. Usually, 400600 chickens/ha of pond water
surface are used. No feed or fertilizer is applied in the pond, except aquatic vegetation for the grass carp. Fish production at the rate of 45 t/ha is possible using this system. In India, this system of freshwater fish culture has assumed greater significance in view of its potential role in recycling of organic wastes and in integrated rural development (Sinha, 1981).
4.3 Air-breathing fish culture

Besides freshwater ponds, there are many low-lying areas which become waterlogged during the rainy season. In course of time these areas get infested with dense aquatic vegetation and turn into swamps. Swamps are also formed along the irrigation canals due to profuse seepage. These areas are best suited for culturing airbreathing fishes such as Koi (Anabas testudineus), Singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis), Magur (Clarias batrachus) and Murrels (Channa sp.) without getting involved in costly processes of their reclamation essentially needed for carp culture. There are three levels of culture practices viz. low cost culture, semi-intensive culture and intensive culture depending on inputs and level of management (Dehadrai, Murugesen and Pathak, 1979). Fingerlings (610 g) and feed are the two material inputs used in the culture system. Fertilizer is not used. However, replenishment of water becomes an essential input in case of intensive system of culture in ponds where very high stocking rate and intensive feeding is practised to obtain very high yields (Dehadrai, Kamal and Das, 1985). Monoculture as well as polyculture of these fishes are commonly undertaken, yielding production to the tune of 3 000 to 7 000 kg/ha/yr. Production at the rate of over 3 000 kg/ha/8 months is possible through monoculture of Channa marulius in swampy ponds. In intensive system of monoculture of magur and singhi with frequent change of water, yields of over 15 t/ha/yr have been obtained. Presence of naturally occurring weeds in airbreathing fish culture ponds not only provide protection against poachers, but also encourage the growth of insects which are consumed by the fish. The common culturable species are magur (Clarias batrachus), singhi (Heteropneustesfossilis), murrels (Channa marulius, Channa striatus and Channa punctatus) and Koi (Anabas testudineus).
4.4 Sewage-fed fish culture

The wastes, including sewage and waste water produced by the human community hold high potential for fish production. In India itself there are about 150 sewage-fed fish farms covering an area of about 12 000 ha. Very high production in the order of 710 tonnes/ha/yr has been obtained from ponds fed with sewage which invariably contains high percentage of N,P,Ca,K,etc. An average production of about 7 t/ha/yr is easily obtained using a mix culture of 5 carp species (Ghosh et al., 1985). The sewage fed ponds are generally dewatered completely during summer so as to remove all the carnivorous fishes. The pond is initially fertilized by introducing partially treated sewage effluent upto about 7580 cm and then clean water is pumped in to raise the pond water level to 1.5 m. Within a month the pond stabilises with respect to dissolved oxygen and becomes suitable for stocking with fish seed. During raising of marketable size fish, additional fertilization with sewage effluent is carried out in small doses every month and the pond is netted frequently to help oxygenate the water and in course of netting the marketable size fish are also harvested.

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5. RENOVATION OF EXISTING PONDS

The majority of freshwater fish ponds in the Indian subcontinent are the dugout ponds of an undrainable nature which at times lack proper embankments. During the course of culture operations, such ponds receive huge amounts of feed, fertilizers and manures as critical inputs, and sediment particles carried down by rain water from the catchment area. A portion of the organic production in the pond also undergoes death and decay and gradually adds to the pond bottom sediment. Thus, with the advancement of time, a thick sediment layer is formed reducing the depth of the pond. They are quite rich in organic and inorganic nutrients, but due to slow bacterial action under prevailing anaerobic conditions the nutrients are almost locked up in the sediment and are not available for primary production. Further, the anaerobic decomposition of the organic matter accumulated in the sediment releases harmful gases and depletes dissolved oxygen level in the water. Thus, it becomes necessary to renovate the existing ponds periodically every 46 years by removing sediment from the pond bottom, redressing and repairing the dykes, etc., in order to make the ponds more suitable and to regain their fertility. For this, the following practical measures are recommended.
5.1 When to take up the renovation work

As soon as the water table of the area surrounding the pond goes down the renovation work can be initiated. Summer is the most suitable period for this Purpose as complete drying of the water body is possible. In this period pond renovation can be carried out efficiently and economically. Removal of slushy silt from the partially dried pond bottom is difficult, laborious and expensive.
5.2 Deweeding
It has been observed that most of the rural ponds are not properly managed and become weed-infested in course of time. Before dewatering the pond, large floating weeds such as water hyacinth should be eradicated by pulling them out manually or mechanically. Otherwise, collection and removal of such weeds will require more labour and time. Other rooted emergent or submerged weeds can be taken care of only after draining the pond.
5.3 Dewatering and drying

Dewatering of the existing pond is possible either by draining the water after cutting a portion of the embankment or by pumping out. If the water table in the surrounding area is high, there is considerable inflow of water from the pond bottom. This phenomenon of sub-surface secretion is called percolation. In case the rate of percolation is high, several furrows or ditches may be made towards the lowest contour point where a pit may be dug out to drain all the percolated water (Fig. 11). Periodical pumping of water from the pit facilitates keeping the bed dry.
5.4 Contouring
Where the bed is found to be uneven, contouring is necessary to estimate the amount of silt to be removed. It is done by taking the level measurements at certain spots on the pond bed. It will also help in redesigning the pond taking into consideration the highest flood level and maximum rain water level.
Figure 11. Drained-out pond with furrows
5.5 Desilting
After complete dewatering, the pond bed is allowed to dry and develop cracks in the silt mass. The texture of silt is different from that of the bottom hard soil and cracks quickly. At this stage dried silt is cut and removed manually or mechanically and heaped at a suitable place for its utilization in agricultural fields. Where complete drying is not possible due to high rate of percolation, walking platforms made up of bamboos or wooden planks may be put on the slushy bed to facilitate desilting work. In some larger ponds it becomes difficult to dry the central portion of the pond bottom as it is nearer to underground water table. In such cases the slushy and loose silt should be scrapped and spread to the sides with the help of wooden planks tied with ropes for pulling. This helps in drying the silt and easy removal thereafter.
5.6 Reclamation of derelict water bodies

Derelict waters in millions of hectares, lying unutilized, are common sights in most of the South Asian countries. Such untapped water bodies with potential for aquacultural production may be reclaimed and made suitable for fish culture by adopting more or less similar procedures. In case of larger water areas, it would be better if they are connected temporarily to nearby natural or man-made drainage systems having relatively lower bed level for complete dewatering by gravity and making the entire area completely dry. However, if such topographic facilities are not available, heavy duty water pumps may be put into use for quicker dewatering. In extensively large areas dewatering by draining or by pumping is not feasible. Moreover, the dry period of the year also may not last long enough to permit the work to be completed. It has been experienced that such areas can also be successfully reclaimed and renovated by partitioning into smaller units by raising cross bundhs, farm roads, etc. Each newly formed unit then can be dewatered, dried and desilted.
5.7 Maintenance of dykes

In general, rural ponds lack proper embankments. During high rainfall or peak irrigation periods in canalirrigated areas such ponds get inundated with water from the neighbouring agricultural fields causing stocked fish to escape, predators and unwanted species to enter and at times results in mass fish kills due to pesticide pollution. Hence, provision of proper dykes is a must. Existing pond dykes should be
repaired every year after the monsoon. Rats and crabs cause great harm to pond dykes by making holes. Such holes allow serious leakage and if not checked immediately, may endanger the stability of the dykes. Periodically, and especially at the time of renovation, such spots should be properly repaired by stuffing binding clay, claylime mixture or any other locally cheap cementing material. Due to poor consolidation, erosion from the top of the dyke during heavy rains usually results in grooving out of small channels. These areas should be covered with earth, levelled, thoroughly rammed and grass turfed. In relatively larger ponds, wave action due to wind also causes large-scale dyke erosion. By putting large floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth along the sides of the dykes exposed to wave action during the windy season such erosion can be checked. Frequent erosion in steep dykes during heavy rain or wind can be avoided by strengthening the inner sides of the dykes with poles or bamboos or corrugated cement planks. Most of the traditional pond dykes are below the required height; as a result, overflow of water occurs during heavy rains or flood. These dykes should be properly raised and the height may be kept at a minimum of one meter above the maximum water level recorded in that area. While raising the dykes, the top width may be kept at a minimum of 1.5 m with 2:1 slope (horizontal: vertical). Cutting the dyke to allow water into the pond from the surrounding area without any secured screening is a normal practice, which however creates many management problems. It is necessary to provide permanent inlet structures wherever is possible. Details about inlet and spillway structures are described in Section 6. The silt mass is very rich in organic and inorganic nutrients making it most suitable for application in agriculture and horticulture. Being non-cohesive and unstable, it is unsuitable for making dykes as it may be washed back in the pond.

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6. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW PONDS AND FARMS

Village ponds, homestead or backyard kitchen ponds, garden or farm ponds, irrigation ponds and occasional ponds such as brick mine pits and quarries, etc., occupy enormous freshwater areas in the tropics and are used for fish culture with minor improvements. However, ponds designed and constructed for fish culture are easier to manage and are expected to give higher production. Although certain well-defined guidelines do exist for the construction of fish ponds, it is mainly the topography of the site which determines the basic design of the pond/farm. There are, however, certain basic principles to be considered when choosing a site and deciding the method of pond construction.
6.1 Site selection

Selection of suitable sites for fish farm construction is very important. The following three essential conditions guide the proper site selection: Topography Source of water and its quality Soil type
6.1.1 Topography
It is economical and convenient to construct ponds in waterlogged areas, irrigation command areas or in marginal lands. In such areas construction cost is relatively low mainly due to limited earth cutting. For example, a pond of 100 m 40 m (0.4 ha) of water area requires only 3 234 m3 of earth to construct around a dyke of 2 m high above ground level (GL) with side slope ratio of 2:1 and top width of 1.5 m. This quantity of earth may be obtained only from 1.1 m depth of cutting. This limited depth of cutting reduces the construction cost considerably. However, full consideration should also be given to the possible effects of flood. The surface features of the area proposed for the pond or the farm is also equally important. A saucer-shaped area may be an ideal site for a large dug-out pond, because it may hold appreciable quantity of water with a small amount of earthwork. For smaller and flat areas eye estimation is enough, but for a big area proposed for farm construction with a number of ponds for different purposes and of different sizes, it is essential to conduct contour survey for determining the topography and land configuration. The site should be easily approachable so that there may not be any difficulty in the transportation of input materials and in the marketing of the produce. The labour and materials required for construction and operation should also be locally available as far as possible. From an efficient management point of view the pond site should, if possible, be within the sight of the farmer's house. It also reduces the risk of poaching. Siting fish ponds near the farmer's other agricultural or livestock farming activities makes it easier to integrate all the farming activities.
6.1.2 Source of water and its quality

A dependable source of water supply must be available within or near the site, even for undrainable ponds. However, unlike drainable ponds, undrainable ponds require just sufficient water to fill the ponds and to compensate the water loss through seepage and surface evaporation thereafter. Equally important
is the need for avoiding excess water and hence there must be arrangement for the excess water to escape through a bypass channel or a spillway. The water supply to the pond should as far as possible be natural, preferably rain water. However, alternative arrangements of water supply should be made for dry season either from a deep tube well or irrigation canal or from perennial sources like spring, stream, river, etc. Ponds should be on the lower lands to allow accumulation of surface runoff from a larger catchment area. However, care should be taken to provide proper bypass or spillway to avoid flooding. A higher subsoil water table due to irrigation in surrounding fields and percolation from artificial or natural channels, in addition to absorption from rain water, also helps in maintaining water level in undrainable ponds (Sahoo, 1984). The quality of the available water is also equally important for fish culture. Pond fish production is influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the water. Water should be clear as far as possible. Turbid waters which carry suspended solids cut the light penetration, thus reducing primary productivity of the pond. Excess of suspended solids also adhere closely to the gill filaments and cause breathing problems. Water temperature also significantly influences the feeding and growth of fish. Prevailing water temperature, ranging between 15C and 35C in tropical areas, is most suitable for carps. The chemical quality of water depends on its content of dissolved salts. Rain water does not carry any dissolved salts. However, it collects nutrient salts from the ground surface of the catchment area. The water should be neither too acid nor too alkaline; neutral or slightly alkaline waters are most suitable for fish culture and hence acid water should be limed to make it neutral. Waters with p H values below 5.5 or over 8.5 are not proper for fish culture. The farmer will need huge quantity of lime to neutralize it while highly alkaline water may cause the precipitation of both phosphate and iron, and if it remains continuously above p H 9, it may be harmful to fish.
6.1.3 Soil type

Pond soil must retain water. Soils with a low infiltration rate are most suitable for fish pond. Table 5 shows the filtration rate of different types of soils. The best soils for our purpose are thus the impermeable clay which can be easily compacted and made leak proof.
Table 5 Infiltration rates of different types of soil (Stern, 1979) Soil type Infiltration rate (mm/ha)
Clay Clay loam Silty loam Sandy loam Sand 15 510 1020 2030 30100
Loamy soils can also be used, but they need well compacting, and may leak slightly in the early stages, although they tend to seal themselves with time. Sandy and gravelly soils should be avoided, but if they are the only ones available they must be made impermeable with a thick coating of clay or with polythene sheeting. Soil impermeability can also be achieved by soil compaction at the pond bottom and dyke with either a mixture of soil + 15% cement or soil + 1020% cowdung. Treated areas should be kept moist for 23 days by gently sprinkling water to avoid cracking and finally the pond is filled with water (Sahoo, pers.comm.). Peat soils have special problems, since they are usually very acidic in nature and need sufficient liming, while the organic matter decomposition may lead to dissolved oxygen deficiency. Soils rich in limestone also create special problems, since the excessive lime content tends to precipitate phosphate and iron. Such ponds would then have little plankton population and macrophytes and would be relatively sterile. This can be overcome by adding sufficient organic matter such as cowdung, poultry manure, etc. A general and convenient field test for the soil quality is to take a handful of moist soil from the test holes made at the proposed site and to compress it into a firm ball. If the ball does not crumble after a little handling, it indicates that it contains sufficient clay for the purpose of pond construction. Accurate determination of the composition of the soil and its water-holding character is possible by hydrometer
method. Several test holes may be made across the site and soil samples may be collected vertically from every 0.5 m of depth reaching up to a level of 34 m in a test hole. Using the results of the soil tests, a soil profile chart for the proposed site may be drawn. An arbitrary soil profile chart is presented (Fig. 12) showing the presence of clayey soil up to a depth of 3.5 m.
6.2 Designing
Based upon the survey on topography, soil type, water supply, etc., the detailed designing and layout of the ponds/farm are done. However, the following additional points are also to be considered.
6.2.1 Water area ratio among pond types

The production or stocking ponds are stocked with large size fingerlings of about 1015 cm size in the case of composite fish culture. To attain this size, the hatchlings are reared in much smaller and shallower ponds called nursery and rearing ponds for about 23 months. In the nursery ponds the hatchlings are reared up to fry stage and in the rearing ponds the fry are reared till fingerling stage. The ratio of water area among nursery, rearing and stocking ponds in a fish farm depend upon the basic objective of the farm. In case of a fish seed farm, only nursery and rearing ponds are to be constructed with a small area for few stocking ponds to be used for raising the brood fish, while in the case of fish production farm only stocking ponds are to be constructed for producing table size fish from fingerlings. The layout of a complete farm is given in Figure 13. There is no hard and fast rule regarding the size of a pond. However, nursery ponds should be small and shallow. Ponds having 0.020.06 ha water area and 11.5 m depth are most suitable as nurseries. Rearing ponds are relatively larger, preferably between 0.06 to 0.10 ha in size and 1.5 to 2.0 m in depth. The sizes of stocking ponds vary tremendously. For newly constructed undrainable ponds, total water area of 0.25 to 1.0 ha is recommended (Table 6).
Figure 12. Soil Profile
Figure 13. Layout of a Fish Farm (Land area 3.6 ha) In shallow ponds the water becomes heated easily. In deeper ponds light cannot reach the bottom. In very deep ponds thermal stratification may occur with colder deoxygenated bottom layer. Dead plankton and faecal matter from fishes may fall on the bottom layer where the nutrients may be locked up. However, in case of rain-fed areas where the water table goes down during the dry season, the depth should be kept around 3.0 3.5 m to store more water during the rainy season. Although a square pond is economical to construct for its minimum length of dyke, a rectangular shape of the pond (length:width in proportion of 3:1) is considered to be ideal. In any case the pond width should not exceed 30 to 40 m as it is difficult to operate a fishing net in broader ponds. The nursery and rearing ponds may be square, since they are too small to pose any problem for netting. The corners must be curved to avoid fish escaping the net during harvesting. The layout plans of nursery, rearing and stocking ponds are given in Figures 14A and 14B.
Table 6 Practical size and depth of nursery, rearing and stocking ponds (Sahoo, 1984) Depth* (m) Pond Size Rainfed+ /nonIrrigated command/water logged type (ha) irrigated areas areas
Nursery pond 0.02 0.06 1.0 1.5 Rearing pond 0.06 0.10 1.5 2.0 Stocking pond 0.25 1.0 2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.5
* Excluding the freeboard + May vary depending on impermeable strata at pond bottom
6.2.2 Dyke
The dyke should be properly designed so that it can hold maximum water in the pond and withstand the hydraulic pressure. The slope of the dyke usually depends on the type of soil. Suitable side slopes for different soil types are given in Table 7.
Figure 14a. Design of Nursery, Rearing and Stocking Ponds
Figure 14b. Cross Section Details of Ponds
Soil type
Clay Clay loam Sandy loam Sandy
Table 7 Suitable slopes for different soils (Sahoo, pers.comm.) Soil (horizontal:vertical)
1:1 to 2:1 1.5:1 to 2:1 2:1 to 2.5:1 3:1
Provision for a berm of sufficient width may also be provided for stabilizing the slopes. A wider berm also helps in operating the net in the pond. The berm should be 1 m or more in width (Saha and Gopalakrishnan, 1974). The top width of the dyke should be decided taking into account its usage. Usually the minimum top width of the dyke should be 1.5 m. The wider crest requires not only a larger area for dykes, but also an increased amount of earth material involving heavy expenditure. It is always wise to design the dyke as per the quantity of earth expected to be available from excavation work. A soiltype containing approximately 25% silt, 35% sand and 40% clay is most suitable for dykes. However, if excavated soil quality is not up to the above standard, provision may be made for a clay core to make the dyke watertight. While designing, about 1012% allowance may be given for settling of earthwork (Fig. 15).
6.3 Construction
Before initiating the construction work, proper estimates have to be prepared based upon the design details, which will include the cost of all the materials and the labour. Strict supervision is required at every step of construction to ensure the adherence to specifications laid down in the design.
6.3.1 Time of construction

If the construction work is taken up at the most appropriate time or season of the year, the work becomes easier and economical. The best time of the year for constructing ponds in clayey soil is post-rainy period and winter when the soil is soft rather than at the end of the dry season when it is very hard. For swampy
and waterlogged areas the most desirable time is the late summer when the area becomes completely dry. However, if a pond is built during winter or early summer and is not filled immediately, weeds may grow and cover the bottom. In such cases deweeding is needed before filling the pond.
Figure 15. Design of a Dyke with Core Well and Key Trench
6.3.2 Preparation of site

The site should be thoroughly cleared of all the trees, bushes, etc. Even the roots of trees should be removed. No woody material should be left because the same will eventually rot and cause leaks. Some tree trunks rot very slowly and may cause problems during netting.
6.3.3 Marking the outlines

This operation involves laying out the features of ponds on the ground in order to mark out the areas from where the earth will have to be cut and removed and also where earth will have to be embanked. Initially, lines are drawn according to the layout, followed by pegging and fixing stakes or posts. Strings are stretched between the tops of pegs and posts to mark the complete profile of the dyke with its correct height, width and slopes (Fig. 16).
6.3.4 Pre-excavation work

Prior to pond excavation and dyke construction, all loose surface soil should be removed from about 20 cm depth within the total outlined area of the dyke and the surface should be roughened by ploughing or digging. In order to unite the body of the dyke to subsoil, it is desirable to dig a small V shaped key trench (Fig.15). When the dyke is to be made on a sandy, gravelly or marshy soil base, the construction of a key trench becomes essential and in such cases digging should be done until watertight foundations are reached. The key trench is a small ditch or furrow dug along the line of the centre of the walls about 0.5 m 1.0 m wide and 0.5 m deep. This trench is filled in with a good clayey soil and is well rammed. If good clayey soil is not available in the area, ordinary soil should be well compacted into the trench. The purpose of the trench is to stop seepage of water underneath the walls.
6.3.5 Pond excavation and construction of dykes

The excavation work can be carried out within the area marked for the pond bottom either manually or mechanically. However, the final levelling of the pond bottom and sides should be done manually with proper ramming and finishing as per the original design. The construction of the pond becomes economical if earthen dykes are made around the pond using the excavated earth from the pond bed. All dykes should be raised, dumping the earth layer by layer stretching right across the whole section, and in such cases each layer should not exceed 20 cm in thickness. All large clods should be broken and each layer should be thoroughly consolidated by watering and ramming. The sides and top of the dykes should be properly dressed and finished with wooden thappies (wooden block with handle for ramming). In case the soil quality is not suitable for making dykes, a clay core is provided in the dyke to make it watertight (Fig.15). A mixture of 1:2 of sand and clay is used to make the clay puddle. This should be consolidated, compacted and deposited in 1015 cm thick layers. Each layer should be adequately moistened before the next layer is laid and precaution should be taken to prevent the puddle from becoming dry and cracking.
Figure 16. Layout and Pegging before Pond Construction (Corner View) Dykes must be well compacted to render them stable and the top should be rammed flat so that small vehicles can also run along when needed. Short creeping grass is recommended to be grown on the top and sides of the dyke. Trees are not desirable since their dense shade inhibits the productivity of the pond.
6.3.6 Water inlet structure

Since we are concerned here with static and undrainable ponds, a feeder stream running directly into the pond should be avoided. The feeder stream must therefore be diverted along the side of the pond and from a suitable point water is channeled to the pond when required. An inlet structure should be provided through which water can be let into the pond. A proper inlet enables the quantity of water flowing into the pond, to be regulated, preventing the entry of undesirable fish and other aquatic animals and the escape of stocked fish. For small ponds the best inlet structure is a galvanized iron pipe of about 10 cm diameter with a control tap and a screen basket (Fig. 17 A). The downstream end of the pipe should be 3040 cm above the water level. A sluice is also suitable for this purpose, especially for larger ponds. A screen is also fixed to check the entry of undesirable fishes and other animals (Fig. 17 B). To avoid scouring when the pond is being filled, a concrete apron can be built at the sluice, or more cheaply, a layer of gravel laid
down. Similarly, if water is let in with a pipe there should be a gravel bed laid down where the water stream falls into the pond. If gravity feed is not possible, water must be pumped from the supply source into the channel leading to the pond or even directly into the pond; but, in that case, the intake should be securely wrapped by a firm net to prevent undesirable fish and other animals from entering into the pond along with the water.
6.4 Maintenance
Proper maintenance of the pond and pond structure is most essential. Most of the earthen structures, especially the dykes, are susceptible to weathering action and hence they need periodical checks. Attending to minor damages regularly avoids the chances of more costly repairs later. The grass turfing needs special attention. Proper and timely mowing prevents the formation of weedy growth and tends to develop a root system more resistant to runoff. Erosion from the top during heavy rains causes grooving out of small channels and it is an indication that the top has not been properly consolidated. The area should be levelled with more soil and thoroughly rammed and then grass should be planted to bind it. Side erosion at the dyke bottom may be due to a number of reasons. The worst damage is done by common carp. Erosion due to frequent wave action, particularly if the grass at the edge has been grazed by grass carp, can cause undercutting of banks and subsequent collapse of dykes. Some methods used to provide protection against such erosion are earth berms, stone or brick pitching, stakes/bamboo piling (Fig. 18).
Figure 17A. View of an Inlet Structure
Figure 17B. Additional Detail Surface washings and organic additions cause siltation which reduces the pond depth and pond fertility. The undrainable ponds should therefore be dewatered in the summer months at the interval of 57 years. This has already been described under Section 4.

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7. FISH SPECIES SUITABLE FOR CULTURE IN PONDS

Although a large number of fish species grow successfully in ponds, only a restricted number of species are usually cultivated on commercial scale. Reasons for this restricted choice is obvious. Commercial pond culture basically aims at achieving maximum possible rate of fish production and profit through optimum utilization of the natural food and the supplementary feed which drastically limits the choice of fish species for pond cultivation. Some of the basic criteria for selection are discussed below.
7.1 Criteria for selection of suitable fish species

Adaptability to undrainable pond environment Faster growth rate Efficient utilizers of natural food resources of the pond Efficient converter of artificial feed Hardy and not easily susceptible to disease Easy to breed and rear the seed Prolonged breeding period or multiple breeding frequency Non-predaceous, planktophagous and preferably herbivorous and detritus feeder Compatability with other cultivable species of fish Palatable with high nutritive value High market demand and high price. To find all these qualities in one fish species would be very unlikely. Therefore, the species having maximum required traits are considered to be desirable for cultivation in undrainable ponds. Carps fit well to these criteria and hence the most widely cultivated food fishes in South Asia are the quick-growing, non-predatory carps.
7.2 Fish species suitable for culture in undrainable ponds

There are two major systems of carp culture in Asia: the Chinese polyculture system where Chinese carps are cultured together, and the Indian composite fish culture system where the Indian major carps and Chinese carps are combined. In China, Chinese carps such as silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), mud carp (Cirrhinus molitorella), black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus), and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are cultured under polyculture system in ponds. Under the Indian system of composite fish culture in undrainable ponds, three Indian carps, viz. catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), two Chinese carps, viz. silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are extensively cultivated.
Figure 18. Anti-erosion Meaasures
7.2.1 Catla
Catla is the fastest growing Indian major carp species and widely distributed throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan, Burma and Bangladesh (Fig. 19). It inhabits the surface layer of water and feeds upon plankton. Adult stages are predominantly zooplankton feeder, occasionally taking in decaying macrovegetation,
phytoplankton and smaller molluscs. It attains maturity in the second year of life and carry over 70 000 eggs per kg body weight (Jhingran, 1966). It naturally breeds in rivers during monsoon season and under control conditions in bundhs as well. It does not breed in ponds. However, it responds well to hypophysation techniques. Seeds are easily reared in undrainable ponds of relatively smaller size. Under composite fish culture in ponds it usually grows to over 1 kg in one year.
7.2.2 Rohu
Rohu is the natural inhabitant of river systems of India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma (Fig. 20). In recent years it has been transplanted to many countries of the world including Sri Lanka, Mauritius, USSR, Japan, Philippines, Laos, Malaysia and Thailand. Normally it occupies the column region of the aquatic ecosystem and feeds mostly on vegetable matter including higher plants, detritus, etc. Like catla it naturally breeds in rivers and under special conditions in bundhs. Except by hypophysation to which it responds quickly, it never breeds in ponds. It attains sexual maturity during the second year. However, certain percentages of pond-reared specimens mature within one year. Fecundity varies from 226 000 to about 2 800 000 depending upon the size (Khan and Jhingran, 1975). Rohu spawns during the monsoon (AprilSeptember). Seeds collected from rivers or produced by bundh breeding or induced breeding are reared with ease in seasonal or perennial undrainable ponds. Under pond culture conditions it grows upto 900 g within one year.
7.2.3 Mrigal
Mrigal inhabits all the major river systems of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma (Fig. 21). The adult fish feeds upon filamentous green algae, diatoms, pieces of higher plants, decayed vegetable, mud and detritus. It is basically a bottom feeder and hence suitable for cultivation with column and surface feeder carps in ponds. Mrigal usually attains maturity within 1 or 2 years depending upon the agroclimatic conditions of the location. Fecundity ranges between 124 000 to over 1 900 000 depending upon size. Spawning season is linked with the onset and duration of the southwest monsoon. It does not breed in ponds, but can be easily bred in bundhs and by hypophysation. It is now being induced to breed twice within the same spawning season. Rearing of seed is usually undertaken in seasonal or perennial undrainable ponds. Under pond culture conditions it grows to over 1 kg in one year.
Figure 19. Catla (Catla catla)
Figure 20. Rohu (Labeo rohita)
Figure 21. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mriqala)
7.2.4 Silver carp

Silver carp is basically inhabitant of major river systems of South and Central China and in the Amur Basin of USSR from where it has been transplanted throughout the Indo-Pacific region including India. It is a surface dweller feeding mainly upon zooplankton during its early stages and gradually becomes predominantly a phytoplankton feeder. Its relatively longer branchiospines provide a fine filter capable of retaining planktonic organisms. It readily accepts supplementary feed like oil cakes and rice bran mixture in pond culture systems. It does not breed in pond condition. However, through the technique of hypophysation they are induced to breed in ponds during the monsoon season (Section 8.1 of this manual). Fecundity varies greatly with the size and agroclimatic condition. A fecundity range of 145 000 to 2 044 000 has been found from silver carp (Alikunhi, Sukumaran and Parameswaran, 1963). It takes about 26 years to mature in China, whereas in India it matures very early, within 2 years. Males mature earlier than the females. In composite fish culture ponds it usually attains over 1.5 kg within one year of rearing. Seed rearing is done in smaller seasonal or perennial undrainable ponds with a high rate of survival (Fig. 22).
Figure 22. Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)
7.2.5 Grass carp

Grass carp is a native of the river systems of South-Central and North China, and the Amur river of USSR. Its suitability in aquaculture and biological control of aquatic weed infestation has resulted in widescale transplantation throughout the world. In early life it feeds on planktonic organisms and gradually switches over to macrophytes. They are voracious eaters and show distinct preference for vegetable food materials such as grass, leaves, weeds, etc. However, they also accept supplementary artificial feed materials. Usually only a portion of ingested food is digested and the rest is voided in semidigested or undigested form which, in turn, becomes choice food for the bottom dweller common carp (Alikunhi, Sukumaran and Parameswaran, 1963). In China it takes about 34 years to achieve maturity whereas in India it usually takes 2 years. The total number of eggs range between 308 800 and 618 100 from the fishes weighing between 4.7 kg to 7.0 kg. The fish does not breed under pond condition and hence seed production is achieved through hypophysation. Growth mainly depends on the rate of feeding. Under optimum feeding rate it can grow over 5 kg in one year (Sinha and Gupta, 1975). Usually it grows to over 1.5 kg in composite fish culture ponds (Fig. 23).
Figure 23 . Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)
7.2.6 Common carp

Originally a native of temperate region of Asia, especially China, the common carp is now the most domesticated and cultivated carp species throughout the world (Fig.24). It is an omnivorous bottom dweller subsisting mainly on benthic fauna and decaying vegetable matter. It frequently burrows the pond bottom in search of food. This habit of digging the pond bottom helps in maintaining the productivity of undrainable ponds and hence culture of common carp with other carp species is of great advantage. Moreover, it also feeds directly on the undigested excreta of grass carp. Growth mainly depends upon the bottom biota, stocking density and the rate of supplementary feed. In composite fish culture ponds it grows to about 1 kg within one year. In a tropical climate it spawns throughout the year in the pond environment with two peak periods, one from January to March and the other during July and August.
Eggs are small and adhesive in nature. In tropical conditions it attains maturity within 12 months (Alikunhi, 1966).
Figure 24. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...
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8. PROCUREMENT OF INPUTS
Seed, feed and fertilizers are the three major inputs of undrainable pond culture systems. Paucity of quality fish seed is even now considered as one of the major constraints in the development of freshwater carp farming. This is mainly due to the large-scale development of this farming system creating ever-increasing pressure on carp seed industry. However, construction of large- and smallscale carp hatcheries has provided enough support to this industry during recent years. Ideally, a farm should be self-sufficient with nursery and rearing ponds so that after meeting their own demand the surplus seed can be sold for additional farm income. Small, seasonal, undrainable village ponds are most suitable for this purpose. Procurement of feed is not a problem as most of the feed materials are village-based agro-industrial products and by-products and are readily available in villages and local markets. Only some feed additives are needed to be procured from towns. Animal manures are incidental to village-based allied agricultural and animal husbandry activities while fertilizers are readily available in the local markets throughout the year.
8.1 Procurement of seed

Except common carp, all the other five Indian and Chinese major carps, viz. catla, rohu, mrigal, silver carp and grass carp, cultivated under composite fish culture do not breed in pond conditions although they attain full gonadal maturity. However, they breed in bundh type tanks. The successful development of the technique of induced breeding through hypophysation ensures breeding of both Indian and Chinese major carps in captivity. Therefore the stocking materials are procured from three different sources, viz. collection by traditional methods from rivers, by induced breeding of carps and by breeding in bundh-type tanks.
8.1.1 Collection of spawn from riverine sources

The technique of spawn collection from rivers essentially consists of operating fixed filtration nets in marginal areas of flooded rivers during monsoon months, when the Indian major carps normally breed. Success of operations mainly depends on proper sites, suitable nets, monsoon flooding patterns, availability of sufficient brood stock and the success of spawning. 8.1.1.1 Spawn net and its operations These are funnel-shaped nets made of fine mesh (1.5 to 3.0 mm) handloom nettings (Figs. 25a and 25b). The posterior end has a small round opening fixed on a bamboo ring. A small trough-like receptacle (gamcha) is tied to the ring where live spawn is collected. The net is fixed in marginal waters where depth of water is negotiable without any aid. River margins with gradual slopes are the most suitable sites. Water flow in the range of 20 to 60 cm/sec is desirable.
Figure 25a. Collection of Riverine Spawn
Figure 25b. Riverine Spawn Collecting Net 8.1.1.2 Site selection A premonsoon survey should be conducted to collect the following details, based upon which the suitable site is selected. 1. The topography and terrain and river bank features in the vicinity of a site to determine the extent of area available for operating nets at different flood levels. 2. Topography of dry beds and bank features to know the likely current pattern of the river at different levels of flooding. 3. The distribution and composition of the fish fauna in the selected stretch of the river for assessing the resident population of Indian major carps. 4. Location of tributaries, streams, etc., along with their confluence with the main river as these may be connected with the breeding grounds. 5. The accessibility of the site. Spawn availability is mostly associated with receding phases of floods. 8.1.1.3 Collection operation
To assess the availability of spawn, initially 23 spawn nets should be operated constantly at suitable sites and the whole battery of nets should then be introduced as soon as the spawn become available. The nets should be fixed along the river margins with the help of bamboo poles and are adjusted according to changes in flood level. At every four hours, the nets should be removed, cleaned and refixed. The flowing spawn are collected in the receptacle (gamcha) from where they are scooped every 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the amount of spawn being collected. The collected spawn along with the bigger fishes, debris, etc., should be scooped from the receptacle (gamcha) and transferred to aluminium containers (hundies) half filled with water. The collection should then be sieved through round meshed mosquito netting to segregate spawn from debris and larger fishes, and the spawn should be conditioned in hapas (cloth compartments fixed in water) before they are transported. Measurement of spawn should be done by special sieve cups (Fig.26). Usually early spawn measures about 500 individuals/ml. The seed collected from rivers are generally a mixture of seeds of major carps, minor carps, predatory fishes, etc.
Figure 26. Sieve Cup for Measurement of Spawn/Fry
8.1.2 Bundh breeding

Bundhs are special types of perennial and seasonal tanks or impoundments where riverine conditions are simulated during monsoon months. The bundhs are ordinarily of two categories, viz., a perennial bundh commonly known as Wet bundh and a seasonal one called Dry bundh (Mookherjee et al., 1944) (Figs. 27A and 27 A-1, 27B and 27 B-1). 8.1.2.1 Wet bundh A typical Midnapore type of wet bundh is generally located in a gradual slope of a catchment area with an inlet towards the high land and an outlet at the opposite side towards the lower end to regulate the inflow and outflow of water respectively during heavy showers. The wet bundh contains a deeper area which retains water throughout the year and where adequate stocks of brood fishes are maintained. During heavy rains, a major portion of the bundh is submerged and excess water, if any, is drained through the outlet which is guarded by bamboo fencing (locally termed as Chhera). The shallow areas of the bundh (moans) serve as breeding ground for fishes present in the bundh. The wet bundh varies in shape and size from place to place. Generally, the ponds covering a water body of 12 ha with catchment area ranging from 20100 times are considered as wet bundhs, but a bundh could be as large as 300 ha.
Figure 27A. Bundh for Breeding (Wet Type)
Figure 27A-1. Bundh for Breeding (Wet Type)
Figure 27B. Bundhs for Breeding (Dry Type)
Figure 27B-1. Bundhs for Breeding (Dry Type) 8.1.2.2 Dry bundhs This type of dry bundh consists of only one shallow depression (or one shallow pond) and a catchment area located in a gradual slope. The upper high land area is considered as a catchment area. The shallow depression or pond is enclosed by embankments on three sides which impounds freshwater from the catchment area during the monsoon season. There should be provision for an outflow for drawing excess water from the pond during heavy rains. The outlet is guarded by fine bamboo fencing. Such bundhs remain more or less dry during the greater part of the year. In the West Bengal Province of India, a catchment area more than five times the size of the bundh is considered most suitable (Saha et al., 1957), whereas in Madhya Pradesh the recommended ratio is 1:25 (Dubay and Tuli, 1961). Dry bundhs of Madhya Pradesh are comparatively bigger in size (0.2 to 2.5 ha) than those of West Bengal (0.1 to 0.5 ha). In a modified bundh, adjacent ponds are constructed along the gradient of the catchment area (Moitra and Sarkar, 1973, 1975). The upper one where the premonsoon rain water is collected from upland catchment area serves as a reservoir and the lower one is used for breeding purposes. A deeper tench is dug along the lower extremity of the breeding bundh so that the breeders can take shelter before and after spawning. The reservoir and breeding bundhs are arranged in a sequence along the gradient so as to facilitate the flow of water which is controlled through a system of sluice gates. Premonsoon rain water is collected from the catchment area to fill up the reservoir. The water-holding capacity of the reservoir is generally more than that of the breeding ground bundh. 8.1.2.3 Breeding operation Wet bundh: With the onset of monsoon the fresh rain water from the catchment area enters into the bundh and the latter is inundated. The excess water flows out from the bundh creating a water current. The breeders present in the deeper area of the bundh migrate to shallow areas where they start breeding. Dry bundh: Rain water which accumulates in the catchment area during premonsoon showers flows in to fill up the pond seasonally. Thereafter, the brood fishes from a perennial pond are introduced into the seasonal ponds to breed, preferably on cool rainy days. Spawning usually commence during and after heavy showers when the bundh as well as the catchment area are flooded with fresh rainwater. In a modified method adopted in Bankura and Midnapore districts of West Bengal, some fresh water is released from the reservoir into the breeding bundh. Gravid carps from the perennial ponds are then transferred to the breeding bundh. Generally, the ratio of male and female spawners is maintained at 1:1, but sometimes this proportion is not strictly followed. The spawners are allowed to remain for 1012 hours in order to get acclimatised to the environment. A few sets of males and females are then selected and taken out from the bundh and placed in separated mosquito net hapas, which are cloth compartments fixed in water with the help of poles at its four corners (Moitra and Sarkar, 1973, 1975). The selected female breeders are taken out of the hapas and injected intramuscularly with fresh pituitary extract. The females are administered an initial dose of the extract at the rate of 3 mg/kg body weight and thereafter kept again in mosquito net hapas. After 45 hours, the second dose (8 mg/kg) of extract is injected to the female. At the same time the males are given the initial dose of the extract at the rate of 3 mg/ kg of body weight. The injected spawners are then released into the breeding bundh. After administration of the second dose of extract to the females, the inlets and outlets of the bundh are lifted to allow the entry of a steady flow of water from the
reservoir into the breeding bundh soon after breeding takes place. In one such bundh 56 breeding operations can be taken up in one season, subject to availability of spawners and fresh water. Before starting the next breeding operation in the same bundh, the water is completely drained out and it is allowed to dry. Exotic carps such as grass carp and silver carp have also been induced to breed in the dry bundhs of West Bengal by applying pituitary extract and under regulated water flow (Sinha et al., 1975). Collection of eggs: Egg collection is taken as soon as the embryo starts twitching movements. To collect eggs, the water level of the bundh should be lowered by opening the outlet. Eggs are generally netted by a piece of thin cotton cloth (gamcha) or a piece of mosquito netting cloth. In such areas a series of earthen pits are constructed with water flow facilities. Fertilized eggs are allowed to hatch in these pits and the spawn are collected after three days. Spawn are usually sold at the bundh site.
8.1.3 Induced spawning by hypophysation

As an alternative method, use of hormones for inducing spawning in Indian major carps has been in practice for the last three decades. The gonadotropic hormones secreted by the pituitary gland of fish play an important role in the process of maturation and spawning. As discussed earlier, under pond culture conditions, the carps do not spawn, although they attain maturity. This is due to the fact that the pituitary gonadotropic hormones which induce spawning are not released in sufficient quantities from the pituitary gland (hypophysis) to the general blood circulation so as to trigger spawning. Therefore, for induced spawning, the hypophyseal hormones extracted from the pituitary of donor fish are injected into the sexually matured fish under favourable water and climatic conditions during the monsoon season. In India, the first success of induced spawning by hypophysation of Indian major carps was achieved by Chaudhuri and Alikunhi (1957). Subsequently, silver carp and grass carp were also bred in 1962 (Alikunhi et al., 1963). This outstanding success in induced spawning of Asiatic major carps has revolutionized carp culture practice through commercialization of carp seed production. Pituitary gland of major carps and its collection: The pituitary gland or hypophysis of Asiatic major carps is a small, pear-shaped, whitish soft body, situated on the ventral side of the brain below hypothalamus, which is connected to the pituitary gland by a funnelshaped structure, the infundibulum. The quantum of gonadotrophic hormones in the pituitary vary with the season and maturation stages of the fish and hence the degree of success achieved in induced spawning depends very much upon the condition of the pituitary gland of donor fish. Based on a series of experimental trials it has been found that the maximum success in induced spawning is possible with extracts prepared from gland collected during May/June, i.e. the period just before spawning (Moitra and Sarkar, 1978). Thus the pituitary glands for the induced spawning programme should preferably be collected from the freshly killed fully matured specimen of both the sexes of the same (homoplastic) or allied species (heteroplastic) during May/June when the potency of the gland remains at its peak. Well preserved iced fish are also suitable for this purpose. Common carp, a perennial breeder, has been found to be an excellent donor fish as the potency of the gland remains more or less high throughout the year. Both male and female donor fish are suitable for gland collection. 8.1.3.1 Collection of gland The commonly adopted method of gland removal is by chopping off the skull with a sharp butcher's knife or a hand saw. The brain thus exposed is lifted up by detaching the optic nerve. Excess of watery fluid and the blood is soaked by absorbant cotton and then the membrane covering the gland is cautiously removed by using a needle and a pair of forceps. The gland thus exposed is picked up very carefully avoiding any damage (Fig. 28). Broken or damaged glands lose their potency due to hormonal drainage. In India, in fish markets where a large number of fish heads are sold separately and the consumers strongly dislike dissected fish heads for consumption, the glands are taken out from behind the head through the foramen magnum. The technique of removing glands by this method is simple and quick. Behind the head there is a big hole in the brain case known as the foramen magnum. The brain tissues are removed through this foramen magnum and then by close examination the gland is located embedded in the floor from where it is scooped out carefully with the help of a small scooper.
Figure 28. Collection of Pituitary Gland 8.1.3.2 Preservation and storage of glands Freshly collected glands have been found to be the best for the induced breeding purpose. But when we need a large number of glands to take up breeding on a commercial scale, it is not always possible to sacrifice so many matured fish for the required quantity of glands.
Such limitations dictate large-scale collection and preservation of glands from fish markets. There are several methods under use for the preservation of pituitary glands, the most popular being the preservation in absolute alcohol and after an interval of 24 hours they are dried, weighed and transferred to dark coloured phials containing fresh absolute alcohol. Alcohol dehydrates and defattens the glands. Details about the place and date of collection, the age and weight of the donor fish, etc., should be labelled on the phials for ready reference. The phials are then kept at room temperature or in a refrigerator. When needed the stored glands are put on filter paper which allows the alcohol to evaporate, and are then weighed accurately. However, better results have been achieved from glands preserved in acetone. Immediately after collection the glands are kept in fresh acetone and placed in a refrigerator. After two days the glands are taken out, weighed and replaced in phials with fresh aceton. Such phials are labelled and placed in a refrigerator until use. The glands can also be kept frozen. Fresh glands are frozen immediately after collection and kept in a refrigerator, deep freezer or in insulated cans containing dry ice. 8.1.3.3 Preservation of pituitary extract Pituitary extract is normally prepared just before administration as such extracts cannot be kept long. However, there are certain simple methods for the effective preservation of pituitary extracts. The advantage of extract preservation is that the preserved material remains in the ready-to-use form which is very convenient, especially in villages where most of the basic facilities like precision balance, tissue homogenizer, distilled water, centrifuge, etc., for extract preparation are not available. Besides, extraction from a large number of glands also ensures uniform hormone potency per unit volume of extract. In such cases it is always desirable to ascertain the potency of such extract through several breeding trials before initiating a large-scale breeding programme. Fish pituitary extract is prepared in distilled water-glycerine media at a concentration of 40 mg of gland for every ml of media. A known quantity of glands is taken and macerated in a tissue homogenizer. Distilled water equal to one-third of the total volume of extract is added to the fully macerated glands and thoroughly mixed. Pure glycerine, twice the volume of the distilled water, is then added. Thus the ratio of distilled water to glycerine is maintained at 1:2. The entire suspension is again thoroughly mixed and filtered through filter paper to remove tissue fragments if any. Prepared extracts can either be ampouled in ampoules of various capacities or may be kept in small phials in a refrigerator. Such extracts should be consumed within one breeding season. 8.1.3.4 Brood stock maintenance and their selection for spawning The two major inputs of induced breeding programmes through hypophysation are the pituitary glands and the properly matured spawners. Success of hypophysation also depends on the condition of the spawner and hence proper attention must be paid to raise quality brood stock in adequate numbers. Preferably 23 years old healthy male and female carps should be selected and reared in well prepared ponds of 0.2 to 0.5 ha with minimum water depth of about 1.5 m. The stocking density should be kept at a relatively lower level ranging between 1 500 2 000 kg/ha. Normal pond management schedules are to be followed strictly involving weed clearance, removal of predatory and weed fishes, pond fertilization and application of supplementary feed, fish health care and monitoring of pond environment. Details about pond management are given in subsequent sections of this manual. Supplementary feed consisting of 1:1 oil cake and bran mixture should be applied daily at the rate of 13% body weight on underwater feeding plates. The addition of 1520% fish meal, vitamin and mineral mixture to the conventional feed gives better results. For grass carp, aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla, Najas, duck weeds, etc., or green animal fodder such as napier grass, hybrid napier, barseem, etc., are to be provided at the rate of 2025% of their body weight on a daily basis. The fish should be periodically netted and examined carefully to find out the stage of maturity and state of health. This rearing period normally lasts for 45 months. Proper care during this period ensures availability of well matured quality spawners for induced breeding programmes. It is estimated that for a target production of about 10 million spawn (6 million of Indian major carps and 4 million of silver carp and grass carp) about 750 kg of brood stock (300 kg of Indian major carps and 450 kg of silver carp and grass carp) comprising both males and females in a ratio of 1:1 by weight and 2:1 by number are required. Usually after the onset of the monsoon when there is an accumulation of fresh rain water in the pond and a fall in atmospheric temperature, the breeding programme is taken up. The southwest monsoon period is the normal breeding season for these Asiatic carps in south Asian countries and usually extends from April to September. In some places the monsoon is early and hence the breeding season starts from April onwards. By seining the pond, spawners are caught and carefully examined for selection. Matured males ooze a milky fluid (milt), if the abdomen is slightly pressed near the vent. They are also characterized by the roughness of their pectoral fins. Matured females have a soft bulging abdomen with slightly swollen and reddish vent. A catheter is found to be quite helpful especially in the case of silver carp and grass carp in selecting the matured female breeders by examining the condition of the eggs. By inserting the catheter in the genital opening of a female spawner, some eggs are taken out and examined at the pond site in a petridish. Uniform size eggs of pale blue colour in silver carp and brown or copper colour in grass carp indicate proper maturation stage. Cool rainy days when the water temperature ranges between 25C to 30C are considered to be ideal for induced breeding. Ripe and healthy males and females of desired species are selected from the brood stock ponds, their individual weights are recorded using hand nets and a spring balance and the females are kept ready for the first injection of the pituitary gland. 8.1.3.5 Induced breeding operation After the selection of brood fish the injectable dosage of pituitary extract is calculated in terms of milligram of pituitary gland per kg body weight of the recipient fish. Females are given two injections at an interval of 46 hours while males are given only one injection at the time of the second injection to the females. Considerable variations are noticed in the effective dosage of pituitary extract which depends mostly on the potency of the pituitary gland, gonadal maturity of the recipients and the prevailing climatic conditions. It has been experienced that a lower dosage is effective when extract is prepared from fresh glands while a higher dosage is required when commercially supplied glands are used for the purpose. The first and second dose in the case of females of Indian major carps may be given at the rate of 24 mg/kg and 510 mg/kg body weight respectively. The males are given only one injection at the rate of 24 mg/kg body weight at the time of the second injection to the females. Silver carp and grass carp females should be given at the rate of 34 mg/kg body weight during the initial injection and 810 mg/kg body weight during the final injection. Males receive only one injection at the rate of 34 mg/kg body weight. However, as stated the dose of the pituitary may be slightly increased or decreased depending on the local climatic conditions, potency of the gland and the response of the spawners. After deciding on the dosage, the quantity of glands required for injecting the selected brood fish is calculated. Both ready-to-use bottled or ampouled extract or freshly prepared extract can be used. For the preparation of fresh extract the required quantity of glands should be taken out, blotted, dried and weighed accurately. The glands are then macerated in a tissue homogenizer with a small quantity of distilled water and further diluted so that each ml of the extract should be eqivalent to 2040 mg of pituitary gland. The extract is thereafter centrifuged to get rid of tissue fragments and only the supernatant solution is utilized for the injection. The spawners should be grouped into several sets. Each set should consist of both female and male spawners in the ratio of 1:2 and
approximately 1:1 in weight. The required number of breeding hapas at the rate of one hapa for each set should be fixed in the pond. A breeding hapa is a rectangular cloth container (2.5 x 1.5 x 1.0 m) closed from all sides except an opening on one side with tying arrangements, through which spawners are introduced and taken out (Fig.29). These hapas should be fixed in the shallow waters of ponds, canals, lakes, and reservoirs with the help of bamboo poles in such a way that two-thirds of it are submerged in the water. Modern facilities such as breeding tanks of metal, cement, fibre glass, etc., or plastic pools with continuous supply of water having controlled temperature ensure greater efficiency and operational ease.
Figure 29. Breeeding Hapas in a Pond Intramuscular or intraperitoneal injections are administered. Intramuscular injections are commonly given in the caudal peduncle region avoiding the lateral line. In the case of intraperitoneal injection the needle is pushed with ease at the innerside base of the pectoral fins. For intramuscular injection, the needle is inserted under the scale initially parallel to the body of the fish and finally pierced into the muscle at an angle of 45 (Fig. 30). The most convenient hypodermic syringe used for the purpose is of 2 ml capacity having 20 divisions. The size of the needle for the purpose is also important which depends on the size of spawner to be injected. The BHD needle No.22 is conveniently used for 13 kg of carp breeders and No.19 for larger ones. Needle No.24 can be used for small size spawners.
Figure 30. Injecting a Dose of Breeding Hormone The induced breeding work is generally taken up on cool and cloudy days when the water temperature is around 2530C. It is always convenient to apply the first injection between 16.0017.00 hours and the second injection after 46 h of the first injection i.e. between 20 23 hours. In the case of mrigal it is desirable to keep this interval of only 4 h. After the first injection to the female spawners, both males and females of the set are released in the breeding hapa or the breeding enclosure. At the time of the second injection both males and females of the set are taken out, injected as per prescribed doses (Table 8), and released back in the breeding hapa.
Table 8 Doses (mg of pituitary extract/kg body weight of spawners) and injection achedules for hypophysation Male Time of injection Female spawners * spawners * Injection IMC (h) IMC GC/SC GC/SC
1st 2nd 16.0017.00 20.0023.00 24 510 34 810 24 34
* IMC - Indian major carp; GC - Grass carp; SC - Silver carp
Breeding normally takes place within 36 h after the second injection. Recent investigation of Sinha (1972), has indicated that gonadal hydration is a prerequisite for successful spawning of carps. Gonadotropins induce the hydration process thereby increasing the body weight of the spawners, and thus serving as an indicator for the success or failure of the breeding programme. A 3% increase in body weight of female spawners between the two subsequent injections indicates better breeding success. The eggs are released by the females in the early morning hours and are fertilized naturally inside the hapa by the milt released by males. The brood fishes are removed from the hapas and the eggs which are non-adhesive and semibuoyant swell like small pearls of 3.5 5.5 mm in diameter. The total quantity of good eggs laid is estimated from the total volume of eggs and percentage of fertilization. Fertilized and viable eggs are transparent in colour while dead ones appear opaque under naked eye. Percentage of fertilization is scored from several egg samples examined in a petridish or watch glass. Silver carp and grass carp normally do not release eggs inside a hapa or a breeding enclosure even after being injected with hormone and hence these fishes have to be stripped and fertilized artificially. The females are examined 34 h after the second injection to see their readiness for stripping. Keeping the ventral side up and by giving a slight pressure at the genital opening, if the eggs are seen oozing out, the fish is considered to be ready for stripping. Otherwise they are released back and examined again after an interval of 1/2 1 h. Usually, the dry method of stripping is adopted where the spawners are wiped with a towel and then the female spawners are stripped and the eggs are collected in dry enamel basins and immediately fertilized with stripped milt from the male spawners. At this stage the eggs and milt are mixed thoroughly for 12 minutes with the help of a clean feather and subsequently the eggs are washed 34 times with water. The fertilized eggs are then kept in breeding hapas for a few minutes for proper swelling and hardening. The usual quantity of eggs obtained from Indian and Chinese major carps under field conditions are presented in Table 9. It has been observed that in silver carp males the quantity of milt is insufficient and hence extra males should also be injected to ensure maximum fertilization of stripped eggs.
Species of carp
Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp Common carp
Table 9 Quantity of eggs obtained from cultivated carp species Approximate number of eggs/kg body weight
125 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 150 000 200 000 100 000 150 000 Around 100 000 150 000 250 000
8.1.3.6 Incubation of eggs and hatching The eggs are measured by a graduated enamel or plastic mug of 12 litre capacity and collected in plastic buckets. From the plastic buckets eggs are collected with the help of a 1 litre mug and spread uniformly at the rate of 34 litres of eggs in double-walled hatching hapas fixed in ponds free from algal bloom, and predatory fish species (Table 11). These double-walled hapas are open from the upper side. The outer hapa is made of thick cloth or very fine meshed nylon cloth while the inner one is made of round meshed mosquito netting cotton/nylon cloth. The dimension of various hapas are given in Table 10.
Table 10 Dimension of breeding and hatching hapas Type of hapa

Breeding hapa Hatching hapa Outer Inner 1.8 1.5 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.5 Upper side completely open. Thick meshed nylon/cotton cloth. Upper side completely open. Round mosquito netting of cotton/nylon cloth.
Dimension (m) Length Width Depth

2.5 1.25 1.0
Specifications
closed from all sides except at the opening with tying arrangement. Thick cotton/nylon cloth.
The number of eggs to be spread in each hapa depends on the size of the eggs of the species concerned. The following table will be helpful in deciding the amount of eggs to be incubated in a hapa.
Species
Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp
Table 11 Quantity of eggs of cultivated carp species to be incubated in each hapa No. of eggs/1 (Approx.) Amount of eggs in 1/hapa
22 000 25 000 28 000 30 000 26 000 30 000 22 000 25 000 22 000 25 000 4.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0
Hatching time is temperature dependent. Usually hathing takes about 1518 h at temperature range of 2631c. At lower temperature the hatching time is considerably larger. The hatchlings pass out through the mesh of the inner mosquito netting hapa to the outer hapa. When hatching is completed, the inner hapa with egg shells is removed and the hatchlings are left undisturbed in the outer hapa for three days till the yolk sac is completely absorbed and the spawn become ready for stocking in nursery ponds. Common carp and other unwanted fish when present in the pond have been reported to cause severe damage to carp eggs in breeding hapas (Tripathi, 1975). The use of 1/4 inch mesh size drag net as a barrier to prevent common carp from destroying fertilized eggs in breeding/hatching hapas may be a suitable way to solve the problem of those fish farmers who have only one pond and utilize it for composite fish culture (Radheyshyam, Sarkar and Singh, 1985). The hatching technique described above has, however, several drawbacks and large-scale mortality and loss of developing eggs and hatchlings may occur due to natural hazards such as a sudden rise of water temperature, development of algal bloom, depletion of dissolved oxygen, presence of predatory crustaceans, etc. With a view to improving the hatching technique and reducing mortality of hatchlings, a glass jar hatchery has been designed by the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI) and found to be very useful in terms of percentage survival of hatchlings. Water hardened eggs are incubated in vertical hatching jars where the flow of water is so regulated during the incubation that the eggs are gently stirred without being spilled over. In each jar of 6.35 1 capacity, 50 000 eggs can be kept for hatching. Normally the rate of flow of water is kept at 600800 ml/min for Indian major carps and 800 1 000 ml/min for
Chinese carps. It normally takes 1215 h for the developing eggs to hatch out in Indian conditions. Various modifications of this hatchery system are now available and extensively used. Chinese hatchery system consisting of cisterns with diagonally pointed nozzles as water inlets and outlet with filtering screen and valve are also becoming popular. It requires a large volume of water with sufficient pressure to create a circular water current in the hatching cistern. 700 000 to 1 200 000 fertilized eggs can be used per cubic meter of water. Spawn are collected through drainage outlet. 8.1.3.7 Post-spawning care of brood fish It should always be remembered that spent carps are potential breeders for the next breeding season and hence they should be saved and properly cared for. Before releasing them back in the pond they should be given prophylactic antibiotic treatment. Streptomycin sulphate and penicillin at the rate of 25 mg/kg fish and 20 000 I.U./kg fish respectively in the form of injection has been found to be very effective in preventing post spawning bacterial infections and subsequent mortality. Before releasing them back to ponds they should also be given a dip treatment in potassium permanganate solution to prevent any fungal attack. In the case of silver carp and grass carp females, where stripping is the normal practice, recovery from shock and severe stress is difficult under Indian condition and hence they should not be released back into the broodstock pond. However, if the stripping is easy and fast, both the males and females can be released after giving the similar prophylactic treatment. Use of anaesthetics during stripping minimises shock and stress and brings ease in stripping operation. Multiple breeding: Under natural conditions, Asiatic major carps breed only once a year. However, in recent years it has been possible to breed them twice in a year. They are induced to breed in the early part of the season, well cared and well fed for the rest of the season and during the end of the breeding season they are again induced to breed by the same techniques. The interval between the two breeding operations may vary from 30 to 60 days.
8.1.4 Production of common carp seed

Common carp is the only fish cultivated under composite fish culture which naturally breeds in ponds throughout the year in Indian conditions with two peaks of spawning, one during January to March and the other during July/ August. The females deposit sticky eggs on leafy vegetation in the pond which are immediately fertilized by the males. Although they breed naturally in the ponds, the survival of spawn is always poor and hence they should be induced to breed under controlled conditions as per the following successive steps. 8.1.4.1 Segregation and care of mature fish Healthy and matured male and female brood fish should be segregated and kept in separate ponds usually by April and October. A mature male easily oozes milt when the abdomen is gently pressed. The female on the other hand has a bulging abdomen with a papilla-like outgrowth with a median slit in the vent region. Segregated brood fish should be fed daily at the rate of 3% of their body weight. Although they breed several times during the year, breeding should be taken up during mid-January to March and again during JulyAugust. 8.1.4.2 Breeding technique Fully mature male and female brood fish are selected for breeding and kept either in breeding hapas or cement cisterns. Breeding hapas should be fixed in the shallower region of the pond with the support of bamboo poles. A set of spawners consisting of one female and two smaller males more or less equal to the weight of the female are released in each breeding hapa. Sufficient quantity (double the weight of the female fish) of fresh aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla, Najas, Eichhornia (water hyacinth), etc., are also introduced in the hapa and uniformly spread. Fish usually spawn within 1012 hours. Spawned breeders are then taken out and given prophylactic antibiotic treatment and released back to the pond. The difference in weight of the female before and after spawning gives the estimate of eggs released. Each gram of ovary contains about 700 eggs (Alikunhi, 1966). An allowance of 1215% should be given for faecal droppings. By examining several samples of eggs, the percentage of fertilization can also be estimated. Fertilized eggs are dirty pale in colour and more or less transparent, whereas unfertilized eggs are opaque and whitish in colour. The weeds with attached eggs should be transferred to the hatching hapas (Fig. 31) fixed in the pond. About 1 kg of weed with attached eggs should be kept in each hapa. The incubation period depends upon the water temperature and varies from 3672 hours. At a temperature of about 2831C the hatching takes place in about 4550 hours. The newly hatched out larvae are 45.5 mm in length with a prominent yolk sac. The newly hatched out larvae adhere to the leaves of the weeds and remain in this condition for some time. The yolk is absorbed within 24 days after hatching depending on the water temperature. The weeds are removed very carefully from the hatching hapas and the spawn are removed during the early morning hours. Collected spawns are sieved through a coarse mosquito netting cloth to remove debris, measured with a seive cup and transferred to nursery ponds. However, this early stage of fish seed is not suitable for stocking in all types of ponds. The spawn is nursed for 2 or 3 weeks up to fry stage in nursery ponds and then the fry (23 cm) are transferred to rearing ponds where they are reared for three more months up to fingerling (812 cm) stage. This is the fingerling stage of the fish seed which should be used for stocking the composite fish culture ponds.
Figure 31. Hatching Hapas in a Pond
8.2 Feed
Undrainable ponds have the ability to continuously supply natural fish food for the cultivated carp species. But the quantum of the natural food usually available in the pond is not sufficient to support the dense fish population cultivated under semi-intensive and/or intensive fish culture systems. As such, natural feed is always supplemented with some artificial feed to achieve optimum production. A brief account of the natural food available in undrainable ponds and the supplementary feed used in fish culture in undrainable ponds is presented below.
8.2.1 Natural food

Some of the cultivable fish species such as trout, salmon, eel, etc., are exclusively fed on artificial food. On the other hand, carps require natural food and many feel that at least 50% of the food ingested by them should be the natural food items. Hence the availability of natural feed is one of the major factors contributing to fish production in undrainable ponds. Natural feed, being balanced, not only provides the essential nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats, but also takes care of the much needed vitamins and minerals to the cultured fish which may not be present at the desired levels in artificial feed unless otherwise fortified. Natural feed, in addition, possess some of the essential amino acids and fatty acids required for growth while most of the artificial feed may be deficient. 8.2.1.1 Principal natural fish food An undrainable pond ecosystem provides a wide variety of natural food to the fish. The following groups of organisms are important (Figs. 32A and 32B).
A. Phytoplankton: Chlorophyceae Bacillariophyceae Myxophyceae B. Zooplankton: Protozoans Rotifers - Green algae - Diatoms - Blue-green algae - Sarcodines, flagellates and Ciliates - Branchionus sp. - Asplanchna sp. - Keratella sp. - Polyarthra sp. etc. Crustacea - Cladocerans - Moina sp. Cida sp. Ceriodaphnia sp. - Copepods - Nauplii Diaptomus sp. Cyclops - Ostracods - Cypris sp. Stenocypris sp. C. Zoobenthos: In addition to some species of Cladocerans and Ostracods, the following groups are also represented. Crustacea Aquatic insects - Macrobrachium sp. Water mites - Odonatans, Hemipterans, Trichopterans, Lepidopterans, Coleopterans and Dipterans. Molluscs - Pila sp., Viviparus sp.,
Lymnaea sp. and Lamellidens sp.
In addition to these, bacterioplankton, detritus materials coated with bacteria and periphyton are also equally important as natural fish food. The aquatic bacterial community while regulating a large number of important processes in the pond energy flow and mineral recycling, also serve as food for several carp species. The quantity of bacterioplankton depends on the primary production and the added organic matter. In newly constructed and desilted ponds, the bacterial numbers are much less, whereas in old ponds the bacterioplankton population is found to be the highest. Planktonic detritus particles associated with bacteria are freely suspended in the water column and they serve as food for filter feeders. The sediment detritus constitute the food of benthophagous fish species which utilize it directly. Most of these particles originate from the decomposing macrophyte remains. The fauna associated with the sediment and the macrophytes have relatively longer generation time than the planktonic organisms; even then they occupy an important place in the natural food resources for the pond fish. The natural food produced in the pond are varied and are able to cover the entire choiced food spectrum of all the six species of carps cultured together. Carp species have their own preference for natural food which varies with the different stages of their life cycle (Table 12). 8.2.1.2 Availability of natural food for fish in ponds The availability of natural food to fish in ponds depends on the quality and the quantity of the standing crop which in turn is determined by the extent of exposure of the pond to fish culture, stocking density, species stocked, the size of the fish reared and on fertilization programmes. The sources from which the nutritive fauna develops in the ponds are numerous, the main among them being the portion of the ponds that never dried, the water which has been used to refill the pond, the bottom soil with organisms in hibernation or their encysted stages, wind-borne encysted organisms (copepods, cladocera, rotifers, etc.), eggs laid by insects, etc. In the presence of sufficient food and favourable environmental conditions, these fish food organisms multiply at a faster rate. Pond fertilization helps in increasing the amount of natural food in the pond through the supply of the necessary nutrients which are either lacking or are insufficient in the pond ecosystem. This helps the growth of primary producers - the phytoplankton and macrophytes which form the food of fish and herbivorous zooplankters. Organic manure containing practically all necessary nutrients required for biological production, encourages bacterial growth which in turn favour better production of zooplankton and increases the effectiveness of many inorganic fertilizers by providing necessary organic matter base. Details about pond fertilization with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers are discussed in the next section of this manual.
Species
Catla (Catla catla)
Table 12 Natural food preferences of the Asiatic carps at different stages of their life cycle Stages of life cycle Larvae Fry Fingerlings
Protozoans, rotifers unicellular algae, etc. Protozoans, rotifers and crustaceans. Crustaceans, algae, rotifers and some vegetable debris
Adult
Crustaceans, algae, rotifers, plant matters, etc. Vegetable debris, microscopic plants, detritus and mud.
Rohu (Labeo rohita) - do Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigal) - do -
Protozoans, rotifers, crustaceans, Vegetable debris, phytoplankton unicellular algae. crustaceans, detritus, etc. Crustaceans, rotifers, planktonic algae.
Blue-green and filamentous algae, Vegetable debris, unicellular algae diatoms, pieces of macrophytes, decayed detritus and mud. vegetable matters, mud & detritus. Aquatic plants such as wolffia, lemna, spirodela, hydrilla, najas, ceratophyllum, chara, etc. Mainly phytoplankton. Decayed vegetable matter, worms, molluscs, chironomids, ephemerids and trichopterans.
Protozoans, rotifers, crustaceans, Grass carp Protozoans, rotifers, microzoobenthos, detritus, Detritus and aquatic plants. (Ctenopharyngodon copepod nauplii. idella) microalgae, plant fragments. Unicellular Silver carp planktonic (Hypophthalmichthys organisms, nauplii molitrix) and rotifers. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) Var. Communis Copepods, cladocerans and phytoplankton. Falagellata, dinoflagellata, myxophyceae, bacillariophycea, etc. Diaptomus, cyclops, moina, cereodaphnia, ostracods, insects including chironomid larvae.
Protozoans, rotifers, Rotifers, cyclops, cereodaphnia, cereodaphnia, moina, nauplii, euglena, moina, nauplii, etc. oscillatoria, etc.
Figure 32A. Natural Fish Food Organisms (Phytoplankton)
Figure 32B. Natural Fish Food Organisms (Zooplankton) Some of the fish food organisms such as rotifers (Brachionus sp.) and cladocerans (Bosmina sp., Moina sp., Daphnia sp.) can be cultured on a mass scale in earthen enclosures, plastic pools, tanks, etc, and may be inoculated into the nursery ponds. Cow dung and oil cake are applied initially at the rate of 250350 ppm and 50 ppm respectively, and subsequently after every four days at the rate of half the initial dose. After the treatment, seeding is done with 25 ml of Moina sp., collected from nearby ponds. Moina thus cultured may be used for seeding nursery ponds at the rate of 3050 ml of Moina/ha (Jhingran and Pullin, 1985). Chemical analysis of plankton show that on an average, crude protein constitutes 44% to more than 57% of the dry organic matter. Plankton has relatively small amounts of fat averaging to about 57%.
8.2.2 Supplementary feed

The fish production rate may be increased significantly by merely supplementing the natural food with artificial feed which can support more fish with increased individual weights, resulting in a more profitable operation. All the carp species including the predominently plankton feeders like catla and silver carp and macrophyte feeder grass carp accept supplemental feed. 8.2.2.1 Conventional feeds The conventional supplementary feed is usually a mixture of brans and oil cakes in 1:1 ratio by weight. In India, oil cakes such as mustard oil cake or groundnut oil cake and rice or wheat bran are widely applied depending on their local availability. In Bangladesh, the most common fish feed is the mixture of mustard oil cake and rice or wheat bran. In Nepal, farmers are advised to feed a mixture having maize, wheat or rice bran and mustard oil cake. In certain regions, finely chopped vegetable matter or grass are also mixed. The same feed is applied in nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. Aquatic weeds or sometimes green animal fodder are given to grass carp. Smaller aquatic weeds such as wolffia, lemna, spirodela, etc., are provided in the early stages while large macrophytes and green animal fodder to the bigger fish. 8.2.2.2 Balanced supplementary feed
Using locally available feed materials and mixing with vitamin premix, essential minerals and trace elements, a balanced supplementary feed can be compounded without any significant increase in its cost which will give better results than the conventional one. However, the background knowledge of the nutritional requirement of carps becomes essential for formulation of suitable balanced supplementary feed. The quantity and quality of nutrients required by carps for attaining optimum growth vary with the species, size and stages of the life cycle. Essential nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals are required as raw materials for the formation of body tissues, production of energy and also to regulate the vital physiological processes. Protein: Protein requirements may be looked at the gross protein and specific amino acid requirement levels. Protein requirement is influenced by several factors like water quality, natural food availability in ponds, dietary protein quality, the amount of non-protein energy in the diet, stocking density, etc. Protein requirement levels of some carp species are given in Table 13.
Species
Common carp Rohu Mrigal Grass carp 450 480 450 450 410 431
Table 13 Protein requirements of certain carps Crude protein level in diet for optimal growth (g/kg)
Reference
Sen et al., (1978) Sin (1973) Sen et al., (1978) Singh et al. (unpubl.) Dabrowski (1977)
Though dietary protein levels have been shown as optimal for fry and fingerlings of Indian major and common carps (Table 13), quality of the protein in terms of its amino acid composition is important or else growth would suffer even if the dietary protein level is high. Plant proteins are deficient in certain essential amino acids like methionine. Their quality can be improved by the addition of animal proteins such as fish meal, bone meal, blood meal, etc. (Table 14).
Amino acid
Arginine Histadine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine
+ ++
Table 14 Essential Amino Acid requirements of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (Adapted from National Research Council, 1983) Requirement % of protein % of diet Total protein in the diet (%)
4.2 2.1 2.3 3.4 5.7 3.1 6.5 3.9 0.8 3.6 1.6 0.8 0.9 1.3 2.2 1.2 2.5 1.5 0.3 1.4 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5
Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine
+ In the absence of cystine ++ In the absence of tyrosine
Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate requirement of carp species is highly variable ranging from 1045%. Common carp utilizes 25% carbohydrates effectively as energy source (Takeuchi, Watanabe and Ogino, 1979; Sen et al., 1978), while for mrigal fingerlings it is 28% in synthetic diets (Singh, Sinha and Kumar, (unpubl.). Although higher levels of carbohydrate may be utilized by carps, diets containing over 40% dextrin results in retarded growth and lowered feed efficiency due to lower digestibility. The most likely symptom of over supply of carbohydrates in diet is excessive deposition of fat in the liver and carcass. However, the protein requirements of carps can be brought down to some extent by raising the level of dietary carbohydrates. Lipids: The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is considered to be the most important class of lipids as far as lipids are concerned. Carps can derive their lipid requirement from natural feed available in the pond since these compounds are readily available in planktonic and other biotic communities. Lipids are also considered to be the most important sparing compounds. By adding 5% of soyabean oil the optimum protein requirement of young mirror carp can be brought down to 33% from 38%. The addition increases the dietary metabolized energy from 2.8 to 3.1 Kcal/g. Vitamins: Studies on vitamin requirements of fish are very limited. The values of quantitative requirements of vitamins in common carp and the symptoms of their major deficiencies are presented in Table 15.
Vitamin
Thiamin Riboflavin Pyridoxine Pantothenic acid Nidcotinic acid Biotin Folic acid Vitamin B12
Table 15 Dietary vitamin requirements of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and related deficiency symptoms (From National Research Council, 1983 and other sources) Major vitamin deficiency Requirement (mg/kg diet) symptoms Na
7.0 56 3050 28 1 Nervousness and fading of body colour. Hemorrhages on skin, fin, mortality Nervous disorders Poor growth, anaemia, skin hemorrhages, exophthalmia Hemorrhages on skin, mortality Poor growth None detected None detected
N
N
Choline Inositol Ascorbic acid Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K
4 000 440
Fatty liver Skin lesions Impaired collagen formation Faded colour, exophthalmia, hemorrhages on fin and skin None detected Muscular dystrophy, mortality None detected
Na
10 000 IU
N
200300
N = No dietary requirement demonstrated under variousenvironmental condition. Na = Not available
Minerals and trace elements: Like higher vertebrates, carps also have dietary requirements of minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium and phosphorus and trace elements such as cobalt, iodine, zinc, copper, manganese, sulpher, fluorine, molybdenum, etc. For common carp the minimum requirement of phosphorus in the diet is 0.60.7% and that of calcium is about 0.028%. 1% dicalciumphosphate is recommended in the feed for adult fish in polyculture system in ponds. Trace elements are growth stimulants and are required in traces. Sen and Chatterjee (1976, 1979) reported that cobalt chloride and manganese at the rate of 0.01 mg/day/fish gives higher rates of survival and growth of spawn, fry and fingerlings of Indian major carps. Rohu requires about 0.014% dry diet of iron. In general, carps appear to be less sensitive to mineral deficient diets than other fish possibly due to meeting their dietary mineral requirements from natural sources under pond culture condition. Common feedstuffs: A large number of feed stuffs are presently being used as supplementary feed for carps in undrainable pond culture systems. Some of them are widely available and extensively used. These may be broadly classified into two groups: the feeds of plant origin and the feedstuffs of animal origin. Cakes of oil seeds such as groundnut, mustard, linseed, coconut, etc., are a most useful and widely used feedstuff of plant origin with high fat and protein contents. Brans of rice, wheat and other grains are equally popular and used in combination with oil cakes. Such meal as soya waste after oil extraction is excellent feed for carps. Broken cereals such as rice, wheat, maize, etc., are good but expensive feed materials. Leafy feeds are suitable for grass carp. Tender leaves of various aquatic and terrestrial plants (cassava, maioc, colocasia, banana, sweet potatoes, maize, etc.) and green animal fodder such as berseem, napier, paranapier, elephant grass, etc., are also used. Miscellaneous items such as kitchen wastes, household scraps, residues of bakery, beer brewing or rice-wine industry wastes can be profitably used as fish feed. Dried fish meal (fish flour) is the most common and cheapest source of animal protein and widely used in livestock and fish feeds. Slaughterhouse offals, prawn head meal, bone meal, silkworm pupae and items like snails, oligochaete worms, etc., are also widely used depending on their availability and price. Nutritive values of some commonly used feedstuffs are presented in Table 16. Digestibility and absorption greatly vary with the quality of the feedstuffs and also from fish to fish. The values of total digestible nutrients in common feedstuffs are given in Table 17.
Table 16 Proximate composition of some of the common fish feed stuff (Adopted from ADCP. (1983)) As percentage of dry matter Methioine CP EE CF Ash NFE Ca P Lysine & czstine
40.1 37.3 18.1 47.5 52.8 26.4 34.2 42.7 30.5 32.2 5.1 13.9 13.7 12.4 12.0 7.0 88.5 36.0 55.6 31.2 54.2 8.4 12.2 0.3 8.9 6.4 1.5 5.7 14.3 4.0 6.6 14.4 8.7 8.3 5.4 16.7 4.8 3.6 1.2 4.0 12.0 11.7 30.3 3.1 14.0 6.2 16.4 5.1 6.6 24.2 13.2 16.1 9.5 20.3 3.9 13.1 20.0 12.0 11.3 24.0 0.4 3.0 2.9 17.6 3.9 22.5 7.8 3.0 4.6 6.4 7.6 6.6 6.6 7.7 10.2 11.1 1.1 4.6 18.1 14.1 5.0 8.9 6.0 49.0 21.3 39.5 5.2 18.8 25.9 35.7 52.0 34.6 46.7 37.1 31.8 29.5 43.2 22.0 81.2 60.1 48.8 44.9 66.9 56.5 3.9 8.0 8.2 0.0 6.4 47.2 0.22 0.21 0.13 0.30 0.37 0.57 0.28 22.0 0.1 0.75 0.58 0.69 1.30 0.96 3.21 0.28 10.0 1.1 0.52 0.48 0.34 1.42 1.58 0.74 1.36 1.70 1.34 1.64 0.10 0.42 0.52 0.73 0.36 0.12 1.95 0.25 1.44 1.34 0.45 2.90 3.22 1.08 1.19 1.49 1.07 0.93 0.12 0.53 0.56 0.78 0.43 0.51 7.08 1.69 -
Common name
A. Plant product Groundnut oil cake Groundnut oil meal Coconut oil cake Soyabean cake Soyabean oil meal Cotton seed oil cake Sunflower oil cake Sunflower oil meal Linseed oil cake Sesame oil cake Ground maize Wheat bran Rice bran Rice polish Millet Black gram bran B. Animal products Blood meal Bone meal Fish meal Prawn meal Silk worm pupae Fresh cattle manure
DM - Dry matter; CP - Crude protein; EE - Ether extract; CF - Crude fibre;
DM
94.0 89.7 92.3 84.8 88.7 87.9 91.0 90.0 90.0 89.6 90.7 91.3 91.6 88.4 88.8 89.5 75.0 86.0 89.4 20.0 17.9
Digestible energy K cal/kg

3 018 2 155 2 960 3 009 3 060 2 572 3 394 2 827 2 983 3 035 3 326 2 995 2 416 3 154 2 847 1 684 3 576 2 000 3 569 4 910 1 983
NFE - Nitrogen free extract; CA - Calcium; P - Total phosphorus.
Usually the crude protein level of the supplementary feed is fixed at about 5 to 10% below the dietry protein requirement of the fish to be fed. Vitamins, minerals and trace elements are added as required.
Table 17 Values of digestible nutrients in carps for some common feedstuffs Feedstuff Digestible nutrients (%)
Coconut oil cake Ground nuts Rice bran Maize (Corn) Maize (fresh) Rye Sweet potato Radish leaves Fresh silkworm pupae 67.5 69.8 79.3 79.4 77.9 74.9 75.1 75.9 25.8 8.2 34.3
Formulation of feed: Easy availability, low cost, high digestibility and high nutrient contents are the major considerations in selecting the fish feed ingredients for feed formulation. Feed constitute the major operating cost in undrainable pond fish culture and therefore, our ultimate objective is to supply essential nutrients at the minimum possible cost. Formulated feeds may be either a complete feed with optimum level of all the essential nutrients and energy to provide complete nutrition or a supplementary feed - a diet basically to supplement energy and a portion of protein and other essential nutrients. In undrainable pond culture systems where natural feed are made available by pond fertilization, feed is required only to supplement the natural feed. The initial step involves surveying market prices of the locally available feedstuffs and tabulation of data as mentioned below as an example (Table 18).
Table 18 Data tabulation example for selection of feedstuff Feedstuff

Groundnut oil cake Mustard oil cake Sesame oil cake 0.15 0.21 0.11
Market price (US $/kg)

38.2 40 32.2
Protein content
0.39 0.52 0.34
Cost/kg protein
II III I
Grade for selection (US $)
Thus, out of the three listed above one can easily select the feedstuff most suitable for his operation. Similar methods may be adopted to find the best possible feed for the supply of specific major nutrients. Their amino acid profile is also to be considered for such selection. Using the locally available feedstuff, a diet with desired level of protein can easily be formulated by using the square method. The same method is also used for adjusting energy levels in a feed. The required protein level of 30%, for example, is put in the centre of the square. The two selected feedstuffs with their percentage of protein content are put on the left hand corners of the square as shown below.
Sesame oil cake(Protein 32.3%) Desired feed protein level(30%) Rice bran(Protein 10%) 32.230 = 2.3Total 22.3 3010 = 20
The value of desired protein level of the proposed feed is substracted from each of the feedstuffs in turn and the results are placed at the opposite corner ignoring the resultant positive or negative signs. The two resultant figures on the right hand side of the square are then added together (20 + 2.3 = 22.3). Now to obtain 30% crude protein level in the proposed feed, the following formula is followed.
Thus, to obtain 30% crude protein level in 100 kg of feed we need 89.6 kg of sesame seed cake and 10.3 kg of rice bran to be mixed together. The same method can also be used to obtain a desired dietary energy level. It has been experienced that if the minimum dietary requirements for amino acid like arginine, lysine, methionine and tryptophan are met, the requirements of 6 other essential amino acids usually also get satisfied. Vitamins, minerals and trace elements are added in feed according to the requirements of the species of carps under culture. Pelletization: Considerable wastage is expected when supplementary feed mixtures rapidly separate into their component ingredients during the feeding process. However, by pelletization of supplementary feed mixture, such wastage can be minimised and further improvement in the feed efficiency can be achieved. Feed in pellet forms are more readily acceptable and give better results in comparison with dust feed (Kumar et al., 1984). During pelletization, the soft and dusty feed is converted into hard, water-stable pellets by the process of heating and compression. Even in undrainable ponds use of supplementary feed in pelleted form promise increased production through increased efficiency and minimum wastage (Figs. 33A and 33B).
Figure 33A. Fish Feed in Dough Form
Figure 33B. Fish Feed in Pelleted Form A generalised but practical account of nutrient specifications of commercial warm water aquaculture feed is given in Table 19a.
Nutrients
Protein (% min) Lipids (% min) Ca (% min) Ca (% max) P (% min) P (% max) Lysine (% min) Digestible Energy (KcaL/100 g min) Vitamins (Supplement), A (i.u.) D (i.u.) E (i.u.) K (g) C (g) Thiamine (g) Riboflavin (g) Pantothenic acid (g) Niacin (g) Pyridoxine (g) 310 30 8 0.8 1.5 0.6 1.0 2.0
Table 19a Nutrients specifications of commercial aquaculture feeds (Warm water omnivorous species) (Adapted from ADCP, 1983) Fry and fingerlings Juveniles and adults
25 5 0.5 1.8 0.5 1.0 1.6 280 500 000 100 000 5 000 1.0 20.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 2.0 30 5 0.8 1.5 0.6 1.0 1.8 280
Brood Fish
(per 100 kg) 600 000 100 000 6 000 1.2 24.0 2.4 2.4 6.0 12.0 2.4 600 000 100 000 6 000 1.0 24.0 2.4 2.4 6.0 12.0 2.4
Biotin (g) Folic Acid (g) Choline (g) B-12 (mg) Minerals (Supplement), Iron (g) Copper (g) Manganese (g) Zinc (g) Iodine (mg) Cobalt (mg) Selenium (mg)
0.024 0.6 54.0 2.4 (per 100 kg feed) 5.0 0.3 2.0 3.0 10.0 1.0 10.0
0.020 0.5 50.0 2.0 5.0 0.3 2.0 3.0 10.0 1.0 10.0
0.024 0.6 54.0 2.4 5.0 0.3 2.0 3.0 10.0 1.0 10.0
Based upon the nutrient specifications, a number of test diets for carp fry, fingerling and brood fish are under extensive trials to determine which would be the preferred formulations in terms of efficiency and cost. The conventional rice-bran and oil cake mixture lacks animal protein, minerals and vitamins and rapidly separates into its component ingredients during the feeding process. Considerable improvement is possible if this conventional rice-bran and oil cake mixture is simply fortified with 1525% fish meal, 0.1% mineral mixture, 0.1% vitamin mixture and pelletized. Although mineral and vitamin mixtures are commercially available as common additive of animal feed, fish meal at a reasonable price may not be easily available in rural areas.
8.3 Fertilizers
Considerable quantities of nutrient elements are regularly removed from the pond ecosystem through the harvested fish crops and thus for retaining the pond fertility, the required amount of nutrients need to be replenished. These nutrients are broadly divided into two groups. The first group of nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon and calcium, while the second group of nutrients which are needed in very minute quantities constitute mainly copper, zinc, iron, manganese, cobalt, boron, molybdenum, etc. It is the first group of nutrients which are more concerned with pond fertility in terms of primary production, consumed in more quantity and thus need to be compensated from outside in the form of fertilizers. In other words, the main objective of adding fertilizers in fish ponds is to maintain a sustained production of natural fish food during the entire culture period. Fertilizers are also classified into two categories: inorganic fertilizers or mineral fertilizers and organic fertilizers or manures of plant and animal origin.
8.3.1 Organic manures

Organic manures have been in use in fish culture in India and the Far East countries for a long time. They are available in a variety of forms such as dung of cattle, sheep, pig and goat, poultry droppings; de-oiled cakes of mahua, mustard, castor, linseed, neem, etc. They also come in the form of farmyard manure, compost, green manures, sewage, etc. Of these, cow dung is the most widely used manure in undrainable pond culture system. Most of the organic manures are by-products of local agriculture, animal husbandry and village based agro-industrial activities and hence their procurement is relatively easy at low cost. They are composite in nature and provide practically all the nutrients, including organic carbon, required for biological production. Several organic manures are immediately assimilated by the aquatic fauna and especially by the zooplankton or even by some species of cultured carps. By improving the quality of the pond bottom mud they encourage bacterial growth which in turn favours better production of zooplankton and also through inducing increased bacterial decomposition help in releasing mineral constituents of the soil into the water. It also increases the effectiveness of many inorganic fertilizers by providing the necessary organic matter base. Though the presence of the major nutrient elements in these manures is rather at a lower level and often vary quantitatively, their effect is sustained over a longer period. However, they are required in large quantities, thereby making the procurement, transport and application somewhat troublesome and costly though the manure itself is cheap. Also, unless proper care is exercised in its use, depletion of dissolved oxygen, in the pond water is likely to occur with consequent loss of fish by asphyxiation. However, better yields of fish are obtained through a judicious manuring schedule.
8.3.2 Inorganic fertilizers

Commercially produced inorganic compounds containing major nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are known as inorganic or chemical fertilizers. They contain a high and fixed percentage of one or more major nutrients depending on the class (nitrogenous, phosphatic, potassic or mixed) of fertilizer. Due to their high solubility in water, the nutrients become readily available soon after their application. Some fertilizers are also available in liquid form which offer several advantages over the conventional granular or powdered form of fertilizers. 8.3.2.1 Nitrogenous fertilizers Nitrogenous fertilizers usually contain nitrogen as the principal element and are commercially available as ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, urea, etc. Most of the nitrogenous fertilizers deplete reserves of bases and make soil acid. Therefore, the form of nitrogenous fertilizers may be selected on the basis of acidity, neutrality or alkalinity of the soil type (Saha, 1969). Nitrogenous fertilizers are particularly essential for newly constructed ponds which are poor in nitrogen and do not have sufficient organic matter in its bottom, whereas older ponds having a good layer of colloidal mud are capable of producing nitrogen by itself. Further, the efficacy of nitrogenous fertilizers is inhibited by phosphorous deficit. It is best to maintain the P/N ratio at 1/4. 8.3.2.2 Phosphatic fertilizers Phosphatic fertilizers are by far the most effective and favourable for fish culture. It is all the more important because almost all fish ponds exhibit phosphorus deficiency. The most commonly used phosphatic fertilizers are the orthophosphates and are grouped roughly according to their solubility in water. Superphosphates are the most soluble in water, dicalcium phosphate is partially soluble and rock phosphorus is almost insoluble in water. Amongst the phosphatic fertilizers, single superphosphate is extensively used and is easily available. The more concentrated triple superphosphate is also in use which has P 2O5 (Phosphorus pentaoxide) equivalent up to 45% with 85% solubility and thus involved relatively lower transport cost. Generally, the phosphatic fertilizers are held in soil and liberated gradually with the result that its action is extended to subsequent years of its application, mostly depending on the nature of the pond bottom. 8.3.2.3 Potassic fertilizers
Although potassium ranks as a major nutrient like nitrogen and phosphorus, its importance in pond fertilization is less pronounced since it is available in a required quantity in natural waters. Muriate of potash (Kcl) and sulphate of potash (K2SO4) are the two commonly used fertilizers as a source of potassium. The favourable action of potassic fertilizers can be seen in ponds with low alkalinity, with peaty bottoms. In general, for ponds in which phytoplankton production is rather slow, potassic fertilizers may be tried. It also improves the hygienic conditions of fish ponds, particularly the rearing ponds. 8.3.2.4 Calcium Though calcium is not considered as a nutrient to be used as fertilizer, it is another integral part of the ecosystem and is usually applied to get the benefit of added fertilizers used in a pond. In ponds where the water is poor in calcium (less than 8 mg Cao/1), the freshwater flora, molluscs and crustaceans are either rare or absent which in turn diminishes the nutritive value of the water. Calcium present in required quantities also neutralises the harmful action of excessive magnesium, sodium and potassium salts. It is usually applied in the form of lime, which is widely available as ground lime stone (CaCo 3), slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) and quick lime (Cao). Composition of some important manures and inorganic fertilizers commonly used in pond culture are listed in Table 19b. Procurement of organic and inorganic fertilizers is relatively easier than other essential inputs like feed and seed. Organic manures are locally available and in most cases they are available within the community. However, due to extensive adoption of intensive crop farming there is a growing demand for animal manure or compost in agriculture. Instead of procuring the whole lot of required manures at a time and storing them for application over extended periods, it is always convenient and desirable to procure materials in small quantities and apply them as and when required. While storing the manure, it should be covered to protect it from direct sunlight. Inorganic fertilizers being extensively used as an agricultural input, the listed fertilizers (Table 19b) are easily available in the local markets. Prolonged storage, high humidity, etc., cause deterioration in the quality of inorganic fertilizers and hence only a specified quantity of materials required for 2-3 months should be procured at a time. Selection of fertilizers depends mainly on their nutrient content, cost and suitability for the specific soil condition.
Items
Fresh excreta of animals: Cow Sheep Pig Duck Hen Deoiled cakes: Mustard Groundnut Mohua Others: Farmyard manure Compost Green manure Inorganic fertilizers: Nitrogenous Ammonium sulphate Urea Ammonium nitrate Sodium nitrate Phosphate: Single superphosphate Triple superphosphate Potassic: Muriate of potash Sulphate of potash -
Table 19b Nutrient profile of some common manures and fertilizers used in pond fertilization Nutrient content (%) Phosphate as Nitrogen Phosphoric (N) (acid(P 205)
0.60 0.95 0.60 1.00 1.60 4.5 7.8 2.5 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.16 0.35 0.45 1.40 1.5 2.00 2.0 1.5 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.45 1.00 0.50 0.62 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.8 0.5 1.9 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.8
Potassium as Podtash (K20)
20.5 4345 20.5 16.0
16.020.0 40.045.0 -
48.062.0 47.050.0
More details
9. POND MANAGEMENT
Carp culture in ponds is basically a three-tier culture system where the first step begins with the rearing of spawn up to fry (23 cm) stage for 23 weeks in nursery ponds followed by rearing of 23 weeks old fry for about 3 months up to fingerling stage (812 cm) in rearing ponds before they are finally released in stocking ponds for growing up to table size fish. To ensure high rate of survival and growth during all the three stages of rearing, a package of management practices should be strictly followed, and slackness at any stage of the management procedure may affect farm productivity and profitability adversely. Techniques of management involve (i) manipulation of pond ecology to ensure optimum production of natural fish food while maintaining the water quality parameters within tolerance limits of the stocked fish species; and (ii) the husbandry of fish through stock manipulation, supplementary feeding and health care. Broadly, the various steps involved in the management of ponds at all the three stages of culture may be classified as (i) pre-stocking, (ii) stocking and (iii) post-stocking management operations.
9.1 Pre-stocking management

Pre-stocking management aims at proper preparation of ponds to remove the causes of poor survival, unsatisfactory growth, etc., and also to ensure ready availability of natural food in sufficient quantity and quality for the spawn/ fry/fingerlings to be stocked. Pre-stocking part of the management involves the following sequential measures.
9.1.1 Eradication and control of aquatic weeds and algae

Aquatic weeds are unwanted plants that grow within the water body and along the margins. Unlike in temperate climate, the pond fish culture in tropics face serious problems due to weed infestation and frequent appearance of algal blooms. They remove a large quantity of nutrients from the water, which otherwise would go into the production of planktonic growth. Even the poor fish crop that is produced in weed chocked water is difficult to harvest. The fishes are subjected to stress due to dissolved oxygen depletion and wide fluctuation between the dissolved oxygen values of the day and night. Decomposition of the dead aquatic weeds further creates the oxygen problem. Dense growth of the submerged weeds restrict fish movement and interfere with fishing operations. Filamentous algae often get entangled in the gills of the fish and suffocate them to death. Floating weeds such as water hyacinth, pistia, etc., very often cover the entire water surface cutting off light drastically, thus resulting in critical reduction in primary productivity of the pond. Common aquatic weeds creating problems in fish culture ponds (Fig. 34) are broadly classified according to their nature of occurrence, into four major groups. They are floating, emergent, submerged and marginal. In addition, algal blooms and mats also create serious problems in terms of dissolved oxygen and production of certain toxic materials in some cases. Aquatic weeds of common occurrence in undrainable ponds are grouped in the following Table (Table 20).
Figure 34. Common Aquatic Weeds in Underainable Ponds
Table 20 Groups of commonly occurring aquatic weeds, algal bloom and algal mats in undrainable ponds Groups
Floating Eichhornia crassipes Pistia stratiotes Salvinia cucullata Spirodela polyrrhiza Lemna minor Emergent Nymphea mexicana Nymphea tuberosa Nelumbo spp. Nymphoides spp. Submerged Hydrilla verticillata Najas marina/minor Potamogeton crispus
Aquatic weeds, algal bloom and algal mats Scientific name

Water hyacinth Water lettuce Water fern Duck weed Duck weed Banana water lily Fragrant water lily Lotus Floating heart Hydrilla Najas Curly leaf pondweed
Common name
Vallisneria spiralis Ottelia spp. Marginal Ipomea aquatica Jussiaea spp. Typha anqustata Cyperus spp. Algal blooms Algal mats Microcystis aeruqinosa Anabaena Pithophora Spiroqyra
Eel grass Ipomea Water primrose Cat-tails Cyperus Microcystis Blue green algae Horse hair clump Filamentous algae
Control measures for all the above mentioned classes of weeds and blooms fall into four major categories, viz. preventive, manual and mechanical, chemical and biological. Any of these methods or at times a combination of methods may be taken up depending on the nature of infestation, pond condition, cost involvement and availability of required inputs. 9.1.1.1 Preventive control Taking into consideration the high cost of controlling aquatic weeds, certain preventive measures are to be followed to reduce the chances of their infestation. The preventive measures have to be taken well in advance. The measures include trimming of pond margins, dewatering and desilting of old ponds, uprooting or burning of dried marginal weeds during the summer and providing barriers to prevent the entry of floating weeds. 9.1.1.2 Manual and mechanical control Manual removal of aquatic weeds is an age-old practice and holds good even today in rural areas. The free floating groups of weeds are either hand picked or dragged by wire or strong coir rope nets. In bigger ponds they should be removed part by part from the marginal areas and finally the centrally located weed mass is dragged towards the banks and lifted out. Certain small and light floating weeds such as spirodela, lemna, azolla, wolffia, etc., are easily skimmed out by twisted straw ropes or fine meshed nets. The manual removal of submerged weeds from a heavily infested water body is relatively much more difficult. They are either pulled by hand or hand-drawn bottom rakes or uprooted with bamboo poles having a cross piece tied strongly at the terminal end. Repeated cutting of the aerial shoots and leaves of rooted emergent plants are also useful. Implements used for manual control are mostly hand scythes for cutting, and hand forks, strong nets and bamboo poles with terminal cross piece for twisting and uprooting (Fig. 35). Mechanical devices used for clearance of rooted submerged weeds are steel cables, cutting chains and diesel operated winches (Mitra, 1956). 9.1.1.3 Chemical control The manual removal of weeds from heavily infested large water bodies is difficult and time consuming. Under such conditions certain commercially available chemicals (herbicides) can provide an efficient means of eradication of undesirable aquatic plants. Total kill and disintegration of weeds can be achieved by this method ensuring full return of the nutrients back to pond soil and water for production of natural fish food. As a matter of fact there is not a single chemical known so far which can eradicate all types of weed infestation. Therefore, one must know the weeds and its species, appropriate herbicide and its rate and time of treatment. In larger ponds where dense infestation covers a substantial portion of the water, the herbicide should be applied part by part if the pond is already stocked with fish. As discussed earlier most herbicides are selective in nature and when applied to a mixed population of weeds, growth of some tolerant weeds may be encouraged at the cost of susceptible ones; likewise, when surface or floating weeds are destroyed, the submerged weeds develop. Under such conditions subsequent application of appropriate herbicide should be taken up. Floating weeds: Water hyacinth is one of the most important weeds of this group. Depending on its degree of infestation, they are categorized in three groups, viz. small, medium and big, based on their wet weight per unit area. The recommended doses of the herbicide 24-D are 2,7 and 12 kg/ha for small (13 kg/m2 ), medium (23 kg/m 2 ) and big (35 kg/m 2 ) (Ramchandran, 1969; Patnaik and Das, 1983). Addition of a detergent (0.2 % concentration) to the aqueous solution gives better results. The dilution for better coverage has been estimated at 400 l/ha. The foliar spray (spraying over the leaves) is undertaken with the help of a foot pump/hand pump sprayer with a three-action nozzle. Field application of herbicide, especially towards the interior of thick water hyacinth infestation, is a difficult task. In such cases a pair of stout bamboo poles should be laid on the top of the infestations so that the operators can walk over them. Normally, the complete kill of plants takes around 25 days. This chemical is available in two suitable forms as sodium and amine salt.
Figure 35. Hand tools Used for Manual Control of Aquatic Weeds Water lettuce which often causes a serious problem in fish ponds can be controlled with 0.10.2 kg of paraquat/ha. This infestation could also be controlled by foliar spray of aquous ammonia (1%) at the rate of 5075 kg/ha along with 0.2 % of any commercially available detergent as a wetting agent. The aquous ammonia is broadcast as foliar spray over the infestation with a foot pump sprayer and a small funnelshaped sprinkler 34 cm in diameter, provided with 10 pin-sized holes pierced on the diaphragm covering the mouth of the funnel. The stem of the sprinkler is connected to the sprayer through a 30 m long polyethene tube, so that the sprayer is kept on the shore and only the sprinkler is taken inside the infested area in a boat. The area to be treated inthe field is divided into small plots (2030 m 2 size) and solution is sprayed at the rate of 5 000 1/ha. Salvinia forms a thick surface mat in ponds and can be conveniently controlled by the application of foliar spray of paraquat at the rate of 1 kg/ha. Usually it takes 3040 days for the weeds to be killed and settled in the pond.
Smaller floating weeds, e.g. Spirodela, Lemna and Azolla can also be cleared with 0.1 kg/ha of paraquat. Emergent weeds: Water lily, lotus, and floating heart can be cleared by spraying the herbicide 24-D at the rate of 810 kg/ha with detergent (0.25%). The chemical is diluted at the rate of 300 l/ha and sprayed through a footpump sprayer. Submerged weeds: Ottelia, Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Najas, Potamogeton and Ceratophyllum can be controlled by paraquat at the rate of 34 ppm within two weeks. It can also be controlled by application of anhydrous ammonia at the rate of 1520 ppm. Marginal weeds: Ipomea, Jussiaea, etc., could be controlled by spraying the herbicide 24-D at the rate of 8 kg/ha. Algal blooms and mats: Due to overdose of fertilizers or enrichment of the water through treated sewage or agricultural fertilizer, the minute algal cells multiply fast turning the pond water bright green or sometimes brickred. Some of the more harmful blooming algae are microcystis, anabaena and euglena. A number of chemicals have been employed to control these algal blooms. Copper sulphate is perhaps the oldest and a very widely used algicide. The recommended doses are 0.2 to 1.0 ppm, but it is not very effective in ponds having high pH (pH above 8.6), Microcystis bloom is cleared with 0.3 to 0.5 ppm of Diuron. Simazine also clears the bloom in 1620 days and the rate of application is 0.30.5 ppm. Both the chemicals do not have harmful effect on fish. It has been observed that the sudden kill of blooms is likely to cause oxygen depletion which might cause mortality of fish. In order to avoid this a prophylactic dose of diuron (0.1 ppm) should be applied in the very early stage of bloom development. Usually the chemical is sprayed over the affected portions of the ponds. The common mat forming algae which occur in fish ponds are Spirogyra, Pithophora, Oedogonium and Cladophora. Although repeated netting can reduce the infestation to a considerable extent in nursery and rearing ponds, application of Diuron at the rate of 0.30.5 ppm is recommended. Various chemicals and the dose of application is summerised in the ready reckoner given below (Table 21). 9.1.1.4 Biological control of aquatic weeds Another important controlling method is by introduction of weed-eating fishes. Common carp, gourami, tilapia, pearl spot, the grass carp and a species of puntius are the fishes of known weed-eating habits (Table 22). Grass carp is the most effective biological control agent against most of the submerged and floating weeds except the water ferns. Grass carp normally consumes choiced aquatic weeds, at least 50% of their body weight in a day. About 300400 fish, each of about 0.5 kg weight, are enough to clear 1 ha of Hydrilla infested water body in about a month. Normally Hydrilla infestation density ranges from 525 kg/m 2 (Alikunhi and Sukumaran, 1964).
9.1.2 Eradication of unwanted fish

Predatory fish prey upon the spawn, fry and fingerlings of carps and the weed fish compete with carp for food, space and oxygen. Therefore predatory and weed fish should be completely eradicated from nursery, rearing and stocking ponds before these ponds are stocked. The commonly encountered predatory and weed fish in undrainable ponds are listed below (Table 23). Absolute removal of these unwanted fish by thorough and repeated netting is not possible and hence dewatering and poisoning the pond are the only alternative methods. If situation permits, dewatering should be the preference as it ensures complete eradication of unwanted fishes and disinfects the pond bottom. Dewatering also offers the opportunity to desilt the pond bottom. However, where it is not possible, which is true in most situations, the pond should be treated with fish poison. From an economic point of view the poisoning should be done during pre-monsoon season when the water level is usually low, requiring the minimum quantity of poison material. The date of poisoning, however, should be fixed about three weeks before the anticipated date of stocking. Seasonal ponds which dry up during summer months need not be treated with fish toxicants.
Weeds
1. Water hyacinth pistia and other floating weed 2. Lotus, water lily trapa, etc. 3. Marginal weeds 4. Salvinia 5. Pistia,spirodela lemna, azolla, etc. 6.
Table 21 Ready reckoner for chemical control of aquatic weeds Herbicide Brand name
24D (sodium salt/amine Taficide Hexamar salt) Fernoxone -do-doParaquat -do-doAquous ammonia Anhydrous ammonia Copper sulphate Copper sulphate Simazine Diuron -do-doGramoxone -do-doDry ammonia gas Dry amomia gas Karmex 212 kg/ha 810 kg/ha 8 kg/ha 1.0 kg/ha 0.10.2 kg/ha 4 ppm 5070 kg/ha 1520 ppm 35 kg/ha
Dose
Additives
0.10.2% detergents 0.25% detergent 0.25% detergent 0.1% detergent 0.2% detergent
Submerged weeds (Ottelia, vallisneria, hydrilla, najas, potamogeton, ceretophyllum, etc.)
7. Pistia 8. Submerged weeds 9. Rooted submerged weeds 10. Algal blooms/mats
0.21.0 ppm (not very affective at high pH 0.30.5 ppm 0.30.5 ppm
Fishes
Common carp Gaurami Pearl spot Grass carp Silver carp
Names
Cyprinus carpio Osphronemus goramy Etroplus suratensis Ctenopharyngodon idella Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Table 22 Common weed eating fish and the weeds of their preference Feed upon
Tender shoots Tender shoots of submerged weeds and filamentous algae Filamentous algae Submerged weeds e.g Hydrilla Najas, Ceratophyllum, Potamogeton, Ottelia and duck weeds Algal bloom
Table 23 Common predatory and weed fish of undrainable ponds Predatory fish
Channa spp. Clarias batrachus Heteropneustes fossilis Pangasius pangasius Mystus spp. Ompok spp. Wallago attu Glossogobius giuris Mastocembelus spp. Amphipnous cuchia Puntius spp. Oxygaster spp. Gudusia chapra Amblypharyngodon mola Laubuca spp. Esomus danricus Osteobrama cotio
Weed fish
9.1.2.1 Fish toxicants Although a number of chemicals and plant derivatives are available in the market which are poisonous for fish, only a limited number of such toxicants are safe and suitable for fish culture purposes. Based upon the following criteria a suitable fish poison is selected. Poisoned fish should be safe for human consumption Least adverse effect on the pond biota Toxicity period should be of short duration Should not have residual effect
Easy commercial availability Simplicity of application Cost considerations. Mohua oil cake, bleachng powder and ammonia are considered suitable. 9.1.2.2 Application of toxicants in ponds Mohua oilcake: Of all the fish poisons of plant origin, the most extensively used fish toxicant in undrainable ponds is oil cake of Mohua (Basia latifolia). It kills all the fish species within a few hours when applied at the rate of 250 ppm (CIFRI, 1968). It contains about 46% of active ingredient, the saponia, which on dissolving in water haemolyses the red blood cells and thus kills the fish (Bhatia, 1970). The required quantity of mohua oilcake should be soaked in water and uniformly broadcast over the entire pond surface. Following this operation, repeated netting should be done to ensure proper mixing of the poison and removing the affected fishes which are suitable for human consumption. The toxicity of doses up to 250 ppm lasts for about 96 hours (Jhingran and Pullin, 1985) and subsequently it serves as organic manure in the pond. It should be applied at least two weeks before stocking the ponds. Bleaching powder: Bleaching powder or Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl 2 ) is another practical and safe fish toxicant. It kills all the predatory and weed fish of the pond when applied at the rate of 2530 ppm (Tripathy et al., 1980). However, during storage, significant chlorine content is lost and hence it is always safer to use the commercially available bleaching powder at the rate of 3550 ppm or 350500 kg/ha/m of water. Fish kill occurs within 13 hours and the toxicity lasts for 35 days. Plankton and benthic fauna start developing from the 7th or 8th day after treatment. Chlorine content of the bleaching powder thoroughly disinfects the pond which is essential in undrainable ponds where disinfection by sun drying is not at all possible. Disinfection of the pond is one of the essential measures for maintaining proper health condition of the fish. Besides, it also satisfies the lime requirement of the pond soil. The method of application is also relatively simple. The powder is mixed with water and uniformly spread over the entire water surface. Distressed and dead fish are removed by netting. Chlorine killed fish are safe for human consumption. Ammonia: Anhydrous ammonia when applied at the rate of 2025 ppm kills the predatory and weed fishes. Besides, it also controls the aquatic weeds and later acts as nitrogenous fertilizer. Toxicity of ammonia lasts for 46 weeks. Details of doses for commonly used fish toxicants are summerised in the following table (Table 24).
Table 24 Recommended doses of fish poison Poison

Bleaching powder Mohua oil cake Anhydrous ammonia Powdered seed of Croton tiqlium Root powder of Milletia pachycarpa Seed powder of Milletia piecidia Seed powder of Barrinqtonia acutanqula Seed meal of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Tea seed cake (Camellia sinensis) *
* Requires additional dose of lime at the rate of 150 kg/ha
Dose (kg/ha/m)
350 500 2 500 20 30 30 50 40 50 40 50 150 1 750 2 000 750
The nursery ponds require subsequent poisoning for selective killing of the larger planktonic copepods. These copepods are predatory in nature and instead of serving as food for the delicate spawn and early fry, they attack and prey upon them resulting in poor survival. For this reason 45 days prior to stocking of spawn, the pond should be treated with malathion at the rate of 0.25 ppm (active ingredient) for selective killing of the planktonic copepods. This treatment significantly increases the survival in nursery ponds (Kumar et al., 1986). Such treatment is not required in rearing and stocking ponds. 9.1.2.3 Calculation of dose The required quantity of poison can be calculated using the following formulae. For rectangular ponds:
= Required amount of poison in kg. For circular ponds:
= Required amount of poison in kg.
9.1.3 Eradication of predatory insects

Many aquatic insects in their larval and/or adult stages, prey upon fish hatchlings and fry and also compete with them for food. The common insect predators are beetles, bugs and dragonfly nymphs (Fig. 36). Among beetles, diving beetle (Cybister), water scavenger beetle (Sternolophus) and whirling beetle (Gyrinus) are more dangerous forms. Back swimmers (Anisops) appear in swarms in manured ponds during rainy season and cause heavy damage. Other predatory members of this group are water scorpion (Laccotrephes), giant water bug (Belostoma) and water stick insect (Ranatra). Dragonfly nymphs are highly predatory on carp spawn. Proper prepration of nursery ponds for stocking with spawn thus also aims at total eradication of such predatory insects. The basic method is to apply a thin oily film over the pond surface which chokes the respiratory tubes of aquatic insects. The spawn and fish food organisms remain unaffected. Some of the common treatment methods are presented in the following table (Table 25).
Table 25 Pond treatment methods for eradication of predatory aquatic insects Treatment method Dose/ha
Soap oil emulsion Diesel oil Kerosene oil Turpentine oil Diesel emulsifier 56 kg vegetable oil + 18 kg soap 50 60 1 80 100 1 75 1 Diesel 50 1 * emulsifier 37.5 ml + water 2 1.
ADVERSE ENVIRONMENT FAVOURS PATHOGEN PROLIFERATION AND CUASE STRESS TO FISH
BETTER ENVIRONMENT FAVOURS FISH PREVENT QUICK PROLIFERATION
HOST PATHOGEN ENVIRONMENT-INTERACTIONS RESULTING DISEASE-OUTBREAK H-SUSCEPTIBLE HOST AE-ADVERSE HOST P - VIRULENT PATHOGEN
HOST PATHOGEN ENVIRONMENT INTERACION RESULTING IN NO DISEASE CONDITION
Figure 36. Common Insect Predators in Nursery Pond Except for soap-oil emulsion other mixtures or emulsion are easily prepared by simple mixing. For making soap-oil emulsion, the soap is mixed with oil and gently heated for some time with vigorous stirring. These emulsions are applied by spraying over the pond surface about 1224 hours prior to stocking of spawn. It is the film of the emulsion which is important and hence care is taken not to disturb the film for a few hours. Windy days should be avoided as it will break the film. Malathion application in nursery ponds also controls the predatory insects population and hence subsequent treatment for control of insect is not required. However, if swarms of these predatory insects are seen in the nursery pond, treatment should be applied immediately.
9.1.4 Fertilization of ponds

Fertilization schedule involving both organic and inorganic fertilizers starts 1015 days prior to stocking and is prepared on the basis of nutrient status and chemical environment of the pond soil and water. 9.1.4.1 Basis of fertilization In undrainable ponds where the frequent change of water is a remote possibility, the physico-chemical properties of pond water governing the biological production cycle are more or less a reflection of the bottom soil. The organic and mineral constituents of the soil play their part in releasing the required nutrients into water for pond productivity through chemical/biological processes. Pond bottom soil also provides suitable substrates and necessary environment for the microbial decomposers - the living fertilizer factory of the pond. Thus it is the soil condition and its nutrient status that forms the basis of pond fertilization by using either organic manure or inorganic fertilizer or a combination of both. Important characteristics of pond soil which influence fertilizer use is briefly described here. Texture of the soil: The texture of pond soil, i.e. mechanical composition of the soil comprising sand, silt and clay and organic matter content, basically influences the economy of both inherent and added nutrients. Sandy and very clayey soil are not desirable as in the former the nutrients are lost due to heavy leaching; while in the latter, due to high adsorption capacity, the nutrients from the water are trapped. Clay minerals and organic matter of the bottom mud are both colloidal in nature and thus exhibit colloidal properties like adsorption and cation exchange phenomenon. Sandy soils, on the other hand are low in colloidal substances and also deficient in organic humus. These are important considerations for deciding the application of fertilizers and manures. Soil pH: As in water, pH of soil is also one of the critical factors affecting pond productivity. Under anaerobic condition the decomposition of organic matter is slow and the products of decompositions are mainly reduced compounds and short chain fatty acids thus making the soil strongly acidic. Soil pH also influences transformation of phosphorus into available forms and controls the adsorption and release of essential nutrients at the soil-water interface. Both for soil and water a slightly alkaline pH is considered favourable for fish ponds. Availability of essential mineral nutrients such as phosphate, nitrogen, potassium, carbon and calcium is a consideration which determines the quality and quantity of fertilizers to be applied. Nitrogen is required in large quantities as it is the basic and primary constituent of protein and chlorophyll. Although, phosphorus is required in a small quantity compared to nitrogen, it is considered as the single critical element for maintaining aquatic productivity. Banerjee (1967) classified the undrainable ponds into low, medium and highly productive groups, on the basis of their nutrient status considering mainly nitrogen, phosphate and organic carbon (Table 26).
9.1.4.2 Fertilization schedule Proper analysis of soil and water is essential before deciding on the fertilization schedule. Detailed recommendations have been made in the chapter on pond environmental monitoring (Section 9.3.3).
Productivity level
High Medium Low
pH
6.6 7.5 5.5 6.5 Below 5.5
Table 26 Nutrient status of high, medium and low productive ponds Available nutrients P2O 5 (mg/1000 g soil N(mg/1000 g soil)
50 or more 25 49 Less than 25 6 12 35 Less than 3
Organic carbon (%)

1.5 or more 0.5 1.4 Less than 0.5
Liming: Diurnal changes in pH values ranging from pH 5 during the night and pH 11 during the day due to community respiration and photo-synthesis is a common experience but such wide variations impose stressful conditions for the fish. An adequate level of calcium in the pond provides a buffering system as shown in Figure 37. Liming helps to raise the total alkalinity level and consequently the reserve CO2 will increase the availability of carbon for photosynthesis by raising the bicarbonate concentration in water. This raised level of reserve CO 2 will also prevent biological decalcification.
Figure 37. Mechanism of Buffering Action of Line Depending on the pH of the soil, the dose of the liming should be Adjusted as per the following table (Table 27). Alkalinity can also be used as an indicator of the need for lime in fish ponds. The total dose of lime calculated as per the table, need not be applied at one time. It may be divided into 34 doses and the first dose may be applied about a week prior to the manuring of the pond. It helps in faster mineralisation of organic matter in the pond sediment and acts as a prophylactic agent as well. The same dose is applicable for nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. However, as and when needed during the culture period, additional doses of lime can also be applied.
Soil pH
4.0 4.9 5.0 6.4 6.5 7.4 7.5 8.4 8.5 9.5 Highly acidic Moderately acidic Near neutral Mildly alkaline Highly alkaline
Soil type
Table 27 Requirement of lime for different types of pond soils Requirement of lime(kg/ha)
2 000 1 000 500 200 Nil
Manuring: Organic manuring besides being important as means of adding the nutrients, is also equally important for improving the soil texture. A combination of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers is considered more effective than using either of these alone. However, in nursery ponds, use of mineral fertilizers is not recommended as the application may cause blooms of algae which may persist and may harm the young fry. Cow dung at an initial dose of 10 000 kg/ha may be applied in the nursery ponds about two weeks prior to anticipated stocking. If the pond is poisoned by mahua oil cake, then the dose should be restricted to 5 000 kg/ha. If two or more crops of fry are to be produced during the season from the same nursery ponds, then the pond should be fertilized with 2 000 kg/ha of cattle dung about a week before each subsequent stocking. In case of poultry manure the dose should be only 33% of the cattle dung. Rearing ponds are initially manured with the raw cattle dung about two weeks prior to stocking. The rate of application is between 5 000 7 000 kg/ha in 5 instalments. If the pond is treated with mohua oil cake then the dose of organic manuring is reduced to half. Dose of inorganic fertilizers may be regulated as per pond soil productivity determined by detailed analyses. In the absence of soil testing facilities a general recommendation should be followed. In such cases inorganic fertilizers are applied at the rate of urea 140 kg/ha and triple superphosphate 60 kg/ha in 45 instalments. In stocking ponds a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers is considered more effective. Initial manuring with organic manure at the rate of 20% of the total requirement is done 15 days prior to stocking and the remaining 80% of the organic manure is applied in 11 equl monthly instalments during the rearing period. However, if mohua oil cake is applied earlier, the initial manuring is not essential. The total quantity of inorganic fertilizers to be applied is decided according to soil type (Table 28) and applied in equal monthly instalments. The monthly instalments of organic and inorganic fertilizers are applied alternately allowing a gap of a fortnight between the two applications. Nitrogenous fertilizers are selected on the basis of soil pH.
Table 28 Amount of fertilizers required for ponds having high, medium and low levels of productivity Pond productivity levels
High
Rate of application of fertilizer (kg/hg/y) Cattle dung Urea (4345%) Ammonium sulphate (20.5%) Calcium ammonium nitrate (20.5%) Single super phosphate (1620%) Triple super phosphate (4045%) 5 0008 000 112155 225330 156219 5475
Medium
8 00010 000 156225 350500 220315 76110 10 00025 000 226260 501650 316405 111145
Low
In the absence of proper soil testing facilities fertilization schedule in stocking ponds may be followed as per the following table (Table 29).
Item
A. B. Cattle dung Cattle dung Urea (pH 6.57.5) or Ammonium sulphate (pH above 7.5) or Calcium ammonium nitrate (pH 5.56.5) C. Single super phosphate or Triple super phosphate
Table 29 Generalized fertilization schedule for stocking ponds (CIFRI, 1985) Quantity Periodicity of application (kg/ha)
2 000 1 000 25 30 30 20 8 Initial dose Monthly Monthly Monthly Monthly Monthly Monthly
9.2 Stocking
Complete detoxification of the piscicide applied earlier should be ensured before stocking the nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. One or two days prior to stocking, a hapa should be fixed in the pond and some stocking materials should be put inside the hapa. Absence of distress and mortality after 24 hours confirm complete detoxification and the pond should be regarded as ready for stocking.
9.2.1 Stocking of nursery ponds

Carp spawn requires natural feed immediately after stocking and hence it is essential to have a minimum plankton value of 3040 ml/m 3 in case of stocking at a moderate rate (1.52.5 million/ha). When a higher stocking rate is to be adopted, plankton population is also required to be increased accordingly. In case the stocking density is over 5 million/ha, the plankton volume should be around 100 ml/m 3 . Self-produced or procured 34 days old spawn should be stocked in the morning at the rate of 46 million/ha. The stocking density must be according to the condition of the pond and the amount of fish food organisms available. The rate of stocking in a well prepared nursery pond with adequate fish food organisms can be as high as 10 million/ha. However, the survival level decreases with the increase in stocking density (Sen, 1976), (Table 30).
Survival level (%)

87.3 74.6 62.0 66.2
Table 30 Survival of carp fry at various stocking densities Stocking density (million/ha)
2.5 3.75 6.25 10.00
Combined rearing of two or more species of spawn should not be done in nursery ponds. The pond should be stocked after three days of hatching when their sizes range from 0.60.75 cm and counts on an average about 500 numbers/ml. The required number of spawn are measured with the help of metallic or plastic sieve cups of known volume. Spawn are reared in nursery ponds up to fry stage for about 23 weeks when they usually attain 23.5 cm in length and 0.150.75 g in weight. At higher stocking density the growth is relatively slow. It is possible to raise 34 crops of fry from the same pond during the same breeding season and in addition, the pond can also be utilized for rearing of common carp seed during January to March.
9.2.2 Stocking of rearing ponds

Rearing of fry to fingerling stage is done in rearing ponds where fry are stocked at the rate of 0.250.30 million/ha with a survival level of 6080% under proper pond conditions. Either monoculture or polyculture methods can be adopted for this rearing. In the case of polyculture the species combination and their ratio should be decided on the basis of their habit, feeding, availability of feed, etc. Some of the possible combinations are - catla, rohu, mrigal, common carp (3:4:1:3); silver carp, grass carp (1:1); silver carp, grass carp, common carp (4:3:3); catla, rohu, mrigal, grass carp (4:3:1.5); silver carp, grass carp, common carp, rohu (3:1.5:2.5:3), etc. Combination of too many species should be avoided as it invites excessive handling at the time of harvesting for species segregation. Fry are reared in ponds for about 3 months when they usually attain 100150 mm in length and 1540 g in weight. For healthy fry rearing it is recommended that the size of the fry at the time of stocking in the rearing pond should be as uniform as possible. This can be done by size grading at the time of fry harvesting from nursery ponds. Prior to stocking the rearing ponds the pond waters must have a plankton level of about 3050 ml/m3 .
9.2.3 Stocking of grow-out/stocking ponds

After proper preparation, the pond should be stocked with 100150 mm long fingerlings of desired carp species. In case the fingerlings are not available, the pond can also be stocked with advanced fry or early fingerlings in absolutely predator-free ponds. The stocking rate depends primarily upon the volume of water and on the oxygen balance of the pond. Quality of available natural fish food in the pond and the capacity of the farmer to provide supplementary feed, are also matters for consideration. Usually a pond having average water depth of 1.52.5 m should be stocked at the rate of 5 000 fingerlings/ha. The volume of water available for fish in an undrainable pond should not be less than 2 m 3 /fish if there is no provision of artificial aeration. In composite fish culture, rearing of six species of carps, viz. catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal(Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is considered to be the ideal combination. However, depending on the availability of quality fingerlings of these carp species, three or four species combinations can also be taken up. Ratio of different species in the combination is also equally important. However, there are certain general guidelines for selecting species combinations (Table 31).
Species combination
3 4 6
* Lower units in shallow ponds
Table 31 Different species combinations and their stocking ratios for composite fish culture Surface feeder Column feeder Bottom feeder Catla Silver carp Rohu Mrigal Common carp
40 3040 1015 2030 30 2030 * 1530
*
Macrophyte feeder Grass carp

515
30 1520 1520
2025 2025
Availability of weed in the pond or in the vicinity decides the stocking density of grass carp. In older ponds where the soft sediment layer of the pond bottom is usually very thick and anaerobic in nature, the ratio of bottom feeder and especially the common carp should be kept at a higher level. Likewise, the relative density of column feederrohu should be kept on the high side in deeper ponds than in shallower ponds, whereas ponds showing consistently higher zooplankton population should have a higher
ratio of surface feeders. Based on the performance of individual species in the combination and availability of seed, combinations can be modified in subsequent years. Silver carp, however, should be stocked 1 or 2 months later. Interspecies competition for food between catla and silver carp to some extent is the key point for such differential stocking. The stocking pond also should have a desired level of plankton population of about 3050 ml/m3 .
9.2.4 Method of stocking

Stocking of spawn, fry and fingerlings should be done very carefully to avoid any post-stocking mortality due to shock or infections. To minimize post-stocking mortality the fry/fingerlings should be slowly and gradually acclimatized to the temperature and quality of the water in the stocking pond. To do so, open the mouth of the seed transport bag/container and gradually add the pond water in phases and after 1520 minutes slowly dip and tilt the bag/container in the pond so that the spawn/fry/fingerlings are free to swim out. Stocking should preferably be done in the cool evening hours. Apply prophylactic treatment to seed prior to their release so as to avoid any post-stocking infections (Section 9.3.4).
9.3 Post-stocking management

Post-stocking management involves harnessing the pond productivity in the form of natural fish food, maintenance of pond environment congenial to the cultivated fish and fish husandry, mainly feeding and health care.
9.3.1 Feeding
Soon after stocking, the fish start grazing natural food available in the pond irrespective of their stage of life cycle. Spawn feeds voraciously on plankton. Therefore, immediate steps must be taken for providing supplementary feed. In the case of nursery ponds where spawn are reared for about a fortnight up to fry stage, supplementary feed is broadcoast on the pond surface in the form of fine powder daily in the morning hours at prescribed rates (Table 32).
Stage
Spawn to fry Fry to fingerlings Growers Brood fish
Table 32 Rates of daily supplementary feeding at various stages of culture Daily feeding rate
48 times of the initial body weight 50100% of the initial body weight 1 2% 1 3%
The following schedule of feeding should be followed for nursery ponds (Table 33).
Period (Day from the date of stocking)

15 6 12 13 14
Table 33 Feeding schedule for nursery ponds Rate of feeding

4 times the total initial weight 8 times the total initial weight No feed Harvesting
Amount of feed for 0.1 million of spawn
560 g/day 1 120 g/day -
At the time of stocking, the spawn of 0.650.75 cm average length weigh about 0.0014 g each, and a mixed collection of 0.1 million weigh about 140 g. Grass carp is fed its preferred aquatic vegetation or green animal fodder as per the following table (Table 34). See Fig. 38.
Stage
Fry (1.7 3.9 cm) Fingerlings (4.0 15.0 cm) Juveniles/Adults (above 15.0 cm)
Table 34 Feed for grass carp during various stages of life cycle Feed
Soft macrophytes such as Azolla, Wolffia, Lemna and Spirodella, etc. Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Vallisneria, Najas, Chara, etc., in addition to those mentioned above. In addition to above, green animal fodder such as barseem, napier, hybrid napier, elephant grass, tender leaves of vegetables and trees such as soobabul, drumstick, etc.
Figure 38. Feeding Enclosure for Grass Carp The form in which the supplementary feed is given is also important. In the nursery ponds the feed should be provided in finely powdered form and may be broadcast over the pond surface. In the case of rearing, stocking and brood stock ponds, the supplementary feed mixture should be mixed with enough water to make a dough and applied into feeding trays fixed in the ponds. Better results can be obtained if the feed mixture is pelletized and fed to fish (Fig. 33B). The pellets may be of the sinking or floating type, but both types should be water stable. The sinking type of pellets are put in feeding trays fixed in the pond. The standing crop of fish is estimated every month on the basis of sample netting for growth and health check and feeding schedule is adjusted accordingly. Periodical netting should be done strictly on a monthly basis and with the help of hand nets and spring balance (Fig. 39), the average weight of each species should be recorded (Table 35). The average weight of individual species, monthly increment in weight, total standing crop and amount of feed to be given should be estimated on the basis of data thus available. The feeding tray should be cleaned daily before the application of fresh feed. Fish normally stop feeding if they are sick or the temperature is far below normal. In such situations a proper health check is required and the feeding rate is adjusted. Grass carp should be fed until they stop eating. Usually they consume aquatic vegetation, about 50% of their body weight on a daily basis.
Species stocked
Av. wt. of 10 fish (g) 1 2 3 4 5
Table 35 Data sheet for monthly netting Av. wt. of this Av. wt. of last month(g) month(g)
Monthly growth (g)
No. of fish stocked
Total estimated crop (kg)
(Samples)
Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp Common carp 11000 11000 11500 11250 11750 1 110 6000 7000 7500 7000 7500 700 9000 9500 9000 9500 9100 922 22000 22750 22500 22500 22250 2 240 50000 50500 50000 45500 48000 4 880 12000 12600 12000 12500 12500 1 232 Estimated total standing crop Amount of feed to be applied daily at the rate of 2% body weight 1 025 650 850 2 000 4 300 1 150 85 50 72 240 580 82 150 200 200 150 100 200 166.500 140.000 184.400 336.000 458.000 246.400 1531.300 30.6 kg
Av. wt. - Average weight
9.3.2 Periodic fertilization

The next step in post-stocking management is the periodic fertilization which ensures replenishment of nutrients and consolidation of the energy base for microbial decomposition activities. The desired total quantity of fertilizers are best applied in small equal doses at periodical instalments throughout the rearing period so as to ensure maximum utilization of these fertilizers. The mode, sequence and timing of application of fertilizers are important or achieving best results. Lime should be applied first followed by the organic manure and finally the inorganic fertilizers an the same order is followed subsequently. These fertilizers should be applied only when the physical conditions of the water are most suitable such as plenty of sunlight, adequate oxygen, optimum temperature, adequate water level and low wind velocity. Turbid water with a high content of suspended solids are not preferred. Fertilizer should be sprayed or distributed properly over the water surface during the day time when the top layer of water is warmer and lighter. Inorganic fertilizer application must be stopped temporarily when the nitrate and phosphate content of water show a level of 0.5 ppm or above at any stage during the periodic pond environment monitoring. Similarly, organic manuring may also be stopped if the soil organic carbon level goes beyond 2%. However, normal application may be resumed after the specific nutrient level goes down. Care should be taken to see that the phosphatic fertilizers dissolve properly in the water since powdered orgranular fertilizer may often solidify after coming in contact with water. It is more effective if doses are divided further so that application is more frequent. The results are encouraging when organic manures are applied in daily doses in pons. The desired amount of cattle dung is mixed with water and uniformly spread over the entire pond surface. In nursery ponds the first manuring is done two weeks prior to stocking and if more than one crop is nursed, fresh manuring should be done a week prior to every subsequent stocking.
Figure 39. Hand Net and Spring Balance A periodical fertilization schedule is summarized in Table 36. The rate of fertilization by organic and inorganic manures has already been discussed (para 9.1.3.2).
Ponds
Nursery ponds Rearing ponds Stocking ponds Organic manure
Table 36 Periodicity of fertilization in nursery, rearing and stocking ponds Manure

3 weeks Organic manure and Inorganic fertilizer Organic manure and Inorganic fertilizer
Periodicity
3 weeks - daily Monthly
9.3.3 Pond environmental monitoring

9.3.3.1 General considerations Proper pond management involves a regular and steady supply of nutrient for sustained production of fish food organisms. The supply of nutrients could be from within the pond itself or from outside. It is also required to regulate the physico-chemical parameters of the pond ecosystem within the safe tolerance limits of the cultured fish species. This necessitates periodical monitoring of pond environment and taking corrective measures in time. Olah and Sinha (1984) have developed a practical monitoring system of perennial undrainable ponds which offer the monitoring of basic architecture and production processes of such pond ecosystems in tropical monsoon lands. The system needs simple instrumentation, little working time and labour and reveals sufficient information about the actual nutrient level of pond sediment and water. Most of these parameters can be easily measured at the pond site while some require laboratory facilities. The monitoring system gives reliable guidelines for fish farmers to optimize fish production. 9.3.3.2 Parameters to be monitored It is essential for extension workers to name and code-number the ponds in their area. Such coding may be based either on postal district/unit/village farmer's name, etc. The fish farmer should record the following information on his fish farm: Nature of pond: Perennial or seasonal; nursery pond, rearing pond or stocking pond. Water area: Measurement of the water area is essential in order to know the size of the pond for proper fish stocking and quantifying the production processes. This can be done easily with the help of a bamboo pole of known length.
Age: Age is one of the most important parameters, since it has direct relevance with the productivity of the pond which usually varies from one year to several hundred years. Management: Management status should record the existing management techniques and its level (intensive or extensive). The species of fish present, details of culture activities, stocking structure and density, fertilization, feeding, harvesting, marketing, etc, need to be recorded. To obtain qualified data on the organic carbon and biogenic nutrient load it is necessary to know the number of livestock and human population associated with the particular pond. The fish farmer should also monitor the following parameters on a routine basis. Water colour: The visual colour of the pond water is a simple but important reflection of the basic production processes. Water transparency: Water transparency measured with a Secchi disc is intended to quantify the result of those processes which determine and modify the visual colour. However, a low transparency may result either from high turbidity alone or from dense algal population and thus cannot reflect the correct trophic or production level of the water. However, the Secchi transparency readings together with the visual colour provide valuable information on the productivity of the water. Water depth: The primary water source is usually the rainfall during the monsoon. After the rainy season the water level gradually decreases which results in a very shallow water column by the end of the dry season. The water depth can be measured with a 45 m long bamboo pole fitted at its base with a wooden disc of 25 cm dia. Soft sediment depth: A soft sediment layer is usually present in the pond bottom. The depth of this layer can be measured with a 68 m long bamboo pole having a wooden disc of 10 cm dia at its base. Solid sediment depth: In older ponds, in addition to the soft sediment layer, a solid sediment layer with a low water content is also present. The thickness of the layer can be measured with a 68 m long bamboo pole with a sharp end. The total thickness of the soft plus solid sediment layers has a direct relation to the age of the fish pond, at times the sediment layer measures more than 2 m. Such thick sediment, having a rich nutrient content, is anaerobic in nature with slow bacterial decomposition and mineral cycling rates. This should be properly utilized for fish culture. Chemical environment in the water column: The water is chemically characterized by pH, alkalinity, NH4-N, NO 3N and PO4-P measurements following standard methods. Normally the pH and alkalinity do not change from pond to pond on the same types of maternal soil. The measurements of NH4-N, NCO 3-N and PO4-P indicate the basic inorganic nutrient status of the pond.' Simple chemical parameters such as dissolved oxygen and pH may be measured using field kits. Slightly alkaline water (pH 7.08.5) and oxygen levels of 69 ppm indicate optimum condition. Dawn oxygen: Fish ponds usually exhibit wide fluctuations in the dissolved oxygen content from day to night. This diurnal oxygen fluctuation is normally measured to calculate the community metabolism of the whole pond while quantifying the production and respiration processes in the ecosystem. A single measurement just before sunrise would be an important indicator of the risk of fish kill due to oxygen depletion. Desirable ranges of various pond environment parameters are presented in Table 37.
Table 37 Desirable ranges of pond water quality parameters Parameters

Water colour Transparency pH Dissolved oxygen Free carbon dioxide Inorganic nitrogen Inorganic phosphorus Greenish brown 25 50 cm 7.0 8.5 5.0 ppm 15.0 ppm 0.2 ppm 0.2 ppm
Desirable range
A simple schedule for monitoring the important parameters is presented in Table 38.
Parameters
A. Water Water colour Transparency Temperature Depth pH Free CO 2 Alkalinity: Total Bicarbonate Dawn Dissolved O 2 NH4 -N NO 3 -N PO4 -P B. Soil Sediment depth pH Organic carbon Total nitrogen Total PO4 -P x x x -
Daily
x x x -
Table 38 Environmental monitoring schedule Periodicity Weekly Fortnightly

x x x x x x x -
Monthly
x x x x
Quarterly
9.3.4 Fish health monitoring

In most of the situations, cultured fish are healthy even in the continuous presence of pathogens. However, when environmental stresses occur and the balance shifts in favour of the disease, the characteristic pathogens flourish. Under such circumstances if the fish fail to adjust adequately or if corrective measures are not taken timely, outbreak of diseases may occur. By resolving environmental problems and applying effective therapeutics, the original balance between the host and the pathogen may be restored. Thus a disease outbreak may often be a symptom of environmental imbalance and it gives a distress signal so that the adverse environmental conditions may immediately be corrected to prevent fish losses. The approach to health care in composite fish culture in undrainable ponds is essentially one of management of ecosystem and fish husbandry. 9.3.4.1 Host-pathogen-environment linkage Susceptible fish, the virulent pathogen and the aquatic environment in which they encounter each other are the three contributing factors in fish disease outbreaks (Snieszko, 1974). The fish itself possess a varied and complex defense system, the immune system, the potency of which determines the susceptibility or resistance to the particular pathogen under a particular circumstance. Several environmental components effectively influence the normal immune mechansim of the fish when their value exceeds the normal tolerance limits. A virulent pathogen, when present in the surrounding, is usually capable of causing an infectious disease to fish under stress. The causative agents of the disease and their fish hosts carry on their struggle in the aquatic environment and the environmental parameters which influence this encounter may shift the balance from one side to the other and often determine whether the host will overcome the infection or the pathogen will flourish (Fig. 40). Some of the infectious and parasitic agents can survive only in live fish, and in such cases the disease transmission is from fish to fish. Such disease-producing agents are
true pathogens. Others are extremely adaptable organisms which can survive outside the fish and cause infections whenever fish are weakened or otherwise predisposed to disease due to environmental stress. Most of the fish disease agents belong to this category. 9.3.4.2 Health monitoring programme Health protection of cultured fish is considered to be one of the most important aspects of modern aquaculture systems including the composite fish culture which requires a programme basically to check the health status of the fish quite frequently and employment of fish health management measures. This enables timely detection of any disease outbreak and taking up proper treatment measures at the initial stage. Otherwise, in advanced stages of the disease, control and treatment measures do not provide economical and effective. A fish health monitoring programme should consist of the following components: i. Daily observation of fish in each pond. ii. Sampling and examination of fish at regular intervals for health check and diagnosis of the disease if any. iii. Monitoring of pond quality and sanitation. iv. Sampling and examination of fish at the onset of distress, disease outbreak or mortality.
Figure 40. Effects of Environmental Changes on Fish-Pathogen Relationship The sampling for health check of fry and fingerlings should be done at weekly and fortnightly intervals respectively, while in composite fish culture ponds it should be at least once a month. A thorough health check of fry/fingerlings is required 1 or 2 weeks before netting out for stocking in grow-out ponds or before transfer to another pond. Such an examination will provide sufficient info rmation for planning. Diseased fish may exhibit either or both physical and behavioural signs, the most common of those are listed below: Behavioural signs: slowing down or a complete stoppage of feeding; loss of equilibrium, swimming erratically or in spirals; surfacing for gulping air and scraping against the floor and sides of the pond. Clinical symptoms: excess mucous secretion; change in normal colouration; erosion of scales, part of fins, skin, etc.; decolouration or paling of gills; abdominal swelling; bulging of eyes; presence of cysts, spots or patches over the body and gills, etc.; appearance of lesions, haemorrhagic spots and greyish or brownish areas over the body. Laboratory examinations: Thorough visual examination for external signs of the disease should be followed by detialed but quick laboratory examination by pathomorphologica, pathoanatomical and microscopical studies of squash and smear preparation from different organs/tissues. Diagnostic procedures in brief are presented below (Table 39). In situations where a disease problem is suspected, only those specimens exhibiting symptoms of distress or disease should be selected. Live moribund speciments are preferred, but if necessary, freshly dead specimens may also be collected for laboratory examination.
Table 39 Methods for diagnosis of commonly occurring diseases of Asiatic carps in undrainable ponds
Disease agent
A. Parasites 1. Protozoa Ichthyophthirius Trichodina Myxozoans 2. Crustaceans Arqulus 3. Flukes Gyrodactylus/ Dactyloqyrus Diplostomum B. Fungi 1. Saproleqnia 2. Branchiomyces 3. Achlya C. Bacteria 1. Aeromonas hydrophila 2. Pseudomonas fluodrescens
Method of examination
Positive indications
Microscopy Microscopy Microscopy Visual examinations/ microscopy Microscopy Visual examination/ microscopy Microscopy /visual examination Microscopy Microscopy Culture/microscopy Culture/microscopy
Pin-head size white spots on the skin, fins and gills. Presence of ciliated trophozoites with relatively large horseshoe shaped nucleus. Presence of saucer-shaped actively moving ciliate parasites on body surface and gills. Presence of cysts, spores on gills, body surface and/or in the squash preparations of kidney. spleen, air-bladder, etc. Haemorrhagic spots, lesions over the body and presence of parasites attached to fish body by means of suckers and hooks.
Presence of parasites in gills and skin. Small pigmented black nodules over the body surface
Body lesions associated with small white tufts of hyphae on fins and skin. Infected fish eggs fail to hatch and show presence of fungus mycelium protruding from the egg surface. Decolouration of gills, erosion of lamellae and presence of fungal hyphae in blood vessels. Cottony outgrowths of fungal mycelium over the infected area. Dropsy condition and haemorrhages over the body. Clinical condition is usually indistinguishable from that of aeromonas. Haemorrhages over the body. Appearance of external lesions on the body, head region and gill. Lesions initially begin as whitish or brownish patches with reddish zone around the periphery. Common carp is prone to this disease showing dropsy condition. Only grass carp is prone to this disease exhibiting similar dropsy symptoms.
3. Flexibacter columnaris Culture/microscopy D. Virus 1. Rhabdovirus of common carp 2. Rhabdovirus of grass carp Cell culture/serum neutralization test Cell culture/serum neutralization test
Smear preparation of selected tissues and organs may be made on the spot by smearing the material on a slide. Slides can then be dired, stained and examined immediately. Bacteriological media can be inoculated with materials from various organs, especially kidney, heart, etc., employing aseptic techniques. On-site disease diagnosis permits the immediate application of chemotherapy or remedial measures to control or eradicate the disease. However, accurate diagnosis of disease is of utmost importance if proper treatment is to be applied and this is possible only through experience and training. At times, may disease conditions occur which cannot be properly diagnosed without specialized laboratory facilities and in such conditions samples should be sent to such laboratories under proper preservation, packing and shipment (Dey, et al., 1982). As far as possible the specimen for examination to reference laboratories should be always sent live but when circumstances prohibit live delivery, specimens may be forwarded packed in ice. Specimens for parasitology examinations may be preserved in 510% formalin solution. In case of larger specimens incision may be made to facilitate effective penetration of the fixative. The volume of fixative should be at least five times the volume of materials to be preserved. 9.3.4.3 Health management measures Understanding and managing the undrainable pond environment is the key to successful fish health management and profitable fish culture, and to ensure this the knowledge of the role of various environmental components in the occurrence of disease outbreak is essential. The main thrust of such measures is directed toward: minimizing the stress on cultured fish; prevention of the introduction of serious disease agents; confinement of disease outbreaks to affected areas; minimizing losses from disease outbreaks. The following important measures are the key components of successful fish health managements (Figure 41). Surveillance and maintenance of water quality: Abrupt and wider fluctuations in some of the environmental parameters such as dissolved oxygen content, pH, turbidity, temperature, additions of some chemicals, detergents, pesticides and naturlaly produced toxic substances such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, dinoflagellate toxins, etc., often cause stress in fish and predispose them to infectious diseases. Anything that alters the environment of the fish is a potential stressor and efforts should be made to identify and avoid them. Undrainable ponds offer great protection against spreading of disease outbreaks by confining the outbreaks only to the affected ponds. However, the recent trends of intensification in aquaculture involve high stocking rates, increased feeding and fertilization programmes resulting in nutrient accumulation leading to appearance of algal blooms that lead to dissolved oxygen and other water quality problems. In older ponds, cases of excessive accumulation of organic matter have been observed, resulting in the appearance of bacterial bloom and related oxygen depletion (Radheyshyam et al.,). For health and optimum growth, the dissolved oxygen level should not drop below 5 mg/1. Carbon dioxide concentration up to 2030 mg/l may be tolerated by fish provided oxygen is near saturation. At lower levels of dissolved oxygen, toxicity of carbon dioxide increases. When pH values remain above 9.5 or below 6.0 for extended periods, fish will be under stress and may not grow well. Liming agents may be used for low pH corrections. Ammonia concentration above 1.0 mg/1 indicates organic pollution. Hydrogen sulfide toxicity increases with decreasing pH and it is harmful even at 1.0 mg/l concentration level. Making the pond environment more congenial and hygienic, eliminates the risk of stress and provides safety to fish. Proper and timely management of soil and water qualities by manipulating feeding, fertilization, liming, addition of clean water, bottom raking, aeration of water by recirculation or splahsing, etc., reduces most of the environmental problems and provides congenial conditions for the health growth of fish. An interval of about 15 days between the pond poisoning and the stocking eliminates most of the pathogens from the environment.
Figure 41. A Model for Integrated Fish Health Management System It is always advisable to stock the pond only with healthy and genetically vigorous fry and fingerlings so that they may have better growth rate and resistance towards diseases. Prior to stocking, samples of the stocking material should be examined to check their health status. This avoids any risk of introducing infected stock in the pond. However, the stocking materials should also be prophylactically treated before releasing into the pond (detailed under Chemoprophylaxis). Overstocking may lead to biological crowding resulting in waste build up, decreased availability of natural food, depletion of dissolved oxygen, deterioration of water quality, etc., and hence it is advisable to follow the recommended stocking density for nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. Minimizing handling stress: The rougher the handling, the greater is the stress and the risk of disease (Kumar et al., 1986). Care should be taken not to break the protective mucous coating of the skin. During summer months netting should always be done early in the morning and it is better to have minimum possible handling during hauling. High temperature during hot water causes increased metabolic activity and induces more stress upon them. Measures in pond management: Poisoning of pond - Wild fish population is one of the most potential sources of disease-producing organisms. Use of chlorinated lime (bleaching powder) is the most suitable material for this purpose, since it kills all the wild fish species, molluscs, tadpoles, frogs, crabs, etc., and also disinfects the pond water and soil. It is applied at the rate of 4050 ppm (Tripathy et al., 1978). Mahua oilcake is also a widely used piscicide, but it fails to disinfect the pond. In nursery and rearing ponds it is desirable to have second poisoning with malathion at the rate of 0.25 ppm 4 or 5 days prior to stocking. It eliminates the larger copepods which do appear in large numbers after organic fertilization. These copepods prey upon young fish larvae and also serve as vectors or carriers of many infectious pathogenic organisms. Some of the common crustacean fish parasites also get killed. Malathion application has significantly increased the survival level in nursery ponds (Kumar et al., 1986). Disinfection of appliances - All required appliances such as fry carriers, hapas, utensils, buckets, nets and gears, etc., require thorough cleaning and disinfection before being put to use. Some of the pathogenic organisms are found adhering to them and may cause disease if they are allowed to come in contact with the host fish species. Disinfection can be done by washing or immersing in a concentrated solution of disinfectant. Some of the most effective and easily available disinfectants for such use are chlorine, sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride potassium permanganate, etc. Chlorine is probably the most widely used disinfectant in fishery management and is easily available as a solution of sodium hypochlorite and powder of calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder). Solution of 12% chlorine is active against bacteria, viruses and fungi but is extremely toxic to fish and hence their residues must be thoroughly rinsed from the disinfected items before being brought into contact with fish. Sun drying of nets, hapas, etc., is also a practical method of disinfection. Proper feeding - In addition to the natural fish food which is made available by fertilization, an adequate amount of good quality supplementary feed is essential for maintaining healthy growth of fish. Any deficiency in quantity and quality of feed may cause various diseases by increasing susceptibility to many infections. Prevention of entry of unwanted fish: Most undrainable ponds lack proper embankments. Most of these ponds have channels in the embankments connecting them with outside waters during the rainy season. Most of the ponds lack even proper embankments. These channels are the vulnerable sites through which some of the wild unwanted fish species or other animals get entry to the pond. Fixing fine meshed screen into these channels may eliminate the risk of entry of unwanted fish species into the pond. Pond embankments may also be raised to prevent risk of inundation and entry of undesirable animals and fish species. Some fish eating birds, molluscs, etc., serve as intermediate hosts for many parasites that infect fish. Tadpoles and frogs may also act as carriers of certain parasites and bacteria which ultimately may infect carp species and hence such animals should not be allowed in the pond. Separation of young and brood fish: Brood fish may serve as carriers of disease causing organisms without exhibiting any clinical symptoms. They sometimes become survivors of previous epizootics due to built up immunity but retain some of the pathogens. To avoid such risk, the best course is to separate the young ones from the adults. Removal of dead fish from the pond: Dead and apparently sick fish should be removed. A daily log of losses must be kept. Such records will provide valuable insight into the problems and may lead to their solution. Holding the fish in a hand net and dipping it into a concentrated solution of the drug for one minute or less is used as prophylactic treatment in case of mild diseases. A short bath is useful when facilities for a rapid flow of water are available. Water flow is stopped and relatively high concentration of the drug is added. Exposure time should not be longer than one hour. A long bath is a very effective method for prophylactic treatment of pond fish for external parasites. The oral route is used in prophylactic treatment to prevent certain infections. It is generally conceded that feeding medicated feed to fish is a prophylactic rather than a curative measure. Prophylactic use of streptomycin and penicillin at the rate of 25 mg of streptomycin sulphate and 20 000 I.U. of penicillin has been found to be very effective in preventing outbreak of columnaris disease in rohu in a field-oriented experiment (Kumar et al., 1986). Feeding antibiotics with feed has successfully prevented the occurrece of CE (Carp Erythrodermatics) in European carp culture. Prophylactic treatment of pond with locally available organophosphorous insecticide (malathion) at the rate of 0.25 ppm of active ingredient successfully prevents occurrence of trematode and copepod infections. Occasional application of potassium permanganate at the rate of 2 or 3 ppm is recommended for increasing dissolved oxygen concentration and hauling prophylaxis. Dip treatment in 5001 000 ppm solution of potassium permanganate for a few seconds before releasing adult fishin ponds is also a very effective and practical prophylactic measure. Short bath for a few minutes in 2 or 3% common salt solution is also a safe and inexpensive prophylactic measure against a wide range of parasitic an microbial pathogens. 9.3.4.5 Immunoprophylaxis
Immunization is becoming one of the most important ways of preventing communicable diseases in animals, including fish. Several commercial vaccines are now available and being used in many developed countries. Vaccines for some of the bacterial diseases of carps which do occur in undrainable pond culture systems are also available. These vaccines are against Aeromonas hydrophila and Flexibacter columnaris. Viral vaccine against Spring Viremia of Carp (SVC) is also being used on a commercial scale very successfully.

Department

More details
10. MANAGEMENT OF COMMON HAZARDS

Successful management of any farming system should anticipate several incidental hazards and keep ready remedial measures to deal with the situation. Based on the available data the commonly occurring serious hazards are discussed and remedial measures suggested.
10.1 Deficiency of dissolved oxygen

The most common and serious hazard in the composite fish culture ponds is the depletion of dissolved oxygen level in the water. Gulping for air, especially during the early morning hours, is the most common behavioural symptom. The growth rate is seriously affected and very often it may result in a mass fish kill. Depending on the situation and availability of resources all such steps should be taken promptly which may help raise the DO level of the pond. The following steps are recommended: Add freshwater in the pond by pumping it from nearby sources. To avoid entry of undesirable fish, use a screen around the mouth of the intake pipe. Agitate the pond water by splashing, beating with bamboo poles, repumping with the help of a pump or using a mechanical churner/aerator. Apply potassium permanganate at the rate of 23 ppm. Lime at the rate of 200 kg/ha and rake up the bottom. Cut all the trees/branches shading the pond. Stop feeding and fertilization till normality is restored.
10.2 Appearance of algal blooms

Algal blooms of Microcystis sp., Euqlena sp., etc., frequently occur causing serious problems again in terms of dissolved oxygen. It creates situations where supersaturation of oxygen occurs during day time and serious DO depletion takes place during the night, sometimes leading to a mass fish kill. The following remedial measures are recommended: Apply chemical algicide Diuron simazine (Tafazine) at the rate of 35 ppm. However, mass killing and decay of algae may also cause DO depletion. In small ponds cover part of the pond with duck weeds or other floating weed like Pistia to reduce the amount of sunlight entering the pond. This will result in the death of algal cells. Gradually cover the whole pond, part by part. Add fresh water if possible from nearby sources, taking care to prevent entry of unwanted fish.
10.3 Common carp problem

Because of early maturity and natural breeding, the rate and ratio of stocking of different carp species in composite fish culture ponds are liable to get greatly altered during the grow-out period. This problem can be overcome by placing at one corner of the pond some floating weeds such as Eichhornia during the
breeding season. The common carp will deposit eggs on the roots of the floating plants. The following morning these plants are replaced by fresh plants and eggs are transferred to hatching hapas. By adopting this technique the common carp population is efficiently controlled and sufficient quantity of common carp seed is also produced (Fig. 42).
Figure 42. Eichhornia with attached common carp eggs
10.4 Problem of no rain and plenty of rain

During drought the water level drops down to critical levels in some ponds, while during seasons of heavy rains the incidence of flooding is not uncommon. Keep constant vigil on water level. Before it drops below the 1.25 m mark, water should be added from nearby sources. Keep alternative source of water ready for such occasions. A shallow tube well could be of some help to fight against drought. Harvest the fish before such a situation is encountered. Repair and strengthen the dykes before the onset of rains. Entry point and spillway should be properly guarded by strong fine meshed steel netting. Harvest the fish before the flood season if cost of protection becomes too high.
10.5 Problem of predation

By far the most important and damaging predators of fish in ponds are otters, snakes, frogs, birds, etc. Otters can be prevented by putting a fence around the pond. Snakes, frogs and birds cause problems mostly in nursery and rearing ponds. Ponds in the vicinity of the fish farmer's home are less likely to be affected by these predators than the ponds that are isolated and seldom visited. Frogs normally lay eggs in shallow pits along the sides of seasonal nursery and rearing ponds during the first monsoon shower. All such spots should be identified and the eggs should be destroyed. Bird-scaring devices, including fire crackers should also be used if the problem becomes severe.
10.6 Poaching
Poaching is perhaps the biggest problem in freshwater aquaculture. High value and ready market for carps make them more prone to poaching. The widely used gears for poaching are cast nets, gill nets and small drag nets. The following measures have been found to be most effective against such forms of poaching: Place branches of trees and bamboo twigs in the grow-out pond along the sides. Nursery and rearing ponds are usually not prone to poaching. Stretch and fix barbed wire in criss-cross manner in the pond, especially along the sides. In large ponds, occasionally row a boat with hooks or barbed wire hanging from its keel to detect gill nets. Fencing the farm with barbed wire and employing the services of watchmen are efficient means of preventing poaching. Trained dogs used for night watch minimizes the risk considerably.
10.7 Leakages in embankment

Sometimes leakages do occur in embankments and if not checked immediately they could cause extensive damage to the pond embankment. If the leaking water is clear and flow velocity is sluggish it may be seepage water and hence there may not be any immediate danger. In case the water flow is fast and muddy, immediate steps must be taken to locate the hole on both sides of the embankment. Muddy water shows soil erosion and washing away of soil particles. To locate the hole, heavy turf sod should be thrown on the water surface which gets attracted towards the hole and the sod may come out of the pond through the hole. Whirling action of water may be noticed just above the leak if it is big. Leakages can be checked by pushing sawdust, bran, etc., into the upstream site. These are carried by water into the leak where it swells and stops the leak. In case of major breaches which may occur and cause severe damage to the embankment, sufficient material and labour resources must be mobilised. The outside of the banks should be protected first to prevent further erosion. A semicircular bundh may be constructed on the inside with brushwood, bamboo nettings and sand bags to facilitate repairing the breached portions with earth and sand bags.
10.8 Outbreak of diseases

10.8.1 General considerations
The fish farming system in general is unique in that the cultured animal is cold-blooded or poikilothermic and lives in water, where the respiratory oxygen level is limited and may become lethal at times. Also, metabolic waste products, left-out feed materials and organic load of the pond bottom regularly come into contact with certain vital organs and tissues. In an undrainable pond system no addition of water or aeration is normally done and the accumulated wastes are not usually removed unless provision is made to desilt the pond after a couple of years. All such factors can cause deterioration of fish health and magnify the risk of outbreaks of diseases. There are two strategies for the management of this hazard, viz. prevention of disease through prophylactic measures and treatment and control of disease outbreaks using fish therapeutics. There is a common saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. This saying has great value in fish health management. Preventive measures have always big advantage over curative practices. If you prevent the disease outbreak you have virtually no loss, but if you want to cure the outbreak you will always have some losses before you treat and cure them. Moreover, the drug may not provide remedies under all circumstances. Also, the drug may not help the host survive the infection until the environment is improved (Kumar et al., 1982). Details about the disease prevention measures and prophylactic treatments have already been discussed under Chapter on Fish health monitoring. Ideally, the aquaculturists should strive to decrease the stress causing factors, eliminate and prevent the entry of pathogenic organisms, etc., by strictly adhering to the fish health monitoring programme.
10.8.2 Common diseases

All the Asiatic carp species cultured under composite fish culture undrainable ponds are prone to many communicable and non-communicable diseases, the most significant among them are described here under four groups: 10.8.2.1 Microbial diseases About one-third of the economically important fish in the world perish every year through disease and about 60% of these losses are due to microbial pathogens. Virus, bacteria and fungal pathogens come under this category. Viral diseases - As far as carp species are concerned, mainly two viral diseases are of importance. Spring viremia of carp (SVC): Spring viremia of carp is an acute systemic viral infection caused by Rhabdovirus carpio (RVC). The disease was known as Infectious dropsy of carps till the isolation of the virus by Fijan et al., (1971), from common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Fijan (1972) subsequently separated the dropsical syndrome into spring viremia of carp (SVC), a condition caused by Rhabdovirus carpio and Carp Erythrodermatitis (CE), a condition caused by bacterial agent. RVC is pathogenic to all ages of common carp and perhaps to other cyprinids (Ahne, 1981). The main clinical signs are gathering of fish at water outflows, dark colouration, lower respiratory rate, haemorrhages especially over the skin and gills, loss of balance, exophthalmia, inflamed vent, etc. Internally they show haemorrhages in the viscera, airbladder, etc. Frequently there is secondary invasion of the tissues by aeromonads and pseudomonads from the intestine resulting in the bacterial septicaemia. Peritonitis with serious haemorrhage is normally present in acute cases. The virus is shed through faeces and possibly urine. Blood sucking parasites Piscicola qeoimetra and Arqulus foliaceus have been found to be vectors. There is no method of eliminating the virus from the infected fish and under no circumstances should such fish be used for breeding purposes. Rhabdovirus diseases of grass carp: A new serotype of rhabdovirus similar to spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) and Rhabdovirus carpio (RVC) has been isolated from grass carp (Ahne, 1975) which causes large-scale mortality exhibiting more or less similar symptoms like SVC disease such as ventral haemorrhagic inflammation, bleeding in the scale bases, necrotic fins, inflammation of the alimentary canal, serious liquid deposition in the abdominal cavity, swollen spleen, pale liver, opacity of the inner wall of the swimbladder with haemorrhages, etc. Control methods for viral diseases are restricted as there is no chemotherapeutic measures available at present. Application of antibiotics helps only in prevention of secondary infections. All the measures are directed towards avoidance of the pathogen and propagation of pathogen-free brood stocks. Avoidance requires that sources of virus be detected and the agents identified. In some countries virus-free brood stock are maintained and propagated. In most of the European countries where SVC poses a big problem large-scale vaccination of the stock is undertaken which has lowered the losses to a greater extent. There is also strong evidence that SVC is strainspecific and hence the major outbreak is concentrated in Europe. There are some other disease conditions of common carp suspected to be of viral origin which are yet to be investigated in detail. Bacterial diseases: Among infectious diseases the role of bacteria has been strongly emphasized as they present many practical problems in nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. They have become increasingly apparent during the last few years and are of serious concern to fish farmers. The actual role of these micro-organisms vary from that of primary pathogen to an opportunist secondary invader. Some of these bacterial diseases, if remained unchecked, have the potential of wiping out entire populations. Although a number of pathogenic bacteria have been isolated from diseased fishes cultured in undrainable ponds (Kumar, Sinha and Farkas (MS), the following are worth mentioning. Columnaris disease: The causative agent of columnaris disease is a Gram negative bacterium Flexibacter columnaris that moves by a creeping or flexing action. Columnaris disease is commonly occurring throughout the world and affects virtually all species of freshwater fishes. The disease begins as an external infection with lesions appearing on the body surface and gills. The type of lesion varies
with the fish species, and as the disease progresses, lesions spread and may cover most of the body. In rohu (Labeo rohita) the necrotic lesions begin at the outer margin of the fins and spread towards the body (Kumar et al., 1986). Whitish ulcerations and haemorrhages may also be observed. Bacteria apparently gain entrance to the dermal tissues as a result of injury, multiply in the connective tissue and reach the musculature where they form red ulcerations. Erosion of the gill lamellae may also be observed. Diagnosis of columnaris disease in fish is usually based on the presence of the bacterium in typical external lesions on the body. Outbreaks of columnaris appear to be related to unfavourable environmental conditions such as low oxygen levels and accumulations of metabolic byproducts (Meyer, 1968). The stress of crowding (Wedmeyer, 1974), handling (Kumar et al., 1986) or holding them at above normal temperatures as well as the stress of external injury, facilitate the transmission and outbreak of the disease. Environmental improvements, especially increased oxygenation, control of organic addition, etc., are the most valuable supportive therapy. Practical control of outbreaks of columnaris is possible with a number of drugs, including copper sulphate (0.51.0 ppm) and potassium permanganate (23 ppm) in pond treatment. Various other treatments are also employed including dip treatment for 12 minutes in 1:2 000 copper sulphate colution. If the fish are able to feed, incorporation of oxytetracycline in the feed at the rate of 8 g/100 kg of fish/day for 10 days is also effective. It should be noted that fish may harbour cutaneous lesions, systemic infections or both. As long as the disease is confined to ;external lesions, control can be successfully achieved, but once the infection has become systemic the disease is usually fatal. Bacterial haemorrhagic septicaemia is used to designate septicaemic diseases caused by Aeromonas hydrophila and Pseudomonas fluorescens in carp and other species. Aeromonas hydrophila (organisms previously described as A. punctata and A. liquefaciens) is a gramnegative bacillus, ubiquitous in nature occurring in water column and top sediment of most freshwater ponds. It affects most of the cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates including Asiatic carp species and causes acute and fatal septicaemias, which may be accompanied by external abscesses, ulcers, exophthalmia and abdominal distensions (Figure 43). Aeromonad infection is usually associated with concomitant environmental stress, especially high temperature and/or overcrowding. Infectious dropsy condition among cultured major carps in India is the most common example. The causative agent is a species of Aeromonas and by inoculating a pure culture of the isolate the disease has been experimentally produced in fingerlings of catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) (Gopalkrishnan, 1961). Recently, several cases of dropsy condition in catla caused by mixed infection of Aeromonas hydrophila and myxosporidian species has been described (Kumar, Mishra and Dey, 1983). Toor, Sehgal and Sehder (1983) have also observed haemorrhagic septicaemia in common carp and rohu caused by heavy infection of Aeromonas sp. and the fungus, Saproleqnia sp. In some cases the disease, caused by aeromonads in catla was restricted to the eye. However, in acute cases the brain and optic nerves were found to be affected (Gopalkrishnan, 1961). The disease was found to be seasonal in nature with maximum intensity during the month of October, November and December. Similar septicaemiasis have also been reported in silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) caused by Pseudomonas fluorescens and Aeromonas hydrophila (Kumar and Dey, 1985). Pond treatment with potassium permanganate (23 ppm) followed by addition of oxytetracycline with feeds at the rate of 7080 mg/kg fish/day for 10 days are the most effective and practical measures. Although most treatments are generally ineffective, certain water additives during the transport or handling of fish are helpful. Acriflavin was found very effective for such purposes when used at the rate of 310 ppm. Carp erythrodermatitis: This disease (CE) is probably the most widespread disease of carp in European ponds. Skin inflammation is followed by exophthalmia, oedema of all organs and finally anaemia. The causative agent is the Aeromonas salmonicida complex. For the control and treatment of
CE, chemotherapeutics are applied as bath, intraperitoneal injection or with food. Oxytetracycline at the rate of 7.08.0 g/100 kg of fish/day for 810 days, oxytetracycline or chloramphenicol or furazolidone in baths (80200 g/m 3 ) or oxytetracycline or chloramphenicol as intraperitoneal injections at the rate of 10 30 mg/kg have been found to be very effective (Fijan, 1976).
Figure 43A. Aeromonad septicaemia in rohu (Labeo rohita)
Figure 43B. Aeromonad septicaemia in catla (Catla catla)
Bacterial gill disease: Recently gill hyperplasia syndrome has been detected most frequently in common carp fry and fingerlings causing retarded growth and poor survival. Myxobacterial complex have been found in the affected gills causing hyperplasia (Fig. 44). The disease is found to be widespread and infectious in nature. Common carp is observed to be more susceptible than other Asiatic carp species. Short baths for 510 minutes in 3% common salt solution has been found to be more effective than treatment with antibiotics. Two subsequent treatments after an interval of one week completely cures the disease (Kumar et al..,1986). Fungal diseases: Fungal fish diseases also sometimes cause extensive losses. Species of the genera Saproleqnia sp., Branchiomyces sp. and Achlya sp. are usually implicated in fungal infections, but they are considered to be secondary invaders following physical or physiological injury brought about by rough handling or attack by primary pathogens. The ubiquitous fungus, Saprolegnia sp. can affect a wide range of fish species including most of the carp species, especially the brood stock, during the postspawning period. Initially it appears as white mats over the skin which gradually spread and invade the deeper tissues causing mortality. All the stages including the eggs are attacked. Branchiomyces sp. is another filamentous fungus which obstruct the blood vessels in the gill filaments causing discolouration and finally dropping off altogether leaving the cartilaginous support exposed. Malachite green (zinc free grade), formalin, potassium permanganate, copper sulphate, salt, etc., are the common therapeutics for effective use. Malachite green at the rate of 0.1 ppm for pond treatment, 1% solution as a swab and 65 ppm concentration as short bath/dip for 30 seconds are used. Copper sulphate may be used for pond treatment at the rate of 0.5 to 1.0 ppm depending on total alkalinity. 10.8.2.2 Parasitic diseases Parasitic diseases are usually encountered more frequently than microbial diseases. The presence of high level of organic matters in undrainable ponds, encourages multiplication of parasite organisms and resulting in extensive parasitic infection. Protozoan diseases are among the most significant of all parasitic diseases in carps. The following are the most important protoizoans parasitizing carp species in undrainable pond culture system. Ichthyophthirius multifilis: Ich or white spot disease is probably one of the most detrimental diseases caused by this parasite which affects all the species of Indian major carps and Chinese carps as well. The most common symptom is the presence of pinhead size white spots on the skin, fins and gills (Fig. 45). It causes simple hyperplasia of the epidermal cells around the site of infection forming blisters. Ich is a ciliate protozoan parasite characterized by its relatively larger and horseshoe shaped nucleus in adults and large trophozoites. Incidence of large-scale mortality due to this infection is common in nursery and rearing ponds.
Figure 44A. Gill Section of Major Carp showing Normal Structure (H & E Stained)
Figure 44B. Gill Section of Major Carp showing Lamellar Hyperplasia due to Bacterial Gill Disease (H & E Stained)
Figure 45. Ich Disease Ichthyophthirius multifilis) Trichodina sp.: Trichodina is another small saucer-shaped protozoan parasite that harbours gills and body surface of the host fish. Excess mucous secretion is a common symptom of this disease. Epizootics are usually encountered in nursery and rearing ponds associated with poor water quality and high stocking density. Ichthyobodo sp.: A small flagellate external protozoan parasite of skin and gills causes considerable damage in fry and small fingerlings. It is an oval or kidney-shaped organism which produces severe irritation with excessive mucous secretion causing patches over the body. Treatments for this group of parasites are varied and many are successful. Pond treatments with 1525 ppm formalin have yielded excellent results. However, if a pond has dense plankton population, sudden death and decay due to formalin application may cause oxygen depletion. Mixed treatment of malachite green and formalin is most effective against Ich disease. Pond treatment with 0.1 ppm malachite green and 25 ppm formalin gives a better result against Trichodina sp., Costia sp. and Ichthyophthirius sp. For Ich disease three applications of the therapeutic mixture on alternate days are essential (Leuteux and Meyer, 1972). Some other chemicals such as copper sulphate, sodium chloride, methylene blue, etc., can also be used. Myxosporidian and microsporidian species: Myxosporidian and microsporidian parasitic infections are very frequent in major carp species. Reports of large-scale mortalities of fry and fingerlings of carp species are common due to such infections. Several species of Myxosporidia have been found to infect all the carp species and form cysts on the body surface, fins, gills and internal organs such as the kidney and spleen (Fig. 46). However, when large numbers of oocysts are present on the gills, breathing of the fish is adversely affected (Dey, Kumar and Mishra, 1986). Renal infections lead to the damage of most of the renal tubules in the form of vacuolar degeneration of the tubular epithelial cells (Mishra et al., 1982). Microsporidian infections are most common in catla among Indian major carps. The parasite harbours the intracellular spaces of the epithelial cells of the renal tubules (Dey and Kumar, 1985). The most common symptoms of the disease are weakness, emaciation, scale protrusion, loss of scales, abnormal pigmentation and presence of parasites in renal tubular epithelial cells. There is no known effective treatment against myxosporodiosis and microsporodiosis. Spores released
from the infected and dead fishes remain viable for quite a long period in the pond bottom before they infect new hosts. Infected fish should immediately be removed and, if possible, the pond should immediately be dried and disinfected. In undrainable ponds where drying is not at all possible, the pond should be disinfected with chlorinated lime. Worm diseases are caused by trematodes, cestodes and leeches. Many of these parasites do not apparently cause much harm to carp species in undrainable ponds. However, some have been known to be of serious concern. Among monogenetic trematodes, Gyrodactylus sp. and Dactyloqyrus sp. are most important as sometimes they cause extensive damage. Gyrodactylus infects skin and gills, whereas Dactyloqyrus effects only the gills. Carp fry and early fingerlings up to 34 g are more prone to this infection, sometimes resulting in heavy mortality. Excessive mucous secretions, decolouration of body and dropping of scales are the diagnostic features. Treatment with 25 ppm formalin in ponds or 250 ppm formalin for 1 h bath usually controls the monogenetic trematode infections. Other compounds which may be used include potassium permanganate at the rate of 5 ppm or potassium dichromate at the rate of 20 ppm. Bath in 3% sodium chloride solution till the fish start showing distress is also an effective control measure. Black spot disease is a frequently occurring disease in nursery and rearing ponds causing extensive damages at times. The disease is caused by posthodiplostomum and appearance of black pigmented area on the skin around the cysts of metacercariae is the common symptom (Fig. 47). Molluscs act as the intermediate hosts and hence eradicating molluscan population and clearance of weed are the two steps for controlling the disease. Pond treatment with bleaching powder, copper sulphate or malathion at usual doses kills the free living stages of the parasite/mollusc population. Several genera of cestodes have been found to infect major carp species, apparently causing little harm. Brothiocephalus sp. for example is becoming an important menace in nursery and rearing ponds in many European countries. Another important member of this group of fish parasites is Liqula intestinalis. It causes abdominal distension and in advanced cases it may cause rupture of the abdominal wall. Crustacean diseases: Two crustacean parasites are most widespread and commonly found parasitizing major carp species sometimes causing large-scale damage in nursery, rearing and stocking ponds. These are Lernaea sp. or anchor worm and Arqulus sp. or fish louse. Lernaea sp.: It has a slender, wormlike body with the head embedded in the flesh of the fish which causes unsightly lesions (Fig. 48). The embedded head bears branching processes that resemble an anchor and hence the name anchor worm. Early infections may cause the fish to swim about erratically; in the later stages it causes haemorrhagic and ulcerated areas at the point of penetration. Main injuries are caused by loss of blood and openings in the skin which allow entry of secondary pathogens. Lernaea may be found at the bases of fins or scattered about the body surface.
Figure 46. Myxogoan cysts on gill
Figure 47. Black Spot Disease in Fry/Fingerlings of Indian Major Carp
Figure 48. Common Crustacean Parasites Arqulus sp. infection is widespread and frequently appears in undrainable ponds. Sometimes it causes serious problems resulting in high mortality. They are large copepods and consequently they are conspicuous objects on the fish that they inhabit. Fish with advanced infestations are characterized by erratic swimming, restlessness, haemorrhagic areas and lesions over the body with attached parasites. The parasite is easily recognised by flat, leaf-like carapace with emerging appendages (Fig. 48). Although a number of therapeutics have been recommended for the control of Lernaea sp. and Arqulus sp. infections, including potassium permanganate and sodium chloride, they have been found to be of partial success in field conditions. Malathion is an easily available organophosphate having relatively low toxicity to humans and has been found to be very effective in controlling copepod parasitic infections when
applied at the rate of 0.25 ppm. Two subsequent treatments at the interval of one week completely eradicate the parasite. 10.8.2.3 Environmental and nutritional diseases Diseases known to be occurring due to nutritional deficiencies and environmental disorders are of little importance. Proper monitoring and management of pond ecosystem and provision of adequate quality of supplementary feed will avoid occurrence of such diseases which sometimes appear in ill-managed ponds. Liver lipoid disease (LLD) in catla and gas bubble disease in early fry of rohu are worth mentioning.
10.8.3 Therapy of fish diseases

10.8.3.1 General considerations Four key factors are of utmost importance whenever a chemical application is contemplated (Meyer and Warren, 1975). They are the water, the fish, the causative agent and the chemical. Complete information about each of these factors must be in hand before any therapy is planned. Knowledge concerning the fish includes the species affected and unaffected, the number and size of the fish and their specific requirements. Information about the causative agent is based upon correct diagnosis and the vulnerable stages in its life cycle. Data about the pond water temperature, pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, total water volume, etc., are also required for the selection of the most suitable drug. When all of the foregoing data are in hand, one may then begin to consider which drug or chemical should be used. Selection of the therapeutic compound must be based on the following considerations: effectiveness against the causative agent; adverse effects, if any, on the host; possibility of penetrating the site of infection; effectiveness under the existing water chemistry; local availability; cost considerations; convenience of application. It is reemphasized that the success of therapy depends very much on the correct diagnosis of the problem. Moreover, it should also be considered that disease outbreak is the indication of more basic environmental problems and hence such problems should also be identified and corrective measures taken. 10.8.3.2 Methods of therapeutic application Therapy can be applied in two ways: external treatments; treatment via diet; External treatments: There are two methods of application of external treatments. Immersion in chemical solution: The most common method of administering therapeutic agents to fish is immersion in water soluble compounds (Fig. 49). Depending on the available facilities, severity and nature of the disease and local conditions, three types of immersion treatments are suitable for undrainable pond culture situations. These are baths in lower concentration of chemicals ranging from short to prolonged periods and dips where the fish are dipped into a chemical solution of high concentration for a very short period ranging from a few seconds to 5 minutes. Indefinite bath is suitable for pond treatment where the chemical is applied at a low concentration for an indefinite period and the
chemical is allowed to gradually dissipate or detoxify naturally.
Figure 49. Treatment of Fish by Immersion in Tnerapetic Solution Swabs: Swabbing is application of drugs in high concentration when dealing with individual fish with localized external infections. For better convenience it is desirable to immobilize the big-sized fish prior to swab application. Treatment via diet: This method is usually applied for treating the systemic bacterial diseases or gut parasites by incorporation of the drug into the feed. Loss of appetite is one of the first signs of a disease and hence in such cases the use of drugs in proper doses through supplementary feeding becomes difficult. Leeching of drug is another problem. If some of the water soluble drugs are properly mixed with vegetable oil prior to its final mixing with the feed, such losses may be minimised. Generally, feeding medicated feed is considered to be a prophylactic rather than a therapeutic measure.

Department

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11. HARVESTING
Growth rate of the fish, market demand, desired market size, availability of seed and pond condition, are the major considerations for deciding on the time of harvesting. Harvesting the fish stock should be started before the Law of diminishing returns starts operating, i.e. the rate of growth of the fish for the invested inputs such as feed and fertilizers start declining. This happens mainly because the growth rate of fish is not linear. Further, the biogenic capacity of the pond, i.e. capacity of water for providing food and oxygen for the fish, cannot be increased after a certain stage according to the need of the increasing fish biomass.
11.1 Harvesting in nursery ponds

In nursery ponds the fry usually grow to a size of 2535 mm in about a fortnight with more than 7080% survival, when they become ready for harvesting. Harvesting should be done by seining the pond water using a close meshed (1.45 mm) drag net. Several netting operations should be done to ensure near total harvesting of the stock. No harvesting should be done on a bright sunny day or in cloudy weather as there might be heavy mortality of tender fry due to high temperature related increased metabolism and the depletion in available dissolved oxygen. The most suitable time for harvesting is the early hours of the morning. Feeding should be stopped a day before harvesting to minimise the conditioning time required for transporting fry over long distances.
11.2 Harvesting in rearing ponds

Harvesting of fingerlings should be done after three months of rearing when they attain the desired size of 100150 mm. However, in some cases fingerlings are to be kept for a prolonged period for marketing during the period of scarcity of seed to fetch better price. Harvesting should be done by seining the pond using a drag net of about 8.0 mm mesh. However, complete harvesting of all the species, especially the bottom feeders is usually difficult and hence several netting should be done to ensure near total harvesting. A modified form of net which is described below is very effective in catching all the species of carps even in rearing ponds. Feeding should be stopped a day prior to harvesting.
11.3 Harvesting in qrow-out ponds

11.3.1 Complete harvesting
Usually the carp species attain marketable size within one year and hence the shorter rearing period of less than a year is not recommended unless there is an exceptional threat of flood or outbreak of disease, or for financial reasons. In some exceptional situations when the pond is of a seasonal nature retaining water hardly for 67 months, and also in cases where the pond is prone to serious flooding, the rearing period should be synchronised accordingly. Post-flood stocking and pre-flood harvesting should be done in flood prone ponds while in seasonal ponds harvesting should be done before the water level falls below the critical level. Usually these cultivated fish species do not grow well in winter months. Hence in agroclimatic zones having severe winter months the stocking and harvesting phases should be adjusted so as to have complete harvesting before the onset of winter. In regions where seeds of desired cultivated species are available only during post-monsoon period, i.e. October/November, the stocking should normally be done during this period and the crop should be harvested by next October.
11.3.2 Partial harvesting

It has been experienced that even under the best management, Indian major carps on an average attain hardly 1 kg in size in a year, while Chinese carps reach over 2 kg or so. This kind of differential growth complicates the final harvesting programme and hence in such areas partial harvesting of marketable size fish should be carried out. However, while harvesting, interrelationship of the species cultured should also be seriously considered. Bottom feeders like common carp and mrigal partly subsist on the faecal matter of grass carp and hence an unplanned removal of grass carp may affect the growth of these species. On the other hand, removal of only bottom feeders may create some ecological problems. Further, the market price of fish is directly related to its size. This factor should also be considered before deciding on the harvesting programme. Possibility of partial harvesting very much depends on the availability of fingerlings of desired carp species. In such cases the fish already reached the marketable size should be harvested and the stock should be replenished. Usually fish over 500 g should be harvested every 34 months with simultaneous stocking with fingerlings. Such partial harvesting programme should be synchronised with peak market demands depending on seasons, festivals, etc.
11.4 Application of proper gear

Harvesting of fish in undrainable ponds should be done by seining the entire pond using desired size of drag net. However, in larger water bodies and especially for partial harvesting, cast nets and gill nets too can be effectively employed. It has been observed that by three subsequent operations of simple net of dragging type, about 90% of the surface and column fishes are caught, whereas the catch of bottom dwellers fall in the range of 2040% of their entire population. A new gear has been designed by Rout, Lakshmanan and Kanaujia (1979) which can be operated in rearing and stocking ponds with increased efficiency and significant reduction of manpower. The net is prepared by joining net pieces of 15 5 m with 8 mm mesh for fingerlings and 25 mm bar mesh for large sized fish. The free bottom part of the net is provided with a nylon twine (3.0 mm) with sinkers and passed through the bottom series of meshes. The free end of the net is then turned over to the main net and attached at equal intervals to a second line of nylon twine which functions as a false foot rope. This results in the formation of pockets of 20 30 cm. Metal sinkers are tied to the first foot rope in each pocket to keep the mouths of the pockets open and also help the net sink in the bottom silt. The net is provided with a strong head rope with polythene floats (Fig. 50).
11.5 Precautions
Weed infestation if any should be removed before harvesting. All the anti-poaching devices kept in the pond should be removed before netting. Feeding should be stopped 23 days before harvesting. Harvesting should be done during cool, clear weather and time should be adjusted according to the market hours. Proper care and prophylactic measures should be taken before releasing back the potential breeders. Harvested fish should always be kept under proper shade after washing.

Department

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12. TRANSPORT AND MARKETING

Immediate disposal of farm products in perfect condition adds to the overall farm income and reputation. Fry, fingerlings and table size fish are the main products of undrainable ponds which require different ways and means of disposal. Table-size fish after harvesting need immediate transportation so that it may reach the destination in fresh condition whereas fry and fingerlings are to be transported in live condition.
12.1 Transport of fresh fish

Fish perish more quickly than chicken, beef, pork, etc., and the spoilage is mainly due to combined effect of autolytic and bacterial decomposition which is rapid in tropical climate. The following procedures should be adopted to keep the fish in good condition.
Figure 50. Modified Net with Measurement Detail The moment the fish is harvested, they should be kept under shade and washed properly with clean water to remove the bacteria adhered to the surface of the body and the gills. Gills and gut should be completely removed if there is no objection from consumers. Generally, colour of the gill is an indication of freshness. Cleaned fish should be given a one minute dip in 0.2% sodium nitrate solution. Cover the fish with layers of a mixture of ice and salt. Cover with wet bags or clothes and transport it at once.
12.2 Transport of live fish

For safe delivery of live fry, fingerlings and brood fish to destinations, two systems are presently in use: the open system for short distance and the closed system for short and long distance transport.
12.2.1 Conditioning and preparation for transport

This involves starving the fish prior to harvesting and keeping them in overcrowded condition for emptying their gut and to make them accustomed to the conditions of transport. Artificial feeding therefore should be stopped 12 days before harvesting. Although a number of containers and enclosures can be used for conditioning, the most common is the hapa made out of cotton or nylon mosquito netting material fixed in the pond or in a still water section of a stream or river, but always in shaded areas. After netting, the fry and fingerlings are transferred to the conditioning hapa (Fig. 51) and kept for about 6 h with continuous and vigorous splashing of water from all sides of the hapa. Conditioning time depends on the distance to be covered and the anticipated time of confinement during transport. During this period they pass their remaining excreta and the gut becomes almost empty. The optimum temperature for conditioning carps is around 2629C. In the case of brood fish the application of supplementary feed should be stopped 2 days before the proposed date for transportation. Handling during netting and transport should not be allowed. Conditioning of brood fish in hapas is not required. Risk of outbreak of diseases becomes high due to the stress created during transport and hence the use of antibiotics is recommended.
12.2.2. Open system of transport

This is the traditional system of transport where fish seed materials are transported in open containers. These containers were earlier in the form of earthen hundies which have now been replaced by aluminium vessels of about 2540 1 capacity (Fig. 52). Water is filled up to two-thirds of the total capacity of the vessel to transport about 1 0005 000 early fry (1215 mm) depending on the anticipated period of transport. Such vessels are normally carried manually or by train. When they are carried manually, a rhythmic jerky movement is created which keeps the water well aerated. Dead ones are periodically removed with the help of a piece of cloth and the water is changed partially but frequently during long distance transport. Earthen hundies help to keep the water cool, but due to high risk of breakage they are now going out of use. Bigger galvanised steel containers of about 50 to 200 1 capacity sometimes mounted on a thermal insulated base of wood or other materials are also in use for transport of fry and fingerlings for short distances. In the case of fingerlings or advanced fry transport, the mouth of the container is always kept covered with cotton or nylon mosquito netting material. The ever increasing demand for carp seed has created a great impact upon village level seed production activities in recent times. Farmers are now taking up induced breeding of carps and the seed are now being reared in their backyard or ponds. This method of open system of live seed transport for short distances is of significant relevance for localised marketing scattered throughout the region, in spite of its many limitations.
Figure 51. Conditioning Hapa
Figure 52. Aluminium Containers (Hundies) for Transporting Fish Seed Plastic pools and canvas bags with varying degrees of capacity are also used for transport of fry/fingerlings and brood fish under open transport system. These are mounted over bicycle, motor van, tractor trailer, etc., and used for short distance transport. Relatively bigger truck mounted open tanks are also in use with or without facilities for mechanical aeration and/or water circulation. Such tanks are used in organised fish seed marketing sector. Tanks vary in size but usually 34 tanks are accommodated on a truck. Fry, fingerlings and brood fish are usually transported up to distances covered within 34 hours with ease. Tanks are covered with wet cloth and some persons are employed for continuous but gentle splashing of water. Improvements have been made and now plastic cushioned lining is provided to the tank for avoiding physical injuries. Some sort of aeration or water circulation is provided by a pump during transportation. Such a system offers safe transport of live fish upto a distance of about 500 km with mortality as low as 5%.
12.2.3 Closed system of transport

For transporting live fish and fish seed over exceedingly long distances and from one country to another, closed system of transport is most suitable. In this system of transport live fish/seed materials are packed in closed containers with oxygen under pressure with airtight seals. Polythelene or vinyl chloride or other plastic bags of various capacities ranging from 1535 1 are in use. These bags can be purchased ready made from the market or, if needed in larger quantity, can be made from cylindrical rolls. Widely used size is 47 cm 46 cm which can be accommodated in 18 1 capacity biscuit tins after being filled with water up to one-third of its capacity. The water for such use should be clean and preferably from a tube well. Number of seed materials to be packed per bag vary according to their size and expected duration of transport (Table 40).
Table 40 Packing density of fry/fingerlings of Indian major carps for 12 h journey in 1618 1 capacity plastic bags (Mammen, 1962) Seed size (cm) No. of seed (Range) No. of seed (Average)
1 1 000 10 000 5 500
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
500 5 000 200 1 000 200 500 75 300 50 200 25 100 25 50
2 200 600 330 225 80 70 40
After putting the required number of fish seed in the plastic bag containing water, oxygen is pumped into the water until it is saturated. The bag is then partially blown up with oxygen and tied with a leak proof knot. These plastic bags are individually packed in cardboard, metal or wooden boxes to prevent any damage to the bags during transport. Biscuit or oil cannisters of 18 1 capacity are widely used for such purpose. It must always be kept in mind that the live fish packets should not be exposed to temperature over 30C. Best results are obtained when it is kept between 2028C. A simplified method suited to rural condition has been developed for fish seed transport in a closed system where instead of oxygen, a cycle pump is used to pump atmospheric air into the plastic bags containing fry in 6 1 of water. It has been observed that 500 mrigal fry (2635 mm) can be safely kept alive for a period of 24 h with 1% mortality. At 300 fry/6 1 of water the fry survived for a period of 96 h without any mortality (Selvaraj, Mohanty and Ghosh, 1981). Brood fish are also transported in some larger closed containers mounted on wheels and pulled by jeep or a tractor. The modified splashless live fish carrier (Mammen, 1962) is useful for transporting brood fish as well as fingerlings. This is a tanker having a capacity of 1 150 1 with lining of synthetic padding, autoclave type airtight lid and a built-in aeration system which works by the engine of the transporting vehicle using belt transmission. An oxygen cylinder is also kept on the carrier as a standby for emergency use. A total weight of 250 kg of live fish can be transported in such a tank. About 90 000 carp fingerlings with fish to water ratio of 1 kg to 4.5 1 of water have been successfully transported to distant places. A bio-gas-plant type of live fish carrier has also been designed by Patro (1968) which consists of an outer lower circular chamber of about 1.2 m diameter opening at the top to which is fitted the upper inverted one of slightly smaller dimension. The top of the inner chamber is closed and, provided with a valve and air vent. The outer lower chamber serves as a storage tank which is filled with water along with the fish to be transported while the inner chamber serves as an oxygen reservoir under pressure. It can transport 100 kg of fish at a time safely up to 5 h, thereafter refilling of oxygen becomes essential (Fig. 53).
Figure 53. Live Fish Carrier
12.2.4 Drugs and chemical aids

Production of toxic gases such as ammonia and excess amount of carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products are the main causes of stress condition and mortality of fish in undrainable ponds. Drugs and chemicals are used to reduce the metabolic rate, thus cutting down the production rate of ammonia and carbon dioxide. Such situations reduce the stress effects. Under stress conditions fish become more prone to attack by pathogenic bacteria. Use of antibiotics and some other fish therapeutics help in reducing such risks. Some of the easily available fish anaesthetics such as Novocaine at the rate of 50 mg/ kg of fish, barbital sodium at the rate of 50 mg/kg of fish, tertiary amyl alcohol at the rate of 2 mg/4.5 1 can be used for anaesthetizing the fish to be transported. Ms 222 is also a common tranquilizer which can be used for anaesthetizing brood fish in a 1:10 000 to 1:30 000 solution for 15 to 20 minutes. Carbonic acid has been found to be useful in fish seed transport. A concentration of 500 ppm of carbonic acid in the transport medium itself was found to be optimum for rohu fry under oxygen packed transport (Mishra, Kumar and Mishra, 1983). Important operational steps:
stop feeding 12 days prior to transport; condition under shade up to 6 h before packing; use tube well or chlorine free tap water or clear pond or river water; select only healthy and vigorous fry/fingerlings; plastic bags should be checked before and after oxygen packing to check any possible leak; carriers of fish/seed containers should be covered to avoid strong sunlight; when resting during the journey carriers should be parked under shade; if atmospheric temperature is high, occasionally sprinkle cool water over the metalic containers to bring down the temperature; before releasing, the bags or hundies should be floated in the water where the seed are to be released at least for 1015 minutes to equalise the temperature; slowly mix the pond water and gradually release the fish; if anaesthetic is used, prior trials should be made as the doses vary with the water quality and the species of fish.
12.3 Marketing
Most of the major cities and fish sale depots are far away from the rural fish production centres. In such situations marketing involves offering the products in proper form, time and place desired by the consumers. In fact, product marketing of any production system is the core activity upon which the future of the industry depends considerably. In case of fish production system, marketing assumes relatively greater importance because of the highly perishable nature of the product. In addition to fish, fish seed materials - spawn, fry and fingerlings - are also important products of pond fish culture, but these products are used by the industry itself.
12.3.1 Market potential

There are areas that have a higher per caput production and also there is a regional variation in consumption pattern. Proper marketing strategy is needed to stabilize such imbalances in the larger interest of the producers and consumers. In some of the eastern states of India, especially in West Bengal and in countries like Bangladesh, freshwater carps are in maximum demand where 7080% of the population are fish eaters. In some southern states, especially in Andhra Pradesh where freshwater aquaculture is emerging as an industry, the local preference for carp species is relatively less and hence the surplus is marketed to West Bengal. Calcutta markets in West Bengal receive about 30 000 t of fish per annum from other states of India. The existing price of freshwater carp in West Bengal is around US$ 3.0/kg compared to an average price level of US$ 1.52.0 in other states indicating the demand and supply gap. The fish seed production/demand picture is just the reverse. West Bengal is a surplus state which produces maximum quantity of fish seed through controlled breeding and supplies to other states in India.
12.3.2 Marketing of table size fish

Marketing functions or services include many aspects such as collecting small quantities from many producers, grading, packing, transporting to distant city based wholesale markets, and distributing to retailers. The term middlemen is often used to describe a wide variety cf collectors, agents and distributors serving as links between the producer and the consumer. Considerable portion of the fish is sold in fresh
condition. In the absence of easy accessibility to the market, fish is sold to the middleman at the farm gate invariably at a much lower price than what it would have fetched in the retail market. Also, fish farmers who are generally poor, ignorant of market dealings, and financially indebted to money lenders are compelled to sell their produce to the middlemen in fulfillment of the conditions of loan taken for fish culture operation. Generally speaking, the fish traders and middlemen exploit the poor fish farmers. Out of many market channels, the shortest and best possible channel in the interest of both producer and consumer is the direct one. But this channel is operative only during special occasions when the consumers need the fish in bulk for some social and festive celebration. There may be several functional links (about 4) between producers and consumers through each market channel and at every link they charge about 520% for their services. Usually the consumers pay about 7080% more than the producer's price. In addition to the seasonal variations in the market price, fish prices increase due to increased demand during the time of religious and social celebrations. The volume of fish sale is normally at its peak during March/April, mainly due to increased harvesting prior to pre-stocking pond preparation for the next crop. Price variations are also linked with the species and size of fish (Table 41). Prices are also related to state of freshness of the product. Fresh fish fetches a better price and are in greater demand than iced fish. The current market price of carp species in Orissa markets are given in Table 41 which gives more or less the general picture of prices in fish markets of Eastern India.
12.3.3 Marketing of fish seed

Until recently, the state fisheries institutions were the major channels for the collection/production and distribution of fish seed. Due to increased adoption of composite fish culture technique throughout India, severe shortages of fish seed supply have been felt, and to satisfy this growing demand the Government took immediate steps to increase the production of fish seed. Many state and private hatcheries were established during this period and extension services were put into action to promote induced breeding at farm level. As a result, many small and big seed producers emerged and consequently fish seed marketing became operational. Within a few years this trade has grown to a considerable size. There are two general patterns - the more or less organized one through fish seed syndicates and cooperatives and the other which is highly localised in operation. Collection of seed from scattered seed production centres and ensuring redistribution of the collection to fish farmers in remote villages is the responsibility of the organized sector, while a localised marketing system distributes fish seed to nearby villages through local agents. The price of fish seed varies according to size and species. Approximate cost of fish seed of carp species in Orissa State is presented in Table 42.
Table 41 Current market price of fish in Orissa Species

Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp Common carp 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.5 1.3
Retail market price (Approximate) (US $)* Below 0.5 kg 0.5 - 1.0 kg 1.0 - 2.0 kg Above 2.0 kg
1.9 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.6 2.2 1.7 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.8 2.5 1.9
* 1 US $ = 15.00 Indian Rupees
Fish seed
Spawn** Fry*** (2530 mm)
Table 42 Current price of fish seed (US $) * Mrigal Silver Catla Rohu Grass carp carp carp
20.8 16.6 20.8 28.8 NA 30.030.5 NA 50.00 8.312.5 8.312.5
Common carp
20.8 8.312.5
Fingerlings *** (80120 mm)
60.0 70.0
40.0 42.0
40.042.0
55.065.0
80.0 40.085.0
40.042.0 42.0
* 1US $ = 15.0 Indian Rupees; ** Price/100 000; *** Price/1 000; NA = Information not available.

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13. ECONOMICS OF CULTURE OPERATIONS

Cost of production is more important than the rate of production and it is the cost benefit ratio which decides the viability of any production technology. Therefore, it is necessary that undrainable pond culture operations are subjected to economic analysis which would indicate the factors influencing farm profitability and the way in which these factors of production are to be regulated to maximise net return. Economic analysis of all the three types of undrainable pond culture - raising of fry from spawn, raising of fingerlings from fry and raising of table size fish from fingerlings - are considered below.
13.1 Raising of fry

The economics of fry rearing mainly depends on the size to which they are grown (25 mm to 35 mm), costs of inputs, nursery size, species reared and the demands for seed. Sinha and Ranadhir (1980) worked out the detailed economics of fry rearing on the basis of 1979 market price. However, the present analysis is based on the 1986 market price. A more generalised case of fry rearing operation in a 0.04 ha pond in the region of Orissa has been taken here as an example (Table 43). Although the prevailing cost of catla, grass carp and silver carp fry are more than double than that of rohu, mrigal and common carp, the present economic consideration is based on the latter group of carp species. Again the rate of stocking is also considered at a lower level of 3 million spawn/ha. Normally the crop is ready within 15 days, but disposing of fry itself takes about a week. The net profit is approximately 4 100 US $/ha from each crop of about 3 weeks. Normally 34 such crops are raised from the same water area during the rearing season of the year. The fry of certain other carp species such as grass carp, silver carp and catla are in high demand and fetch 2 or 3 times higher price.
13.2 Raising of fingerlings

Fingerlings (100150 mm) production involves rearing of fry for about 3 months in rearing ponds. Again, the economics of fingerling rearing naturally depends upon the size to which it is grown, its market price and the cost of material and labour inputs. There is great variation in the market price of the product itself which mainly depends on the size and species of the marketed fingerlings. Large (above 100 mm) and healthy fingerlings fetch almost double the price of smaller ones. Likewise, fingerlings of grass carp, silver carp and catla are sold at about double the price of fingerlings of the same size of species like rohu, mrigal and common carp. The economics of fingerling raising in an average rural, undrainable pond of 0.08 ha in Orissa State is presented here (Table 44).
No.
A. INPUT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Weed clearance
Table 43 Production cost, output and net income from 0.04 ha nursery ponds (rohu, mrigal and common carp) Item Quantity Cost (US $)
1.66 100 kg 400 kg 12 kg 10.00 3.33 1.50 2.00
Eradication of predatory and weed fishes, using mahua oil cake Organic manure Lime Selective poisoning of larger copepods using malathion 400 ml
6. 7. 8. 9.
Soap and oil treatment (720 g of soap and 2.25 1 of oil) Stocking material 0.12 million (spawn) at the rate of 3 million/ha Supplementary feed Netting charges for nursery preparation and harvesting 20 kg
6.70 50.00 2.70 8.33 20.00 8.33 10.00 11.20 135.75 72 000 fry 300.00 164.25
10. Labour for watch and ward, feeding, fertilization, etc., 20 man-days 11. Pond rental 12. Maintenance and miscellaneous 13. Interest on working capital at the rate of 18% (for six months) Total input cost B. RETURN 1. Fry (at an average survival level of 60%); (at the rate of 4.166 US $/1000 fry) C.NET PROFIT (B-A)
The net profit from this 0.08 ha pond corresponds to an income of US $ 2 746.37/crop/ha in about 3 months. During the rearing season of the year it may be possible to raise two crops of fingerlings from the same water body. If the ponds are relatively small and suitable for rearing of spawn to fry stage, initially 34 crops of fry are raised and finally the ponds are usually utilized for fingerling production. In relatively bigger ponds, after rearing 2 crops of fingerlings, they are utilized for culturing fish for about six months to an average weight of about 500 g.
Table 44 Production cost, output and net income from 0.08 ha rearing pond (rohu, mrigal and common carp) Cost (US No. Item Quantity $)
1 2 3 4 5 Weed clearance 3.32 20.00 3.33 3.00 3.35 1.00 83.32 30.37 13.33 90 man-days 90.00 16.66 20.00 25.89 313.57 16 000 (at the rate of 33.33 US $/1000 fingerlings Eradication of predatory and weed fish using mahua 200 kg oil cake Organic manure(raw cow dung) Lime Inorganic fertilizer: Urea Triple super phosphate 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Fry at the rate of 0.25 million/ha Supplementary feed Netting charges for periodical netting and harvesting Labour charges for watch and ward, feeding, fertilization, etc. Pond rental Maintenance and miscellaneous Interest on working capital at the rate of 18% (for six months) Total input cost B. RETURN 1 Fingerlings (at an average survival level of 80%) 533.28 219.71 16 kg 6.4 kg 20 000 225 kg 400 kg 24 kg
C. NET PROFIT (B-A)
13.3 Raising of table-size fish

The technology of composite fish culture in undrainable ponds has been successfully demonstrated in different agroclimatic regions of the Indian sub-continent at different use of input levels. Based on data collected from these sources detailed economic evaluations have been made (Sinha, 1978; Sinha and Ramachandram 1985; Ranadhir, 1984). The cost analysis presented here is also based on actual case studies. However, the costs are updated (1986 price) and expressed in U.S. dollars to have better
comparability among three different levels of productions using different levels of inputs. Fish production rates ranging from over 2 700 kg/ha/yr to over 10 000 kg/ha/yr, have been achieved depending on intensity of input use. Three case studies have been selected to represent high (about 8 00010 000 kg/ha/yr), medium or intermediate (4 0006 000 kg/ha/yr) and low level (less than 4 000 kg/ha/yr) of production packages. All these three cases have been taken from Jaunpur Centre of the All India Coordinated Research Project on Composite Fish Culture. Table 45 gives the details of material inputs used in actual quantities, while Table 46 gives a summary of costs/benefits of fish culture in undrainable ponds. The major difference in terms of input cost is mainly due to feed component, which is maximum in high production level while in the low production level it has not been used at all. This shows that the technology of fish culture in undrainable ponds offers flexibility to suit fish farmers of varied socioeconomic background. Feed costs constitute 5060% of the total cost of production of medium and high input technology of composite fish culture. Many small-scale fish farmers do not use much fertilizers, and use very little or no supplementary feed (Ranadhir, 1986).
Table 45 Per hectare inputs/outputs in case studies of three different levels of fish production Production levels No. Input High Intermediate Low
1 2 3 4 Mahua oil cake Organic manure (cowdung) Lime Fertilizer: Ammonium sulphate Muriate of potash Urea 5 Feed: Mustard oil cake Rice bran 6 7 Stocking material Weeds Output: Gross production of fish: 6 980 kg 4 794 kg 2 746 kg 8 079 kg 5 800 kg 5 000 nos. 180 t 6 072 kg 2 712 kg 5 000 nos. 75 t 5 000 nos 100150 t 46 kg 540 kg 45 kg 396 kg 50 kg 30 kg 1 071 kg 9 057 kg 1 786 kg 10 068 kg 750 kg 1 200 kg 7 500 kg 300 kg
Table 46 Per hectare costs and benefits of table size fish production at high, intermediate and low production levels No.
A. INPUTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pond rental (estimated) Wages (470 man-days, estimated) Maintenance and repairs (estimated) Organic manure (cowdung) Lime Fertilizers: Urea Ammonium sulphate Single super phosphat Muriate of potash 50.32 3.83 51.75 27.50 3.75 6.28 37.95 22.00 4.16 208.25 470.00 250.00 75.47 223.25 208.25 470.00 250.00 83.90 93.75 208.25 470.00 250.00 120.00 62.50 37.50
Item
Costs (U.S. $)* High level Intermediate Low level of level of of production production production
Mahua oil cake (for eradicating predatory and weed fishes) 107.10
8.
Feed: Mustard oil cake Rice bran 1 683.12 362.50 166.65 41.66 3 642.15 182.10 1 265.00 169.50 166.65 83.33 2 873.38 143.66 271.53 3 288.57 7 191.00 3 902.43 166.65 83.33 1 468.62 73.43 138.78 1 680.83 4 119.00 2 438.17
9. 10.
Fingerlings Weeds Sub-total: Miscellaneous costs at the rate of 5% of recurrent costs (Items110) Total cost
11 12
Interest on working capital at the rate of 18% for 6 months 344.18 4 168.43 10 470.00 6 301.57
B. RETURN 1. Cost of fish at the rate of US$ 1.50/kg C. NET INCOME (B-A)
* US $ = 15.00 Indian rupees

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14. AQUACULTURE EXTENSION

Aquaculture contributes significantly to the rural economy of most of the Asian and other developing countries by providing part- and full-time occupation to the farmers, fishermen and landless agricultural labourers. India, and other developing countries of the South Asian region are endowed with ample water resources in the shape of freshwater ponds and tanks for fish culture, but these are not under effective and optimum utilization in spite of highly developed available technologies. Research results have shown excellent production potential as well as economic viability of such technologies, but until these technologies are successfully transferred to the beneficiaries, the desired objective cannot be achieved. Like agriculture, aquaculture is also an agroclimatic-based technology which, when developed in one agroclimatic region, may need modifications and refinement for adoption to another region. Agriculture extension thus involves not only the extension of aquaculture technology, but also certain levels of adoptive research in a particular field environment before it is launched for large-scale extension. It is a two-way education process in which both scientists and farmers contribute, receive and interact with the involvement of extension workers as a link between the two and a catalyst as well (model). In other words, it is a non-formal adult education programme for educating and training the rural mass to acquire suitable fish farming skills and capabilities with a view to boosting fish production efficiency and the socio-economic condition.
14.1 Objective
Aquaculture extension is basically an educational process by means of which scientific and technological knowledge of aquaculture is carried to the farmers to upgrade their existing operation and farm management skills. The philosophy behind this process is to change the altitude, enhance the skill and knowledge of the fish farmers to upgrade their aquaculture practice. It also aims at binging maximum possible unutilized and under-utilized water areas under modern fish culture operation so as to raise the standard of living of the fish farmers through improving productivity and profitability. Apart from achieving its own target its overall objective is also to signifiantly contribute towards rural development by improving rural economy, creating additional gainful employment opportunities, fighting malnutrition and preventing rural exodus.
14.2 Launching aquaculture tension programme

Any aquaculture extension programme is designed based upon broad national consideration to achieve national goals and targets viz-a-viz local considerations to achieve short-term objectives such as application of composite fish culture in undrainable ponds to improve the aquaculture production level. A local aquaculture extension programme is relatively more definite in terms of scope and target. Like any other aquaculture extension programme, there should be three sequential steps for the dissemination of fish culture technology in undrainable ponds. They are as follows: Programme planning Programme implementation Programme evaluation
14.2.1 Programme planning
While planning the dissemination of fish culture technology one should always bear in mind that the programme should be a self-regenerating production endeavour and once it is stimulated should continue on its own with a changed attitude and active participation of the recipient. This involves situation-specific strategies. The main components of programme planning are pre-adoption survey of the area, situation analysis, setting programme goals and finally designing strategies in a sequential manner. Village Survey Fish culture is basically a rural farming system and hence village survey is the most common method for identification of the difficulties faced by the farmers and to find out the scope and suitability of a specific technology needing to be transferred (Radheysham and Kumar, 1982). The main objective is to get an overall picture of the village and the villagers, their attitude, values, together with their socio-economic conditions and also to locate and assess the available freshwater resources. It also helps to identify the local institutions, village leaders, progressive farmers, school teachers, village level workers in order to design the most feasible extension strategy and also to establish a permanent rapport to strengthen the extension services. At micro level it provides information about the socio-economic conditions of individual fish farmers, the pattern of fish farming, and the technological gap. The village selected for the survey should be such that it may represent the locality. Regular contact with important and progressive farmers of the village should be maintained. They should be informed about the objectives of the survey proposed to be undertaken. Interviews with these persons will provide an overall picture of available natural and human resources and possible areas for development. Finally detailed relevant information may be collected from individual pond owners/fish farmers and fishermen through personal interviews/questionnaires. Resource Inventory Availability of water resources Various types of water resources are available for fish culture but usually all of them are not fully utilized. Large, medium and smaller types of water bodies are generally available in villages which may be suitable for fish culture. Many small water bodies are found fully shaded by large marginal trees and thereby lying unproductive. Some unconventional types of water areas with potentiality for intensive aquaculture are also available. Canal/road and village side small and large ditches, pits emerging due to construction of mud houses etc., are some of the unnoticed and untrapped potential aquaculture resources suitable for seed production and short-term fish rearing (kumar, mohanly and bhanot). Low-lying and swampy areas which are formed naturally due to human activities are also potential sites for undrainable ponds for fish culture. Availability of human resources It is a well-known fact that the majority of the people in developing countries live in villages and most of the rural population depend upon agriculture, aquaculture, livestock farming and other allied activities for their livelihood. Human resources are the vital inputs in rural aquaculture development. Rural areas have vast potential of unutilized or underutilized human resources for both men and women, which can be effectively utilized in operating aquaculture (Kumar et al., 1988). Identification of possible constraints A village survey also offers an excellent opportunity to identify various constraints in the background of which an appropriate strategy can be suitably designed. Financial Farmers usually do not have surplus funds big enough to be diverted towards reclamation and renovation of existing watersheds as well as construction of new ponds. Initial expenditure for fish culture over fish toxicant, fish seed and supplementary feed is itself a considerably big amount to be exclusively borne by farmers themselves without any credit support. As such, possible sources for mobilizing credit facilities may be identified.
Improper water area distribution pattern Like land distribution pattern, major water areas are usually found in the possession of medium and big farmers who bother least about fish culture and concentrate themselves mostly on agriculture, while small and marginal farmers have minimum water holdings at their disposal with adequate manpower potential to be utilized. In some areas most of the water bodies are vested to village institutions, local administrative bodies, etc. Lack of technical knowhow Several seasonal and perennial ponds without any proper embankments are found lying fallow in a derelict condition due to ignorance and lack of technical knowhow. In some cases farmers fail to followup the prescribed package of practices strictly and land themselves in a state of financial turmoil and lose confidence in the viability of newly developed fish farming technologies. Lack of stocking materials and other material inputs Fish farmers usually face the biggest problem of unavailability of quality fish seed for stocking their pond. Paucity of quality fish seed in the locality force the farmers to stock their ponds without any consideration to proper stocking size, density, species, ratio, etc. At times, they procure riverine fish seed which is usually mixed with the seeds of predatory and weed fishes. Other material such as fish toxicants are usually localised in its availability. All such problems are also vital for deciding area specific extension strategies. Marketing problem It is a general practice that the fish is sold to middlemen at the pond site who invariably pay lower prices. Due to the perishable nature of the commodity and fear of exploitation by the fish wholesellers, farmers prefer to sell the crop at their pond/farm sites even at relatively lower rates. Information related to marketing practices will add to the scope of the extension programme so that farmers may be educated in marketing management to avoid such exploitation. Lack of transport and efficient communication system In remote villages of India and many developing countries where fish culture technology needs to be extended, proper transport and communication facilities are lacking. Social and administrative problems Ponds remaining unutilized and lying in derelict conditions are common sights in rural areas in spite of a certain level of fish culture know how available with the farmers. In most cases such conditions exist due to family rivalry and non-cooperation among the members of the owners especially when the water areas are under multi-ownership. Poaching and deliberate poisoning of the ponds to destroy the crop are also serious social problems. In some areas fish culture is supposed to be of a low-caste profession, thus many efficient upper-caste prople remain reluctant to come forward for this venture. Local administration such as Panchayats and Block Level Development Departments are also not always suitable geared enough to ensure rural aquaculture development. Setting programme goals and planning In the light of resource inventory and possible limitations suitable target groups may be identified, programme goals may be set up and accordingly suitable extension strategy may be planned. Without such an early insight and planning, the programme may not have firm and realistic footing. Although the fish farmers are the usual target of any fish culture extension programme, all the fish farmers may not be suitable to be involved for immediate participation. Target groups may be selected on a number of criteria including farming practice, production level, income, education, cultural background, nature, reputation in the society, initiative, liable to change their attitude, etc. Selection of suitable communication channels is also very important. Data collected during the pre-adoption survey provide the necessary information for such selection. After these selections, programme goals may be set up. Goals indicate the direction towards which the programme is oriented. It also provides reference level for evaluating the programme
achievements (NACA lecture series No. 3). Examples of goals in such extension programme may be on the following lines: improving the socio-economic uplift of fish farmers and raising the standard of living; bringing 100% of the available undrainable ponds for composite fish culture.
14.2.2 Programme implementation

Plan the work and work the plan is an appropriate term for any extension programme. Once the plan is laid, all possible efforts should be diverted to ensure that responsibilities are carried out, schedules are followed arid activities accomplished as per the plan (Kumar, Mohanty and Muduli) . Although the strategies and planning of the aquaculture extension programme are situation specific, some general steps may be cited as follows; Through heavy flow of information using mass media, publications, individual and mass contacts, etc., awareness and interest should be created among fish farmers. One or two demonstration centres may be set up and the technology of composite fish culture and seed production in undrainable ponds may be demonstrated to maximum possible farmers to let them realize the case of operation, production potential and profitability. A set of suitable farmers should be selected initially and be motivated and guided enough so that they strictly follow the different package of practices as per the schedule. Proper steps may also be taken to make available the critical material inputs at the pond/farm sites and if the programme permits, subsidy should be given as a token of initial attraction. If the availability of quality fish seed is found to be a limiting factor, fish seed may be distributed free of cost or at concessional rate to the farmers at the initial stage. Proper attention may also be paid for extending fish breeding and seed rearing programmes. Facilities for proper monitoring of water quality and fish health may be extended through the participation of nearby laboratories. Periodical netting for growth check/health inspection should be strictly followed and supervised. Self-explanatory/pictorial instruction booklets dealing with basic steps of composite fish culture, control breeding of common carp, techniques of pituitary gland collection, induced breeding of major carps, hatchery operation for carps, nursery and rearing pond managements, techniques of fish seed transport, etc., may be prepared, explained and distributed among farmers. Ad hoc training courses should be organized at the demonstration sites on different aspects of fish culture and fish seed production for participating and other interested farmers. Exhibition programme/Fish Farmer's Day should be organized time to time at different places in which live specimens of all the six carp species, other culturable air-breathing fishes, harmful predatory species, weeds, fish feeds, fish toxicants, etc., should be shown and the objective and goal of the programme may be exhibited through models, charts, posters, etc. Sufficient time should also be provided to discuss the farmer's problems under field conditions. Proper advice can be rendered immediately and/or the problems should be forwarded to research institutions. Daily talks on radio/tv may be organized to describe and discuss the technologies being extended. At times a team of a few farmers may be selected on the basis of their leadership quality and performance, and sent to visit important aquaculture centres, farms, research institutions, etc. Individual contacts through home visits is a very effective extension method. The extension worker must be very clear in this objective during the visit and must do sufficient preparation with regard to subject matter information he is going to deliver to the fish farmer and family members. Evening is the most suitable time for organizing an assembly of farmers. Necessary details about
practices to be followed the next day may be explained to them during such assemblies. Teaching aids may be used to make the communication effective.
14.2.3. Programme evaluation

Programme evaluation is the process to determine the extent of success of the executed extension programme in the light of present objectives. It is an important management function in order to ensure effective implementation of the programme. It also helps in the identification of the deficiencies and weakness of the programme so that proper corrective measures may be taken to make it more useful in its future course. Programme evaluation can be conducted once a year or at a specific period of the programme and finally at the concluding phase of the programme. The process of evaluation also depends upon the nature of the programme. A short term and less extensive localized extension programme may be evaluated by the extension workers themselves through the analysis of progress reports, field records, questionnaires, etc. However, broad-based and elaborate extension programmes can be evaluated by specialists in association with the extension workers to determine the effectiveness and impact of the extension programme. It is convenient to fractionate the whole programme into smaller components for effective and easy evaluation. Fractionation may be done as follows: Resources (financial, personnel an material) made available. Objective of the programme in clear terms. Phases of the programme (evaluation should also be done phase-wise). Data collection from records and tabulation. Selection of ways, means and methods for the collection of data/information from participating, nonparticipating fish farmers, village youths, prominent persons of the locality, etc. Sample selection Collection of data/information from target and non-target groups Tabulation of data Data analysis and interpretation of results To measure the degree of success, certain values have to be associated with the information. Increased fish production level, profit through increased fish yields, knowledge of modern management techniques, fish breeding, fish seed rearing, increased number of ponds/water areas in the area, etc. are some of such measurable values for programme evaluation.
14.3 Important considerations

Extension services can be made most effective by making the people understand, accept and adopt the new technology, as it is very much clear from statistical data that people remember 10% of what they hear, 4050% of what they see and hear and 90% of what they see, hear and do. Maximum potential for development of undrainable pond fish culture lies in developing countries where the prevailing literacy level is lowest. The personality profile of extension workers is of prime importance for the extension of any ruralbased aquaculture technology. He must mould himself enough so that he may become technical by profession, social by temperament and preserve human values and missionary zeal of serving the rural poor. He should be simple, easily approachable and adaptable enough so that he can live among fish farmers. At the same time he must not have any inferiority complex while meeting with specialists and higher bureaucrats.
The target groups of aquaculture extension programmes are usually socio-economically backward rural masses having a low level of literacy and technical knowhow, and are reluctant to bring about quick changes in their attitude. Many extension departments and voluntary organizations are also of the opinion that the gains of socio-economic and technological development progrmames do net reach the rural poor and that the roots of this failure lies in the lack of organization of the poor themselves. Field workers experience very often instances of diversion of financial grants meant for production programmes for the small and marginal farmers into consumption subsidies. Similarly, there are numerous instances where free educational facilities are granted for children of rural poor, but they hardly avail the opportunity as they are treated as helping hands for supplementing family income. Most of the resources allocated for various welfare activities of the rural poor, however, are diverted into activities totally unrelated to mass welfare. The fact is that the poor are not only poor but are disorganized and hence they have very little influence in the process of decision-making and implementation of the programme. Under such conditions the concept of community fish farming may also be considered as an effective and ideal method for organizing at least a section of the rural poor/fish farmers/fishermen in cooperative and productive communication (Tripathy,et al., 1982). Support services and credit facilities are the two important factors which play major roles in the aquaculture development programme. Lack of appropriate support services and proper credit facilities are the major drawbacks. Effective institutional support to provide the necessary technical services needed by the extension programme, such as site selection, pond designing, fish health check, pond environment monitoring, etc., are vital for programme implementation.

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15. REFERENCES
ADCP (Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme), 1983, Fish feeds and feeding in developing countries. An interim report on the ADCP Feed Development Programme. Rome, FAO/UNDP, ADCP/REP/83/18:97 p. APHA-AWWA-WPCF., 1980, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. Washington, D.C., American Public Health Association, 1134 p. 15th ed. Ahne, W., 1975, A Rhabdovirus isolated from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.). Arch.Virol., 48:1815 Ahne, W. 1978, Uptake and multiplication of Spring. Viraemia of carp virus in carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J.Fish Dis., 1(3):2658 Ahne, W. 1981, Important viral diseases in European fish cultures. In Proceedings of the Symposium on fish pathogens and environment in European polyculture, edited by J. Olah. Szarvas, Hungary, Fisheries Research Institute, pp.1935 Alikunhi, K.H., 1966, Synopsis of biological data on common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) (Asia and the Far East). FAO Fish. Synop., (31.1):pag.var. Alikunhi K.H. and K.K. Sukumaran, 1964, Preliminary observations on Chinese carps in India. Proc.Indian Acad.Sci.(B), 60(3):17188 Alikunhi, K.H., K.K. Sukumaran and S. Parameswaran, 1963, Induced spawning of the Chinese carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus (C&V) and the silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (C&V) in ponds at Cuttack, India. Curr.Sci., 32:10326 Alikunhi, K.H. 1963a, Induced spawning of the Chinese carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus (CSV) and the silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (C&V) in ponds at Cuttack, India. Proc.IPFC,, 10(2):181204 Banerjee, S.M., 1967, Water quality and soil conditions of fish ponds in some States of India in relation to fish production. Indian J.Fish. 14(182):11544 Bhatia, H.L., 1970, Use of mahua oil cake in fishery management. Indian Farming, 20(4):3940 Chaudhuri, H. and K.H. Alikunhi, 1957, Observations on the spawning in Indian major carps by hormone injection. Curr.Sci., 26(12):38182 Chaudhuri, H. et al., 1976, A new high in fish production in India with record yields by composite fish culture in freshwater ponds. Aquaculture, 6:34355 Chen, F.Y. and G.A. Prowse, 1966, The effect of living space on the growth rate of fish. Ichthyologia, 111(12):1120 CIFRI (Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute), 1968, Annual report, Annu.Rep.Cent.Inland Fish.Res.Inst.,Barrackpore, (1968):93 p. CIFRI (Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute), 1985, Carp culture. Aquacult.Ext.Man.Cent.Inland
Fish.Res. Inst.,Barrackpore, (2):30 p. Dabrowski, K., 1977, Protein requirement of grass carp fry (Ctenopharynqodon Idella Cal.). Aquaculture, 12:6373 Dehadrai, P.V., M.Y. Kamal and R.K. Das, 1985, Air-breathing fish culture. Aquacult.Ext.Man.Cent.Inland Fish.Res.Inst., Barrackpore, (3):14 p. Dehadrai, P.V., V.K. Murugesan and S.C. Pathak, 1979, Semi-intensive and intensive culture of airbreathing fishes. In Souvenir. ICAR Golden Jubilee. Barrackpore, CIFRI. Dey, R.K. and D.Kumar, 1985, Histopathology of Microsporidia infection in Indian major carp, Labeo rohita (Ham.) Poster presentation at the Symposium on aquaculture of carp and related species. Ivry, France, 25 September 1985 Dey, R.K., D. Kumar and B.K. Mishra, 1986, Tissue level reactions in the Indian major carp, Catla Catla (Ham.) due to Myxobolus sp. infection. Paper presented at the First Asian Fisheries Forum. Manila, Philippines, 2631 May 1986 (mimeo) Dey, R.K. et al.., 1982, Sampling methods, packing and shipments of materials for laboratory diagnosis of fish diseases. In Souvenir. Workshop on the development of inland fisheries in Orissa through institutional finance. Balasore, Orissa, FFDA, pp.4371 Dubay, G.P. and R.P.Tuli, 1961, Observations in the breeding of major carps in Madhya Pradesh. J.Bombay Nat.Hist. Soc ., 58:8191 Fijan, N., 1972, Infectious dropsy in carp - a disease complex. In Diseases of fish, edited by L.E. Mawdesley-Thomas. Symp.Zool.Soc.Lond, 30:3951 Fijan, N. 1976, Diseases of cyprinids in Europe. Fish.Pathol., 10(2): 12934 Fijan, N. 1979, Health protection of fry and fingerlings in mass rearing operations. EIFAC Tech.Pap., (35)Suppl.:7384 Fijan, N. et al., 1971, Isolation of the viral causative agent from the acute form of infectious dropsy of carp. Vet.Arhiv., 41:12538 Ghosh, A. et al., 1985, Carp production using domestic sewage. Aquacult.Ext. Man.Inland Fish.Res.Inst.,Barrackpore, (8):19 p Gopalkrishnan, V., 1961, Observations on infectious dropsy of Indian major carps and its experimental induction. J.Sci.Ind.Res.(C Biol.Sci.), 20:3578 Jhingran, V.G., 1966, Synopsis of biological data on catla, Catla catla (Hamilton 1822). FAQ Fish.Synop., (32)Rev.l:78 p. Jhingran, V.C. and H.A. Khan, 1979, Synopsis of biological data on the mrigal Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton,1822). FAO Fish Synop., (120):78 p. Jhingran, V.G. and R.S.V.P. Pullin, 1985, A hatchery manual for the common, Chinese and Indian major carps. ICLARM Stud.Rev., (11):191 p. Khan, H.A. and V.G. Jhingran, 1975, Synopsis of biological data on rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822). FAO Fish.Synop., (111):100 p. Kumar, D. and R.K. Dey, 1985, Bacterial septicemia in silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valencienes). Poster presentation at the Symposium on the aquaculture of carp and related species. Evry, France, 25 September 1985 Kumar, D., R.K, Dey and K. Kumar, 1986, Preliminary observations on gill hyperplasia of common carp in India. In Proceedings of the Symposium on ichthyopathology and its role in aquaculture. Dubronik, Yugoslavia
Kumar, D. R.K. Dey and B.K. Mishra, 1986, Observations on raising the survival level of common carp fry (Cyprinus carpio, L.) in nursery ponds by using malathion and certain prophylactic measures. Paper presented at the First Asian Fisheries Forum. Manila, Philippines, 2631 May 1986 (mimeo) Kumar, D., B.K. Mishra and B.B. Biswas, 1981, Observations on efficacy of carbonic acid as anaesthetic for Indian major carps. In Proceedings of the All-India Seminar on fish biology. Muzafarpur, Bihar University Kumar, D., B.K. Mishra and R.K. Dey, 1983, Dropsy of mixed aetiology in Catla catla (Ham,). In Proceedings of the Fourth All-India Seminar on Ichthyology, Dehra Dun Kumar, D., V.R.P. Sinha and J. Farkas, Bacteria from diseased fishes in India. (MS) Kumar, D. et al., 1982, Role of prophylaxis in aquaculture. In Souvenir. Workshop on the development of inland fisheries in Orissa through institutional finance. Balasore, Orissa, India, FFDA Kumar, D., 1986, Stress mediated columnaris disease in rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton). J.Fish.Dis., 9:87 9 Lakshmanan, M.A.V. et al., 1971, Preliminary observations of intensive fish farming in freshwater ponds by the composite culture of Indian and exotic species. J.Inland Fish Soc.India, 2:121 Leteux, F. and F.P. Meyer, 1972, Mixtures of malachite green and formalin for controlling Ichthyophthirius and protozoan parasites of fish. Prog.Fish-Cult., 34(1):216 Mammen, T.A., 1962, Live fish transport using modified splashless carrier with compressed air aeration. In Training course on live fish transport. Hyderabad, Government of India, Hyderabad Fisheries Extension Unit Meyer, F.P., 1968, A review of the parasites and diseases of fishes in warmwater ponds in North America. FAO Fish.Rep., (44)Vol.5:290318 Meyer, F.P. and J.W. Warren, 1975, Disease prevention and control in closed systems. Advis.Rep.Univ.Wise.Sea Grant Coll.Program, (13):7384 Mishra, B.K., D. Kumar and R. Mishra, 1983,. Observations on the use of carbonic acid anaesthesia in fish fry transport. Aquaculture, 32:4058 Mishra, B.K. et al., 1982, Observations on renal myxosporidiasis in Indian major carps. In. Proceedings of the Symposium of finfish and shellfish, Mangalore, India Mitra, G.N., 1956, Reclamation of swamps for fishery development in Orissa. In Progress of fisheries development in India. Cuttack, pp.5462 Moitra, S.K. and S.K. Sarkar, 1973, Induced breeding of carps by hypophysation in dry bundhs of Bankura district, West Bengal. Proc.Indian Sci.Congr., 1973(3):549 p. Moitra, S.K. and S.K. Sarkar, 1975, A new method of induced breeding by hypophysation of some major carps in dry bundhs of Bankura, West Bengal. Proc.Zool.Soc. Calcutta, 28:4150 Moitra, S.K. and S.K. Sarkar, 1978, On the potency of pituitary gland extract in relation to spawning in an Indian freshwater major carp Cirrhinus mriqala (Ham.). Zool.Anz.Jena, 3(4):27582 Mookherjee, H.K., S.R. Mazumdar and B.N. Dasgupta, 1944, Observations on the breeding habits of certain Indian carps in Midnapore District, Bengal, with suggestion for breeding, collection of egg and rearing of fry. J.Pep.Sci.Univ.Calcutta, 1:8791 National Research Council, 1983, Nutrient requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. Washington D.C., National Academy Press, Rev.ed. Olah, J., 1983, A programme of investigations on the hydrobiology of fish ponds. Rome, FAO,
FI.DP/IND/75/031, Field document, 6:43 p. Olah, J. and V.R.P. Sinha, 1984, Principles and methods of monitoring of perennial undrainable pond ecosystems in tropical monsoon lands. Aquacult.Hung., 4:10310 Patnaik, S. and K.M. Das, 1983, Chemical control of water hyacinth - its economic significance and fertilizer value in fish culture. In Proceedings of the International Conference on water hyacinth. Hyderabad Patro, J.C., 1968, A note on a new fish carrier, double barrel type. Orissa, Government of Orissa, India, Department of Fisheries, 6 p.(mimeo) Prowse, G.A., 1968, Some basic concepts on fish culture. Paper presented at the Thirteenth session of the IPFC, 1428 October 1968. Brisbane, Australia, IPFC/C68/Tech.2 (mimeo) Radheyshyam and D. Kumar, 1982, Fisheries extension for rural aquaculture. In Souvenir. Workshop on the Development of Inland Fisheries in Orissa through Institutional Finance. FFDA, Balasore (Orissa), India, 99105 Radheyshyam, D. Kumar and V.R.P. Sinha, 1983, Sudden fish kill associated with bacterial bloom in an undrainable fish pond. Paper presented at the Fourth All-India Seminar on Ichthyology, Dehra Dun, D.A.V. College, 29th October - 2 November 1983 (mimeo) Radheyshyam, S.K. Sarkar and B.N. Singh, 1985, Observations on possible methods of averting hazards of loss of viable eggs in breeding hapas in rural ponds having common carp . Intl.J.Acad.Ichthyol., Modinagar , 6:1159 Radheyshyam, B.B. Satapathy and V.R.P. Sinha, 1986, Environmental diel cycle during mass fish kills and planktonic collapse in an undrainable rural fish pond.J.Inland Fish.Soc.India, (in press). Ramachandran, V., 1969, Weed control is a must in fish culture. Indian Farming, 14 (9): 748 Ranadhir, M., 1984, Economic analysis of composite fish culture. In Souvenir. Fourth Advisory Committee Meeting of NACA (FAO/UNDP Project), Bhubaneswar, India Ranadhir, M., 1986, Socieconomics of aquaculture development in India. Paper presented at the Workshop on socioeconomics of aquaculture development. Bangkok, NACA, 18 p. (mimeo) Rout, M., M.A.V. Lakshmanan and D.R.Kanaujia, 1979, An efficient gear for sampling and harvesting of bottom dwelling fish in ponds. J.Inland Fish.Soc.India, 7(l):l5 Saha, C. and V. Gopalakrishnan, 1974, Construction of fish ponds. J.Inland Fish.Soc.India, 6:12230 Saha, G.N., 1969, Relative efficiency of different nitrogenous fertilizers in fish pond soil. J.Indian Soc.Soil Sci., 17:51 p. Saha, K.C. et al , 1957, Studies on the factors influencing spawning of Indian major carps in bundh fisheries. Indian J.Fish., 4:28494 Sahoo, C.D., 1984, On the location and constructional aspects of freshwater fish ponds. In Souvenir. Seminar on freshwater fisheries and rural development. Rourkela, India, pp. 1827 Selvaraj, C., A.N. Mohanty and S.R. Ghosh, 1981, Preliminary observations on the transport of fish fry under air pressure. J.Inland Fish.Soc.India, 13(2):759 Sen, P.R., 1976, Management techniques of carp nurseries and rearing ponds. Barrackpore, CIFRI, Summer Institute on fish seed production and mobilization for culture fisheries of inland waters, 12 p. (mimeo) Sen, P.R. and D.K. Chatterjee, 1976, Enhancing production of Indian major carp fry and fingerlings by use of growth promoting substances. In Advances in aquaculture, edited by T.V.R. Pillay and Wm.A. Dill, Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd. for FAO, pp. 13441
Sen, P.R. 1979, Increased production of major Indian carp fry by addition of growth promoting substances. Schr.Bundesfor-schungsanst.Fisch.Hamb., ( 14/ 15 ) Vol. 2 : 18995 Sen, P.R. et al., 1978, Observations on the protein and carbohydrate requirements of carps. Aquaculture, 13:24555 Sharma, B.K. et al., 1979, Observations on fish-cum-duck rearing. In Proceedings of the Symposium on inland aquaculture. Barrackpore, India Sharma, B.K. 1979a, Observations on the recycling of swine dung in composite fish culture. In Proceedings of the Symposium on inland aquaculture. Barrackpore, India Sin, A.W., 1973, The dietary protein requirements for growth of young carp (Cyprinus carpio). Hongkong Fish.Bull., (3):7781 Singh, B.N., 1977, Oxygen consumption and the amount of oxygen required for transport of rohu and mrigal fingerlings. J.Inland Fish.Soc. India, 9:98104 Singh, B.N., V.R.P. Sinha and K. Kumar, Protein requirements of an Indian major carp, Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.) (Unpubl.) Sinha, V.R.P., 1971, Review of composite fish culture techniques. In Proceedings of All-India Coordinated Research Project on composite fish culture. Cuttack, ICAR Sinha 1978, Project Co-ordinator's report. In Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on All-India Coordinated Research Project on composite fish culture and fish seed production. Bhubaneswar, ICAR Sinha 1981, Integrated synergic approach to aquaculture. Resour. Manage.Optim., 1(4):33141 Sinha, V.R.P. and M.V. Gupta, 1975, On the growth of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) in composite fish culture at Kalyani, West Bengal (India). Aquaculture, 5:28590 Sinha, V.R.P. and V. Ramachandran, 1985, Freshwater fish culture. New Delhi, ICAR, 80 p. Sinha, V.R.P. and M. Ranadhir, 1980, Potential and constraints of small-scale freshwater fish culture enterprises in India. Proc.IPFC, 19(3): 52638 Sinha, V.R.P., B.K. Sharma and N.K. Chaudhuri, 1975, Breeding of silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (C&V) and grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) in a bundh type tank in West Bengal. Curr.Sci., 44(7):2301 Sinha, V.R.P. et al., 1973, Composite fish culture at Kalyani, West Bengal. J.Inland.Fish.Soc.India, 5:2017 Snieszko, S.F., 1974, The effects of environmental stress on outbreaks of infectious diseases in fishes. J.Fish.Biol ., 6(2):197208 Stern, P.H., 1979, Small-scale irrigation. London, Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd. Takeuchi, T., T. Watanabe and C. Ogino, 1979, Studies on nutritive value of dietary lipids in fish. 16. Availability of carbohydrates and lipids on dietary energy source for carp. Bull.Jap.Soc.Sci.Fish., 45:97782 Toor, H.S., H.S. Sehgal and R.S. Sehder, 1983, A case study of acute fish diseases in tanks loaded with high levels of organic manures. Aquaculture, 35:27782 Tripathi, S.D., 1975, Raising of fingerlings from spawn in nursery ponds. J.Inland Fish.Soc.India, 7:131 41 Tripathy, N.K. et al., 1980, Preliminary observations on the use of bleaching powder as fish toxicant for
preparation of nursery ponds. In Proceedings of the Symposium on the utilization of animal resources of Orissa. Bhubaneswar, Utkal University Tripathy, N.K., D. Kumar and K. Kumar, 1982, Concept of community fish farming. Souvenir. Workshop on the Development of Inland Fisheries in Orissa through Institutional Finance. FFDA, Balasore (Orissa), India. Wedemeyer, G.A. and J.W. Wood, 1974, Stress as a predisposing factor in fish diseases. Washington D.C., U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, (FDL-38) : 8 p.
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APPENDIX I
Methods of Water Quality Analysis 1. Transparency Fix a bright new pin at the 0 point of a meter scale and dip slowly into the pond water till the pin just disappears from sight. The reading of scale at water surface gives the transparency value. 2. pH pH values can be measured directly by a pH meter by dipping the electrode into the pond water or by colorimetric estimation as described below. Initially do the preparatory test with universal indicator to get the approximate value of the pH. Place 10 ml of the water sample in the glass tube provided with the colour comparater and add 0.2 ml of universal indicator. Shake gently and match the colour against standard colour disc for that indicator. After ascertaining the approximate pH value use suitable indicators to determine the exact pH. Bromothymol blue for pH range of 6.07.6, phenol red for 6.88.4 and thymol blue for 8.09.6 should be used as indicators. After adding the required indictor stirr the sample and match the colour against appropriate standard colour disc and read the values. 3. Alkalinity Reagents and equipments required: i. 0.02(N)H2SO4 - Dilute 30.0 ml of conc.H2S0 4 (S. gravity 1.84) with distilled water to make 1 l to get approximately 1(N) stock solutions. Take 20 ml of this solution and further dilute it to make 1 l to get 0.02(N) solution. Check it against 0.02(N) Na 2CO 3 using methyl orange indicator. ii. Phenolphthalein indicator - 0.5% solution in 50% alcohol iii. Standard 0.02(N) Na 2CO 3 - Dissolve 5.3 g anhydrous and dessicated Na 2CO 3 in 1 l distilled water to make 0.l(N) Na 2CO 3 stock solution. Dilute 50 ml of this solution to make 250 ml to give 0.02(N) Na 2CO 3. iv. Methyl orange indicator - 0.05% aquous solution, v. Glasswares Procedure: a. Phenolphthalein alkalinity (P) Take 50 ml of the sample in white porcelain basin and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If the sample remains colourless (P) alkalinity is zero, but if it turns pink, titrate with 0.02 (N)H2SO4 through a burette to a colourless end point and calculate the value as per the following equation.
b. Methyl orange alkalinity (M): Proceed as above using methyl orange as indicator, the end point is indicated by a colour change from yellow to
faint orange. c. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (Winkler's method):
i. Alkaline iodide: Dissolve 700 g of pure potassium hydroxide (KOH) and 150 g of potassium iodide (KI) or 135 g of sodium iodide (NaI) in 800 ml of distilled water. Cool it and make it to 1.0 1 by adding more distilled water. ii. Manganous sulphate - Add 480 g of managanous sulphate (MnSO4.4H 20 or 400 g of MnSO 4.2H 20) in 250 ml of distilled water, mix well and add more water to make the solution upto 1 l mark. iii. Concentrated H2SO4 - (Sp. gravity 1.84) iv. 0.025(N) Sodium thiosulphate - Dissolve 24.82 g of crystalline sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S 2O3.5H 2O)in 700 ml of distilled water and add 4 g of borax (Na 2B 4O7.10H2O). Add more distilled water to make 1 l; after borax is dissolved. v. 0.025(N) Potassium dichromate solution - Take 1.226 g of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and dissolve in 1 l distilled water. vi. Starch solution - Take 1 g of starch powder in 5 ml of cool distilled water, mix well and add 100 cc of boiled distilled water. Add 3 g of boric acid as preservative. vii. Glasswares: Take 10.0 ml of 0.025 (N) K 2Cr2O7 in a conical flask and add 1 ml of alkaline iodide, 2 ml of Conc.H 2SO4 and titrate with 0.025(N) Na 2S 2O3 solution using starch as indicator. Procedure: Water samples for DO should be collected in 100 ml DO sample bottles without agitating, bubbling or mixing with air from the top column or bottom layer of the pond water as required. Immediately after collection, carefully remove the stopper and add 1 ml each of reagent (i) and (ii) by 1 ml pipette. Replace the stopper and thoroughly mix the contents. A whitish to deep brownish precipitate will be formed which will settle at the bottom. Whitish colour indicates poor DO level while more deeper the colour of the precipitate higher the DO level. Brown to red brown colour indicates medium to high DO concentration. Add 2.0 ml of conc. H2SO4 to dissolve the precipitate. Take 50 ml of this solution and titrate with 0.025 (N) Na 2S 2O3 using starch as indicator to the colourless end point. Calculation: Dissolve oxygen (ppm) = ml of 0.025 (N) Na 2S 2O3 used X 4. Dissolved free carbon dioxide: Reagents and equipments required: i. N44 Sodium carbonate (Na 2CO 3) - Dissolve 5.3 g Na 2CO 3 in 1 000 ml of distilled water. Dilute 100 cc of this solution (N/10) to 440 ml with distilled water to get N/44 Na 2CO 3. ii. Phenolphthalein indicator. Procedure: Take 50 ml of the sample in a conical flask and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein reagent. If the water turns pink there is no free carbon dioxide, if not, add N44 Na 2CO 3 drop by drop from a 10 ml graduated pipette with simultaneous gentle stirring with a glass rod till the colour turns pink. Calculation: Free carbon dioxide (ppm) = ml of N44 Na 2CO 3 required 20 Nitrogen (Ammonia and Nitrate nitrogen) Reagents required: i. Nessler's solution: dissolve 545.5 g of A.R. grade mercuric iodide and 35.0 g of potassium iodide (KI) in limited volume of ammonia free distilled water and finally add this mixture slowly to a cold solution of 112.0 g potassium hydroxide (KOH) dissolved in 500 ml of ammonia free distilled water. Dilute to 1 l and allow to stand for few days and finally the supernatant liquid is decanted off into dark coloured bottle and kept for use. ii. Devarda's alloy iii. Magnesium oxide (MgO)
iv. Ammonia free distilled water v. Kjeldahl flask and other laboratory glasswares Procedure: Take 100 ml of filtered water sample in Kjeldahl flask and fit the flask with distillation unit. Add about 1 g MgO and start distillation. Continue distillation till all the NH4-N distilled off. Collect 25 ml of the distillate. This contains NH4N. Add 1 g of Devarda's alloy to the remaining sample of the flask and start distillation again. Collect 25 ml of the distillate in a separate receiver flask. This fraction of distillation contains NO 3-N. Place both the distillates in two separate Nessler tubes and add 0.5 ml Nesseler's reagent in each. Mix the solution and match the developed colour against standard colour discs for ammonia and nitrate after 1015 minutes with a Nessleniser (BDH Nessleniser). Calculation: Amount of Ammonia/Nitrate Nitrogen (ppm) = Number of matching division of the standard disc 10 0.001 (Standard of each disc division). vi. Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus Reagents required: i. 2.5% sulphomolybdic acid - Dissolve 25 g pure ammonium molybdate in 1 200 ml distilled water by warming at 60C. Dilute 275 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to 750 ml with distilled water separately. After cooling slowly mix ammonium molybdate solution to the diluted H2SO4 with constant stirring. Make the volume up to 1 l by adding more distilled water and store in dark bottles. ii. 2.5% Stanous chloride - Dissolve 2.5 g of stannous chloride (SnCl 2.2H 2O) in about 5 ml of concentrated HCl with little warming. Dilute to 50 ml with freshly boiled distilled water and finally make the volume up to 100 ml by adding 1.2(N) HC1. Preserve the reagent in dark bottle by overlaying a thin layer of pure liquid paraffin. Procedure: Take 50 ml of filtered water sample in a Nessler tube and add 2 ml of sulpho-molybdic acid and 5 drops of stannous chloride solution. Mix thoroughly and compare the developed blue colour after 34 minutes in a Nessleniser using standard colour discs for phosphate. Calculation: Phosphate (P2O5) in ppm = Disc reading for 50 ml 2 .01 iii. Dissolved Organic Matter Reagents required: i. Standard KMnO 4 solution (1 ml = 0.1 mg O2) - Dissolve 0.4 g potassium permanganate (KMnO 4;) in distilled water and make up to 1 l. One ml of this solution = 0.1 mg O2- This solution should be standardised against ammonium oxalate solution in acid medium so that 1 ml of KMnO4= 1 ml of ammonium oxalate. ii. Standard Ammonium Oxalate solution - Dissolve 0.888 g ammonium oxalate in distilled water and make up to 1 l. (1 ml of this solution = 0.1 mg of O2). iii. Dilute sulphuric acid (1:3) - Add 100 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid slowly into 300 ml of distilled water. Procedure: Place 50 ml of the filtered sample water in a 250 ml conical flask and acidify by adding 5 ml of dilute H2SO4. Add 10 ml of standard KMnO 4 solution and keep on water bath for half an hour. After removing from water bath add 10 ml of ammonium-oxalate solution. The pink colour of permanganate will disappear. With the help of a 10 ml graduated pipette add drop by drop standard KMnO 4solution till the colour just reappears. At times the pink colour disappears while heating on water bath itself, in such cases 20 ml or more KMnO 4 solution is to be added.
Calculation: Oxygen consumed (ppm) = No of ml potassium permanganate required 0.1 20. APPENDIX II Methods of Soil Quality Analysis Minimum five samples should be collected from a larger pond from soft layer. However, the number of samples depend upon the variability of the soil quality. Mix all the samples well to get uniform composite sample. Samples should be air dried in shade and ground to fine powder by wooden hammer and strained through 2 mm sieve. 1. Soil Texture 1.1 Gravimetric method Required reagents: i. Hydrogent peroxide (6.0%) ii. (N) Hydrochloric acid iii. (N) NaOH solution iv. Silver nitrate solution (5%) v. Concentrated Ammonium hydroxide solution Procedure : Take 20 g soil in a 400 ml beaker, add 35 ml H2O2 while keeping the beaker on water bath. Add more H2O2 when the reaction is over till no more frothing takes place. Cool and add 50 ml (N) MCl and 200 ml distilled water. Allow the content to stand for an hour with occasional stirring. Filter the soil and wash free of acid with hot water, tested by AgNO3 solution. Transfer the soil to 1 l beaker, add 8 ml (N)NaOH solution and shake for 20 minutes in a mechanical shaker. The contents now should be transferred to a 1 000 ml measuring cylinder, shake vigorously for 1 minute and allow to stand for 4 minutes. Suck 20 ml of the content with a 20 ml pipette from 10 cm level. Dry it in a beaker till constant weight is attained which gives the weight of silt and clay. Repeat the operation after 6 hours to get the weight of clay alone. The percentage of sand is obtained by deducting percentage of clay + silt from 100, similarly percentage of clay is substracted from that of clay + silt to get the percentage of silt. 1.2 Hydrometer method Reagent required: i. Sodium oxalate (COONa) 2 0.5(N} solution - Dissolve 33.5 g sodium oxalate in 1 l of distilled water. Procedure: Place 100 g of air-dried finely powdered soil in a 500 ml conical flask and add 15 ml of 0.5(N) sodium oxalate. Add 200 ml of distilled water and shake for 20 minutes. Transfer the content to 1 l capacity measuring cylinder and make it up to 1 l mark by adding enough water. Stir the suspension thoroughly, stop stirring and note the time. Dip the hydrometer in the suspension after 5 minutes which will give direct reading of the percentage of clay + silt. Hydrometer reading after 5 hours of sedimentation and the temperature of the suspension gives the percentage of clay directly. Calculation: Hydrometer gives the reading in g/1 which can be converted easily into percentage of suspended matter. Percentage of sand is determined by deducting the percentage of clay + silt from 100. Similarly percentage of silt is determined by substracting the hydrometer reading for clay from the silt + clay. Normally the hydrometer reading is adjusted for the temperature of 19.4C. Make correction to the scale reading by adding 0.3 units for every degree of temperature above 19.4C or substracting 0.3 units for each degree below 19.4C. ii. pH 2.1 Colorimetric method Reagents required: i. Neutral Barium Sulphate (A.R. grade)
ii. Indicator solutions - see Section 2 of Appendix I. Place a layer of neutral barium sulphate 1 cm thick in a 50 ml dry test tube, add 10 g of air-dried powdered soil sample and add 25 ml of distilled water, shake well and keep it for settling. Take 10 ml of clear aliquot and follow the same procedure as under Section 2 of Appendix I. 2.2 Potentiometric method Take 10 g of air-dried finely powdered soil sample in a beaker and mix well with 25 ml of distilled water and keep for about half an hour with occasional stirring. Dip the electrodes/electrode of pH meter into it and take the reading directly. iii. Organic Carbon Reagents required: i. (N) Potassium dichromate solution. Add 49.04 g A.R. grade potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in distilled water-to make it 1 l. ii. (N) Ferrous solution. Dissolve either 278.0 g of A.R. grade ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4.7H 2O) or 392.13 g of ferrous ammonium sulphate (FeSO 4. (NH4)2 SO4.6H 2O) in distilled water, add 15 ml of conc. H2SO4 and make the volume to 1 l. Standardise against (N)K2Cr2O7 so that 1 ml of FeSO 4 solution = 1 ml (N)K2Cr2O7 solution. iii. Diphenyl amine indicator - Dissolve 0.5 g of diphenylamine in 10 ml conc.H2SO4 and 20 ml distilled water. iv. Phosphoric acid (85%) v. Conc. sulphuric acid (sp.gr. 1.84). Procedure: Place 1 g of soil sample (0.5 g and 2.0 g for soils with expected high and low organic C levels respectively) in a 500 ml flask. Add 10 ml of reagent (i) and mix thoroughly. Add 20 ml of reagent (v) and mix gently by rotation. Allow the mixture to stand for 30 min. Add water to make up to 200 ml and then add 10 ml of reagent number (iv). Titrate with (N) Fe(NH 4)2SO4 or (N)FeSO4 solution using 1 ml diphenylamine as indicator. At the end point colour of the solution sharply changes to a brilliant green. Carry out a separate standardisation blank also using all the reagents except the soil sample. Calculation: Organic carbon (%) = (Titration value (ml) for blank-titration value(ml) with soil) 0.3 vi. Total Nitrogen Reagents required: i. Concentrated sulphuric acid (A.R. grade sp.gr. 1.84) ii. Salicylic acid (A.R. grade) iii. Sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S 2O3.5H 2O) iv. 12(N) Sodium hydroxide - Dissolve 480 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets in distilled water and make up to 1 l. v. 0.1(N) NaOH - Dissolve 4 g of NaOH pellets in distilled water, make up to 1 l and standardise against 0.1(N)H 2SO4. vi. 0.1(N) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) - Dilute 100 ml of (N) H2SO4 (stock solution - preparation under Section 3 of Appendix I) to 1 l and standardise against 0.1(N) Na 2CO 3 solution. vii. 0.1(N) Sodium carbonate (Na 2CO 3) solution. Dissolve 5.3 g of Na 2CO 3 in 1 l of water to get 0.1(N) standard solution. viii. Copper sulphate ix. Potassium sulphate Procedure: Take 10 g of air-dried soil in a Kjeldahl's flask. Add 30 ml of conc. H2SO4, 1.0 g of salicylic acid, and keep in cold for 1/2 hour. Now add 5.0 g of sodium thiosulphate and again keep for 1/2 hour. Add 1.0 g of powdered copper
sulphate and 10.0 g of potassium sulphate and digest the mixture. Clear blue colour of the solution indicates completion of digestion. Cool and transfer with water to an ammonia distillation flask. Make it alkaline with excess of 12(N)NaOH using phenolphthalein as indicator and distill off the ammonia collecting it in 25 ml of 0.1(N)H2SO4 in a conical flask with a few drops of methyl red indicator. Collect about 150 ml of the distillate. Titrate the excess of 0.1(N)H 2SO4 with 0.1(N)NaOH till the solution turns colourless. Calculation: Total nitrogen (%)
1. Available Nitrogen Reagents required: i. .02(N) sulphuric acid - see Section 3 of Appendix I ii. 0.02 N sodium hydroxide - Dilute 100 ml of 0.1(N) sodium hydroxide (NaOH) of standard stock solution to 500 ml with distilled water (Section 4 of this Appendix) iii. Methyl red indicator - Dissolve 0.1 g of methyl red powder in 25 ml ethyl alcohol and make up to 50 ml with distilled water. iv. 0.32% potassium permanganate (KMnO4) - Dissolve 3.2 g of KMnO 4 in distilled water and make the volume up to 1 l. v. 2.5% sodium hydroxide - Dissolve 25 g of NaOH pellet in 1 l of distilled water. Procedure: Take 10 g of air-dried and powdered soil sample in a Kjeldahl's flask. Add 100 ml of 0.32% KMnO4 and 100 ml of 2.5% NaOH solutions. Distill the mixture after adding 2 ml of liquid paraffin and 1015 ml of glass beads. Collect 75 ml of the distillate in the receiving flask containing 25 ml of 0.02 (N)H2SO4 with a few drops of methyl red indicator and titrate with 0.02 (N) NaOH to a colourless and point. Calculation: Available nitrogen (mg/100 g soil) = (25 - No. of ml of 0.02 (N)NaOH required) 2.8 2. Available Phosphorus Reagents required: i. 2.5% Sulphomolybdic acid (see Section 7 of Appendix I) ii. 2.5% Stannous chloride (SnCl 2) (see Section 7 of Appendix I) iii. 0.002 (N) H2S0 4 - Dilute 50 ml of 0.02(N) H2SO4 (Section 3 of Appendix I) with distilled water to make up to 500 ml mark and adjust the pH to 3.0 with (NH4)2 SO4 or K 2SO4 (approximately 3 g/l) iv. Standard phosphate solution Dissolve 0.2195 g of dried monobasic potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate in 400 ml of water. Add 25 ml of H2SO4 (water mixture 1:5) and make the volume up to 1 l with addition of distilled water. This will give a stock solution of 50 ppm of P (Phosphorus). Dilute 20 ml of this solution to 500 ml to get 2 ppm solution of P. This 2 ppm of P solution, when diluted to 50 ml volume for the development of phospho-mollybdic blue colour, gives the following values under different concentrations. Procedure: Standard curve: Take 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml 2.5 ml, 5.0 ml and 10.0 ml of 2 ppm solution of P in 50 ml capacity volumetric flasks. Add 2.0 ml of sulphomolybdic acid in each. Make the volume up to 50 ml mark by adding distilled water and add 5 drops of SnCl 2 while shaking gently. The colour develops at its full intensity in 34 minutes and begins to fade after 10 12 minutes. Find out the respective optical density readings by the help of a photoelectric colorimeter or a spectrophomometer and plot the readings against the corresponding concentrations of P to prepare a standard curve. Take 1 g of air-dried and powdered soil sample in a glass bottle with stopper, add 200 ml of 0.002 (N)
H2SO4 solution and shake for 30 minutes with a mechanical shaker. Filter the suspension immediately on a Whatman No. 42 filter paper. Take 25 ml of the clear filtrate and find out the concentration of P in that solution through the standard curve. Calculation: Available P mg/100 g soil = ppm P in solution 20. APPENDIX III Methods of Analysis of Feed and Feed Ingredients 1. Moisture Requirements: Petridish Drying oven Balance Procedure: Place pre-weighed 45 g of the sample in a covered petridish and dry at 100105C in a drying oven till constant weight is achieved. Calculation: Moisture content (%)
2. Crude Protein Requirements: i. Concentrated Sulphuric acid (A.R. grade - nitrogen free) ii. Potassium sulphate (A.R. grade) iii. Mercuric oxide (A.R. grade) iv. Paraffin wax v. Sodium hydroxide solution (40%) - Dissolve 40 g of NaOH pellets in 100 ml of distilled water. vi. Sodium sulphide solution (4%) - Dissolve 4 g of sodium sulphide in 100 ml distilled water. vii. Pumic chips viii. Boric acid/indicator solution - Add 5 ml of indicator solution (0.1% methyl red and 0.2% bromocresol green in alcohol) to 1 l of saturated boric acid solution. ix. Hydrochloric acid (0.1 N) - Dissolve 1.16 ml of concentrated A.R. grade HCl with distilled water to make 1 l. x. Kjeldahl digestion and distillation units xi. Kjeldahl flasks (500 ml cap) xii. Conical flasks - 250 ml Procedure: Take exactly 1.0 g of sample into the Kjeldahl flask and add 10 g digestion mixture which consists of potassium sulphate and copper sulphate in 9:1 ratio and 20 ml of sulphuric acid. Heat the flask gently at an tilted position till frothing stops and then boil until the solution becomes clear. To control excessive frothing add a small amount of paraffin wax. Cool and add 90 ml of distilled water, leave it for some time and add again 25 ml of sulphuric acid and mix. To prevent bumping put small piece of boiling chips and add 80 ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution while tilting the flask so that two layers are formed. Connect rapidly to the condenser unit, heat and collect distilled ammonia in 50 ml boric acid/indicator solution. Collect the distillate. On completion of distillation, remove the received and wash condenser tip and titrate against 0.1(N) HCl. Calculation: Nitrogen content of sample (%)
Crude protein (%) = Nitrogen content 6.25 If you suspect mixing of urea in the sample, then wash the sample thoroughly with distilled water and dry at 60C before proceeding for protein estimation. xiii. Crude Fat Requirements: Petroleum ether (B.P. 4060C) Extraction thimbles/flasks Soxhlet extraction apparatus Procedure: Take 2.3 g of dried sample either in an extraction thimble or in a silk bag. Place the thimbles or the bag inside the soxhlet apparatus/soxhlet flask. Connect a dry pre-weighed solvent flask beneath the apparatus and add the required quantity of solvent and connect to the condenser. Adjust the heating rate to give a condensation rate of 23 drops/ second and continue extraction for 16 hours. By increasing the extraction rate the extraction time may be reduced. On completion remove the thimble. Remove ether completely on a boiling bath and then dry the flask at 105C for 30 minutes. Cool the same in a desicator and weigh. Calculation: Weight of the crude fat = Final weight of the solvent flask = Initial weight of the solvent flask.
If the extraction is done by putting the material in pre-weighed silk bags and hanging in extraction flask then follow the following calculation. Weight of the crude fat = Initial weight of the bag with material - Final weight of the bag with the remaining material. xiv. Carbohydrate Requirements : i. Standard glucose solution - 100 mg in 100 ml of distilled water. ii. Benedict's reagent iii. 6(N)Hcl - Dilute 69.6 ml of concentrated HCl (A.R. grade) with distilled water to make 1 l volume iv. Sodium carbonate Procedure: Take 100 mg of powdered sample and dissolve in 25 ml of water, add 25 ml of 6(N)HCl and heat in a water bath for 3 hours at 100C. Cool and neutralise with sodium carbonate until frothing stops and centrifuge the solution at 2 000 rpm for 10 minutes or filter. Take the supernatant or filtrate and make upto 100 ml by taking enough distilled water. Take 5 ml of Benedict's solution in a conical flask, add 1 g of sodium carbonate and put some glass beads and titrate against standard glucose solution. The titration must be done only in heated condition. Now the same volume of Benedict's reagent is titrated against the hydrolysed sample solution. Calculation: Volume of standard glucose solution required for 5 ml of Benedict's reagent = A. Volume of hydrolysed solution required for 5 ml of Benedict's reagent = B.
1. Ash Concentrated Nitric acid
Silica crucible Muffle furnace Procedure: Take 2 g of sample in a clean, dry silica crucible and place in a muffle furnace at 600C for 6 hours. Cool and add 2 drops of concentrated nitric acid. Again put the sample in muffle furnace and heat till white ash is produced. Cool the crucble in the desicator and take the weight. Calculation: Weight of the crucible - Ag Weight of the crucible + sample - B g Weight of the sample - B-A = Cg Weight of the crucible + ash - Dg Weight of ash - D-A = Eg
APPENDIX IV Methods of Community Structure Analysis 1. Plankton Analysis Information on the abundance and variations of natural fish food organisms is necessary for proper fishery management. Methods of plankton analysis include collection of plankton samples and analysis of the samples both quantitatively and qualitatively. 1.1 Collection of samples In fish ponds plankton samples are generally collected using a truncated cone shaped net by filtering known volume of water (normally 50 or 100 1). The plankton sieving net is the common equipment used and is made of bolting silk cloth No. 25 (# 0.064 mm mesh size) for phytoplankton and No. 13 (# 0.112 mm mesh size) for zooplankton. The plankton cloth is cut based on the following calculations.
Using 1+X as radius, lay off the arc C on a piece of paper. At Centre h, lay off angle a by means of a protractor and draw lines he and hf. With x as radius, draw arc C of smaller circle. Leaving 1 cm all along the sides, the cloth may be cut and stitched and fitted onto a brass frame having wooden handle.
For he and hf, mark points at 90 + 53.3 = 143.3 and 90 - 53.3 = 36.7 Usually about 50100 1 of water is filtered through the plankton net and the sample is preserved in 5% formaldehyde. In the laboratory, the preserved plankton samples are analysed for quantitative and qualitative aspects.
1.2 Quantitative analysis of total plankton: Settling volume: Transfer the sample to a graduated cylinder or centrifuge tube and allow sufficient time (at least 68 hours) for plankton to settle at the bottom and record its volume and express the volume as ml of plankton/1 or ml of plankton/m 3 . Centrifuge of the samples may also be resorted to, for quicker analysis. Wet weight: The plankton sample is filtered through bolting silk cloth, excess water is blotted out and the residual material is weighed. The wet weight is expressed as mg/1 or g/m 3 water. Dry weight: After taking the wet weight, dry the plankton samples in a hot-air oven at 6080C for about six hours and take the weight on a sensitive balance. Express the weight as mg/1 or g/m 3 . Numerical count: Dilute the filtered sample to a known volume, say 10 ml, and take for counting under microscope. Shake well the diluted plankton sample and take one drop for counting on a glass slide and cover with a cover slip or take 1 ml of plankton suspension in the Sedgewick- Rafter counting cell having a capacity of 1 ml with its area divided into 1 000 equal squares. Count the number of plankters under microscope with 10x and 10x lenses. If 100 squares at random are counted, and 100 1 water had been filtered, the number per litre will be given by X 10 10100, where X is the number of plankters. While only the larger plankters are counted in the survey count method, all the plankters are counted in the total count method. 1.3 Qualitative analysis of plankters: The differential count method is usually followed which requires enumeration of some or all kinds of plankters, distinguishing them qualitatively into species or genera of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Shake well the diluted plankton sample and take 1 ml of plankton suspension in Sedgewick-Rafter counting cell or one drop on a glass slide and cover with cover slip and count following the method described for numerical count. Instead of counting the total number of plankton, count important groups of phytoplankton and zooplankton separately. Important groups of phytoplankton usually encountered are green algae (chlorophyceae), diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), blue-green algae (Cydnophyceae), dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae) and chrysomonads (Chrysophyceae). Zooplankton in ponds mainly comprise protozoans, rotifers, cladocerans, calanoid and cyclopoid copepods and their larval forms and occasionally nematodes and ostracods. Based upon the total counts, percentage composition of the different forms as well as phytoplankton and zooplankton as a whole may be calculated with their seasonal variations. 2. Analysis of Benth Fauna
2.1 Sample collection: Randomly fix sampling points covering various zones of the pond. Collect sediment samples with the help of Ekman dredge for deeper ponds while glass tubes (both sides open; 7 10 cm dia and 3040 cm long) for seasonal and shallow ponds. In case of sediment sample collection with tubes, the tube is gently placed on the sediment and then pushed further deep. The open end is then tightly closed with a rubber stopper and the tube is lifted up with the contents. The contents are emptied onto an enamel tray. Transfer each sample into a separate tray. Dilute the sample with pond water, stir the sediment gently and pass it through seive. BSS 40 (mesh size 0.4 mm for macrozoobenthos) or BSS 60 (mesh size 0.3 mm for meizoobenthos). Repeat the process till the samples are completely washed. Transfer the sieved material to wide mouth bottles with little water in each and fix with 10% formaldehyde or 70% ethanol. 2.2 Quantitative analysis: Numerical method: Transfer the preserved samples into petridishes. Segregate the organism into taxonomic groups with the help of pipette/forceps and magnifying glass or stereoscopic microscope. Count them as total or under various taxonomic groupings and calculate the abundance of the organisms per unit area as per the following equation.
n = Number of macroorganism per sampled area a = Area of Ekman dredge or area of tube sampler h = Number of hauls constituting a sample Volumetric Method: Blot dry the sample organisms with the help of filter paper and segregate them into taxonomic groupings. Transfer them to tubes calibrated at 1 ml intervals and add water from a burette drop by drop till the organisme is fully submerged in the water. Substract the amount of water added from the burette, from the test tube reading which will give the volume of benthic organism. Compute the volume of benthic macro-organism per m 2 as a whole or individual groupwise with the help of the following formula.
v = volume of macro-organisms/ sample a = area of the Ekman's dredge/ area of the glass tube sampler h = number of hauls constituting a sample. Gravimetric Method: Blot dry the samples group-wise on filter paper Weigh them in a sensitive balance (wet weight) Dry the above samples in an oven at 6080C to get dry weight (Exclude the shell weight of the molluscs) The wet weight and dry weight of the benthos are expressed in g/m 2 . APPENDIX V
Fish Health Examination Records

Case No.: Locality: Salient features of the water body: Length 1 mm: Condition: Fresh Spoiled External examination: Look: Colouration: Check for cysts, Body: Fins: Scales: Operculum: Eyes: Mouth cavity: Gills: Microscopic examination: Check for cysts, Spores, abnormality, Mucous/Scales Fins Gills Liver Kidney Spleen Intestine Muscles Eye parasite, lesions, etc. bacteria inflamation Emaciated Normal Other if any spots, parasite Healthy Deeply pigmented lesions, and abnormality if any haemorrhages Refrigerated Weight(g): Frozen Fixed Date:
APPENDIX VI
DISEASE 1
A. Bacterial diseases: 1. Columnaris disease
Common Diseases, Their Symptoms and Treatment Measures CAUSATIVE COMMON SYMPTOMS TREATMENT MEASURES AGENT 2 3 4
Flexibacter columnaris
Discoloured patches on the body, sloughing off of scales, erosion of gill lamellae, etc.
Copper sulphate 1 minute dip in 500 ppm solution 0.252 ppm in pond treat ment depending upon hardness of water. Hard water requires more. Potassium permanganate 1 minute dip in 500 ppm solution; 35 ppm in pond treatment depending upon organic content. Organic rich water requires more. Penicillin + Streptomycin Injection for brood stock at 3040 mg of streptomycin and 20 000 i.u. of penicillin/ kg body weight prevents stress mediated outbreaks. Terramycin (oxytetracycline) orally with feed at 7.5 g/100 kg/ day for 1012 days.
2. Bacteremia (Haemorrhagic septicaemia)
Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas
Shallow ulcerations, haemorrages and in Overcrowding, warmer conditions and oxygen severe cases the abdomen is swollen and depletion are some of the contributing conditions to the scales protrude. Internally the body be avoided. Terramycin (oxytetracycline) with feed
fluorescens and possibly others
cavity is filled with opaque fluid, paling of liver and sometimes heamorrhages over swim bladder.
at 7.5 g/100 kg body weight/day for 1012 days. Furaxolidone at 57.5 g/100 kg body weight/day for 23 weeks. Pond treatment at 35 ppm of potassium permanganate is also a practical approach. Dip in treatment of 3% common salt solution or in 500 ppm copper sulphate solution or in 5001 000 ppm of potassium permanganate solution till the first sign of any distress. Swabbing with 10 000 ppm of potassium dichromate is also recommended. Improvement in water quality, avoidance of over feeding, manuring, decreasing organic level in the pond, addition of freshwater together with treatment measures suggested above are quite effective. Draining and liming the pond or treatment with bleaching powder is essential before initiating the next culture operation.
B. Fungal diseases 1. Saprolegniosis Saprolegnia spp. Ulceration or exfoliation of the skin, fin erosion, exposure of muscles and jaw bones and in some cases tufts of minute white hair like outgrowths may occur in the affected regions. Characterized by necrosis in the gill due to intravascular growth of this fungus. Histologically hyperplasia, fusing of gill lamellae and areas of acute necrosis are seen.
2. Branchiomycosis Branchiomyces spp
C. Parasitic diseases: 1. Protozoan diseases 1.1 Ichthyophthiriasis Ichthyophthirius sp. (white spot disease) Presence of pin point size numerous white spots on the body, fins, gills, etc. The parasite can be observed in skin smear by its round ciliated body and horseshoe shaped nucleus. The disease is common in nursery and rearring pond causing large scale mortality. Mixture of malachite green and formalin at several concentrations are very effective. 0.05 ppm of malachite green and 2550 ppm of formalin can be used as prolonged bath. Spraying the entire pond area with malachite green at 0.15 ppm is very effective provided that 3 such applications are made at 3 days intervals. Application of quick lime (CaO) at higher rate in the pond is also very effective. Several other antiprotozoan drugs are also in use against this disease. Bathing in 12% solution of sodium chloride, 150 250 ppm of formalin, 0.25 ppm of malachite green are very effective measures. Affected ponds should be disinfected before next stocking.
1.2 Trichodinosis
Trichodina sp.
Discolouration of the body, presence of thick mucous coat on the affected surface, frayed fins and gills are some of the common characteristics. Smear from gills and skin readily exhibits parasites with radial ciliary band and central denticles. Presence of white cysts of varying diameters on the body, fins, gills, opercula, etc. In some cases, emaciation, dark colouration together with presence of cysts and spores in kidney tissues without showing external cysts.
1.3 Myxosporodiosis Myxosporidian sp.
Infected fish should be immediately removed from the pond. Before inititing the next culture operation the pond should be dried if possible and/or thoroughly disinfected with bleaching powder at 50 ppm. Provision of settling tank before the water intake in the pond also reduces the risk of infection. Bath in 100250 ppm of formalin ranging from 1 to 3 hours, is very effective. Dip in 25% salt solution till the first sign of distress is equally beneficial. Bath or pond treatment with some soft organophosphorus insecticide is also equally effective. Fish exhibiting black spots may be given an hour bath in 10 ppm picric acid solution. Removal of aquatic snails and preventing the entry of birds are some of the preventive measures. Infection does not spread from fish to fish and hence it is not worth treating uninfected stock. Benzene hexachloride application in pond at 0.02 ppm a second subsequent treatment after a week. Affected fish should also be given dip in 5001 000 ppm potassium permanganate solution which helps in avoiding secondary infection as well as accelerate the healing process. Malathion at 0.25 ppm in pond also effectively controls the infection. Malathion also required a second treatment after a week interval. Baths in concentrated solution of salt and potassium permanganate is reported to be effective. However, the author has found very little improvement by potassium permanganate treatment. Juveniles are embeded in the skin and hence remain unaffected. Chlorophos a Diptrex or Neguvan when applied in the pond at 0.25 ppm kills all the parasite. Bromex
2. Metazoan disease 2.1 Monogenetic trematode infection Gyrodactylus sp. Heavily infected fish show increased and Dactylogyrus production of mucous, frayed fins, skin sp. ulcers and damaged gills. Microscopic observation of the skin lesion/smear and temporary mount of a portion of gill show the presence of the parasites. Diplostomum sp. Development of small black or brown spots on several parts of the body and fins. Specific locations are cutis and under lying muscles. Microscopic examination and dissection helps in locating rolled up and slowly moving worms embedded in the connective tissue. Argulus sp. Development of haemorrhagic patches over the body and presence of the parasite in large number in and around the lesion.
2.2 Black spot disease
2.3 Argulosis
2.4 Leraeasis
Lernaea sp.
Anaemia, severe ulcerations and presence of attached cylindrical parasite of 1 to 2 cm length hanging outside. Sometimes cause mass mortality in carp nursery and rearing ponds.
completely cures the infection when applied at 0.15 ppm. 2.5 Leech infection Piscicola sp. Relatively they are not dangerous. They affect the fish by their attachment and feeding. Area of attachment normally exhibit excessive mucous production, hyperaemia and petechial haemorrages. Inflamation and epithelial hyperplasia extending through the dermis may be observed. Open wounds are often infected by bacteria and fungi. Attacked fish show attached parasite, irritation and restlesness. They may attempt to rub against objects. Removal of aquatic vegetation and maintenance of pond hygene is the most important preventive measure. Hard objects such stones, logs, etc. should also be removed. Disinfection of pond with unslaked lime at 2 5003 000 kg/ha should be done prior to next rearing operation. Short bath in 35% salt solution is also very effective treatment. Dip in 1 000 ppm acetic acid or 10 000 ppm in potassium permanganate solution are also quite effective measures. Organophosphorus insecticides as described in earlier cases can also be used.
APPENDIX VII Book Keeping Book keeping is the core of fish farm management which records all aspects of fish farm operations and enable the fish farmer/farm manager or the extension officer to understand the economics of the pond/farm operation, provide information for planning developmental projects and better services for fish farmers, and also to provide necessary ground to get funding support from financial institutions. The book-keeping system has the following two major aspects of recording: A. Account keeping B. Operational activities A simplified form of this system is described which can be used by fish farmers/fish farm managers and extension workers. A. Account Keeping Maintain 2 thick bound registers one as Cash Book (CB) and the other as Ledger Book (LB). Number the pages in Cash Book keeping the same page number for both right and left facing pages. Keep left pages for receipts and right pages for payments. Calculate closing balance (CB) for the day which will become opening balance (OB) for the following day. Number all pages of the Ledger Book (LB) and keep at least one page for each item as shown by giving examples of 8 pages. Number of pages for each item depends on the extent of recurring expenditures or receipts under that head. Accordingly, enough page space should be kept under that head so that it may cover a period of 1 year. Enter the details of receipts and payments on daily basis in both of these registers. To analyse the performance of individual sector or a particular pond of the farm, pond-wise or sectorwise separate entries should be made in the ledger book and in such cases separate pages should also be provided for each pond. For example, for fish sale, there should be separate pages for each pond. Accordingly, entries should be made under fish sale of pond No. 1 or Fish sale of pond No. 2, etc. This will give a complete record of everything you spend and any money you receive. 1. Cash Book (CB) Receipts always on left page of the Cash Book
Receipts Date
7.1.1987 Capital Acct. Received loan money from the State Bank of India, Bhubaneswar 8.1.1987 Opening balance (OB) Sale proceeds (fish) Received towards sale of 100 kg of unwanted fish at US$ 1.50/kg after bleaching powder 2 application Sale proceeds fingerlings Received towards sale of 50 000 fingerlings of catla at US$ 200/1 000 9.1.1987 Opening balance 3 1
Particulars of receipts
Ledger Book Page No.
Page 1/L Amount (US$)

2 500.00 2 500.00 1 000.00
150.00
10 000.00 11 150.00 2 106.00
Payments always on right page of the Cash Book
Payments Date
7.1.1987
Particulars of expenditure
Pond Construction Construction of one nursery pond Maintenance of Pond Repair of dyke of stocking pond No.7
Ledger Book page No.

4 5 Total: Closing balance
Page 1/R Amount (US$)

1 000.00 500.00 1 500.00 1 000.00 2 500.00
8.1.1987
Labour Charge 2 labourers for pond poisoning at US$ 20.00 per labourer/day Piscicide 100 kg of bleaching powder at US$ 4.00/kg Total: Closing balance 7 400.00 440.00 2 106.00 2 506.00 6 40.00
2. Ledger Book (LB)
Capital Date
7.1.87
Particulars
Loan money from State Bank of India, Bhubaneswar Branch 1
Page 1 CB page No. Page 2 CB page No.

1
Debit Amount (US$)
Credit Amount (US$)

2 500.00
Fish Sale Date

8.1.87
Particulars
100 kg of unwanted fish sold at US$ 1.50/kg
Debit Amount (US$)
Credit Amount (US$)

150.00
Ledger Book (LB)
Fry Sale Date

8.1.87
Particulars
Sale of 50 000 catla fingerlings at 200/1 000 US$ 1
CB page No.
Page 3 Debit Amount (US$)
Credit Amount (US$)

10 000.00
Pond construction Date Particulars

1
Page 4 CB page No.
Debit Amount (US$)

1 000.00
Credit Amount (US$)
7.1.87 Construction of one nursery pond
Ledger Book (LB)
Maintenance of pond Date Particulars Maintenance of pond Date

8.1.87
Page 5 CB page Debit Amount Credit Amount No. (US$) (US$)

1 500.00
7.1.87 Repair of pond dyke of stocking pond No. 7
Particulars
2 labourers for application of bleaching powder for pond poisoning at US$ 20.00 per labourer
Page 6 CB page Debit Amount Credit Amount No. (US$) (US$)

1 40.00
Ledger Book (LB)
Date
Piscicide Particulars
Page 7 CB page No. Debit Amount (US$) Credit Amount (US$)
8.1.87 100 kg of bleaching powder e US$ 4.00/kg
400.00
Date
Item Present
Fish Feed Particulars
Page 8 CB page No. Debit Amount (US$) Credit Amount (US$)

Expected Annual Monthly
3. Annual Balance Sheet An Annual Balance Sheet form should be prepared after a year of farm/pond operation which will show how much is earned and what the fish farm is worth. It makes a summary of everything that has been recorded in cash book (CB) and ledger book (LB). Make total of every item in the LB and put it in the Annual Balance Sheet. If required Monthly Balance Sheet can also be prepared taking monthly total of every item, from the LB. 4. Depreciation Cost Depreciation cost is the amount of value an expensive item loses every year and this amount one must keep aside to replace the item when it is worn out. To work out depreciation cost for any item, for example a pump set, one should consider the following two aspects: i. What would be its expected life? Say 10 years ii. What is the present value? For each such item put these two figures in respective column in the following form and calculate annual or monthly depreciation cost.
Item (Asset)
Pump set Net
Present cost
$ 1 000 $ 500
Expected life
10 years 6 years
Annual depreciation
$ 100 $ 83.3
Monthly depreciation
$ 8.33 $ 6.94
1.3 Annual Balance Sheet YEAR
Month
Cost of Production
Sales Income
Pond/farm Maintainance Labour Fish Fish Spares Total Fish Piscicide Total construction of pond/farm charges seed feed etc. Fish seed
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Net Income*
* Net Income = Sales Income - Cost of Production
5. Loan Accounting A separate loan record sheet should also be maintained if the farmer has taken any loan for fish farming. For example, if the farmer has taken a loan of $ 500 from the Government for pond construction and that has to be repaid in 10 years with an annual interest rate of 10%, with the assistance of the Extension Officer, the fish farmer should keep a record of his loan repayment. The interest paid on the loan should be regarded as a production cost and should be taken into consideration in calculating the net income of the fish farming operation. A simple loan record sheet is given below:
Loan 1 State Bank of India
Loan 2 Bank of India,
Source:
Date Amount Period of repayment Annual rate of interest
Muzaffarpur
Source:
Date Amount Period of repayment Annual rate of interest
Muzaffarpur
Date
Total:
Repayment Detail Interest Loan Loan Date Payment Repayment Outstanding
Repayment Detail Interest Loan Loan Payment Repayment Outstanding
B. Operational Activities Aspects pertaining to the description of the ponds/farm, plan of work, operational activities such as prestocking, stocking and poststocking operations, monthly sampling details, harvesting, induced breeding, fish seed rearing, etc. should also be recorded. Formats, with examples, for recording such activities are presented hereunder. 1. Pond Description
POND NO. DESCRIPTION Age(years Nature of earlier operations if any Average annual Production rate Pond area (m 2 ) Water depth (m) Sediment depth (cm) Water source 1 5 Composite fish culture 5 500 kg/ha 2 000 2.5 15 Irrigation canal 2 4 Culture of 3 Indian major carps 3 400 kg/ha 3 000 1.5 10 Rain 200 0.7 8 Rain 3 1/2 Rearing of fish seed
2. Farming plan:
POND NO. FARMING PLAN Type of farming Species Stocking density Manuring Feeding Period of rearing 1 Composite fish culture Catla, rohu, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, common carp 6 000/ha Cowdung Fish feed 12 months 2 Fish seed rearing Silver carp, grass carp, 6 million/ha Poultry manure Micro-encapsulated feed 3 weeks
3. Pre-stocking operations:
POND NO. OPERATIONS

1. Pond clearing
1
Weed clearing using manual method
2
Weed clearing using weedicides Poisoning-1 125 kg of mahua oil cake at 250 ppm 60 kg of lime at 200 kg/ha
Poisoning-250 kg of bleaching powder applied in the pond 2. Eradication of unwanted fish at 50 ppm 3. Liming 4. Organic manuring
4. Stocking details:
POND NO. STOCKING DETAILS

1. Date of stocking 2. Species stocked 3. Stocking density 4. Number stocked 5. Species ratio 15.11.86
1
10.10.86 R, C, R, M 5 000/ha 1 500 Catla (C), rohu (R), Mrigal (M), Silver carp (S) , Grass carp (G), Common carp (CC) 6 000/ha 1 200 C 2; R 3; M 1.5; S 1.5; G 0.5; CC 1.5
C 4; R 3; M 3
6. Seed treatment 7. Average weight (g)
Short bath in potassium permanganate solution C-50; R-60; M-50; S-40; G-50; CC-30
Short bath in 2% salt solution C-50; R-60; M-50
5. Post-stocking operations: POND NO.
MONTH OPERATIONS
Organic manuring Liming Inorganic fertilizer Feeding Medication
November
December
October
6. Monthly sampling details (growth):
DATE SPECIES
Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp Common carp 50/10 40/8 30/8 35/15 42/16 48/18
1.12.86 A/B
70/20 60/20 48/18 55/20 60/18 65/17
2.1.87 A/B
7. Standing crop of fish (estimation) POND NO. 1 MONTH: DECEMBER 1986
Species
Catla Rohu Mrigal Silver carp Grass carp Common carp Total 150 140 130 185 190 90
Av. Wt. attained (g)
No. stocked
240 360 180 180 60 180 1 200 -
Mortality
10
Total weight (kg)

34.5 50.4 23.4 33.3 11.4 15.3 168.3
10 20
8. Harvesting details (Table size fish production): POND NO. POND SIZE: DATE:
SPECIES DETAILS
No. stocked No. harvested Survival (%) Average weight (g) Total weight (kg) Species Contribution %
Catla Rohu Mrigal
Silver carp
Grass carp
Common carp
Total
Gross Production (Kg) = Total weight of harvest (Kg) Net Production (Kg) = Gross production (Kg) - Initial stocking weight (Kg)
9. Harvesting details (Fish seed rearing):
POND NO. Period of rearing (days) Species No. harvested Survival % Av. Wt. (g) Remarks
10. Induced breeding:
Inducing agent Weight Dose DATE Species (g) (mg/kg) Male Female
Sets attempted (No.)
Spawning success (%)
Estimated No. Remarks of spawn
APPENDIX VIII Essential Items for a Farm (Self Sufficient 5 ha Unit) A. Table size fish farming sector:
1. Nylon seive net pieces with head rope, foot rope, sinkers and floats. 40 mm meshed (10 m 6 m) - 10 pieces 20 mm meshed (10 m 6 m) - 10 pieces (Mesh size should be measured knot to knot diagonally) 2. Hand net (Scoop net) of 25 mm mesh Nylon material with aluminium/cane framing open at both ends - 5 closed at distal end - 5 3. Spring balances of the following capacities: 1 kg 2 Dial type 5 kg 2 Dial type 20 kg 2 4. Plastic buckets with lids of the following capacities: 2l6 5l6 12 l 6 25 l 2 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Plastic or enamel trays - 6 Plastic tub/galvanized iron sheet tub/ fibreglass circular tank- 5 Spade Bottom raker Sickle Pick-axe Grass cutting knives Crowbar Hammer Rope of various sizes Torches (3 celled) 5 HP diesel pump set with generator set attachment option Generator set to be driven by 5 HP diesel engine Small boat Mini tractor with trailer Bamboo hanger for drying -5 -2 -6 -2 -6 -4 -2 - 1 roll each -4 -1 -1 -1 -1
the net 21. 22. Cane baskets Anti-poaching devices: - Unfinished bamboo - Bamboo poles - Barbed wire 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Nylon twine (assorted size) Conditioning hapa (cotton) Towels Bamboo baskets (50 kg capacity) 200 kg capacity balance with tripod stand and set of weights Spare gunny bags Umbrella Rain coat Gum boot Fish measuring board Feeding tray (galvanized iron sheet) (50 cm 100 cm 15 cm) Mini tractor operated compressor
-1 - 10 - 100 - 200 - 5 rolls - 1 kg - 10 -4 - 10 -1 - 20 -4 -6 - 6 pairs -2 - 20 -1
B. Fish Seed Production Sector: In addition to the items listed under A, the following items are also needed.
1. Nylon seive net pieces complete with head rope, foot rope, sinkers and floats 1.5 mm meshed (10 m 5 m ) 3 mm 4 mm meshed (10 m 5 m) 2. Hand net (scoop net) with opening at both ends and having a thick twine at the distal end for tying. 25 mm meshed nylon netting 3 mm 4 mm meshed nylon/cotton netting 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Canvas strechers with provision of net cover for brood fish transport in the farm Nylon breeding hapa Nylon hatching hapa: Outer Inner Bamboo poles Jute or cotton twine Cheesecloth for holding brood fish Plastic buckets graduated 1l 5l 12 l 10. Plastic/enamel mug graduated 11. Enamel tray 12. Enamel basins 35 1 capacity 13. Feathers 14. Folding work table 15. Folding chairs 16. Set of dissection instruments 17. Centrifuge machine (hand operated) 18. Centrifuge tubes graduated 19. Petridishes (assortment) 20. Dropper with long nozzle 21. Tissue homogenizer 22. Beaker - 50 ml capacity 100 ml capacity 250 ml capacity 23. Clean homoeopathic tube with stopper 24. Hypodermic syringes - 2 cc capacity 5 cc capacity 25. Hypodermic needles No. 20 - 12 - 10 - 10 - 10 -6 - 10 - 10 - 50 -1 -4 -2 -1 - 20 - 20 - 20 -5 - 10 - 10 - 10 - 200 -5 -5 - 12 -5 -2 - 10 - 100 - 50 - 150 - 2 kg -5m -2 -5
No. 21 No. 22 26. Pituitary gland 27. Absolute alcohol 28. Distilled water (sterile) 29. Spawn measuring cup 10, 25, 50 ml capacity 30. Strainer cup for measuring fry 100 ml, 500 ml 31. Oxygen cylinder with regulator pressure gauge and dry oxygen gas 32. Plastic bags/cylindrical rolls thickness 0.3 - 0.5 mm circumference 100150 mm 33. Thermometer (050C) 34. Brushes for cleaning metal, plastic, glass appliances (assorted sizes) 35. Stereoscopic microscope with stage lightning 36. High power hand lense 37. Cotton twine for tying the oxygen packed bags 38. Butcher's knife 39. Acetone 40. Desicator with silica gel 41. Porcelain pestle and mortar (510 cm dia) 42. Widemouth bottle with glass stoppers 43. Cotton wool 44. Rubber cushion (60 cm 40 cm 5 mm) 45. Cathetors (2.5 mm dia)
- 12 - 12 - 1 000 nos. (10 000 mg) - 450 ml 2 - 200 ampoules - 1 each - 2 each -2 - 10 rolls/5 000 nos. -2 - 20 -1 -1 - 5 kg -2 - 450 ml 2 -2 -2 - 10 - 2 kg -2 -2
C. Piscicides, feeds, manures and fertilizers Bleaching powder/mahua oil cake Rice polish Groundnut/mustard oil/soyabean cake Mineral mixture Fish meal Raw cow dung/poultry manure/pig dung Urea Ammonium sulphate Super phosphate Muriate of potash Lime To avoid storage loss of nutrients and spoilage, it is desirable to buy the items on regular basis. The selection of items also depends upon the local availability and relative market prices. However, the store should have sufficient amount of ready stock of these items so that they may last for 34 weeks. C. Medicine Chest
Sodium choride (common salt) Copper sulphate Potassium permanganate Organophosphate insecticide (Malathion/Somithion) Benzenehexachloride (BHC) wettable powder Formaldehyde (formalin) Acetic acid (glacial) Quick lime Bleaching powder (sodium hupochlorite) Oxytetracycline Penicillin Streptomycin - 5 kg - 5 kg - 500 g 10 -1l5 - 500 g 10 packs - 10 l 1 - 500 ml 10 - 50 kg 5 packs - 25 kg 10 bags - 100 g 10 - 10 vials - 10 vials
Malachite green (zinc free salt)
- 10 g 5

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FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER 325
Fish culture in undrainable ponds A manual for extension

TABLE OF CONTENTS
by Dilip Kumar Central Institute of Fisheries Education Indian Council of Agricultural Research Versova, Bombay, India The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. M-44 ISBN 92-5-103139-8 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, FAO
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

This document has been prepared within the framework of the Regular Programme activities of the Inland Water Resources and Aquaculture Service of the Fishery Resources and Environment Division. The primary objective of this document is to assist extension workers and other field personnel engaged in fish culture in undrainable ponds to increase production through the application of improved culture
technology. The original manuscript was prepared by Mr. Dilip Kumar of the Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay, India, based on the Indian experience of fish culture in undrainable ponds, and it was edited by Mr. P.C. Choudhury. It is hoped that this manual will be useful to extension workers and fish farmers in areas where fish ponds are not drainable.
Kumar, D. Fish culture in undrainable ponds. A manual for extension. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 325. Rome, FAO, 1992. 239 p. ABSTRACT This manual deals with the methods of freshwater fish culture in undrainable ponds as practised in India. The manual is primarily meant for extension workers and aquaculture training institutions. It outlines the basic principles of fish culture and the characteristics of undrainable ponds. The systems of composite carp culture and composite carp culture-livestock farming have been described. Methods of improvement of existing ponds and construction of new ponds have been included. The suitable species for culture, procurement of their seed, stocking ratios of various species under composite culture, etc., have been discussed. Pond management, both pre-stocking and post-stocking, including fish health management and management of common hazards have been dealt with. It also contains information on marketing and economics of fish culture in undrainable ponds.
Distribution: FAO Fisheries Department Inland Waters - General FAO Regional Fisheries Officers Author
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere gratitude is expressed to the Fisheries Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for suggesting and sponsoring the preparation of this manual and to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, for kindly permitting me to take up this job. The author is indebted to Drs. R.M. Acharya, P.V. Dehadrai, and M.Y. Kamal, ICAR Headquarters, New Delhi, who were instrumental in obtaining this permission. Sincere support, encouragement, valuable guidance and never-ending help is extended to Drs. V.R.P.Sinha, S.D. Tripathi, and A.G. Jhingran. The author extends his heartfelt thanks to Dr.N.G.S. Rao, Mr. M. Ranadhir, Mr. H.A. Khan, Mr. B.B. Satpathy and Dr. B.N. Singh for critically going through the relevant chapters of the manuscript. Finally, he is glad to acknowledge the tremendous help provided by his colleagues Mr. Kuldeep Kumar, Dr.S.K.Sarkar, Mr. C.D. Sahoo, Dr. S.N. Mohanty, Dr. N. Sarangi, Mr. M.S.Tantia, Mr. R.K.Dey, Mr. A.K. Sahoo, Mr.S. Ayyappan, Mr. C.S. Purushothaman, Dr. K. Jankiram, Mr. D. Narayanswamy, Mr. B.K. Mishra, Mr. Radheyshyam, Sri P. Jena, Sri R.C. Behera and at the end he also wishes to express his sincere thanks to his parents, wife and family members who gave their total support. Hyperlinks to non-FAO Internet sites do not imply any official endorsement of or responsibility for the opinions, ideas, data or products presented at these locations, or guarantee the validity of the information provided. The sole purpose of links to non-FAO sites is to indicate further information available on related topics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fish as food
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3. 3.1
3.2 4. 4.1 4.2
4.3 4.4 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6. 6.1
6.2
6.3
High multiplication capacity and minimal water requirement Low energy requirement for protein production Warm water favours fish growth Aquaculture production potential Employment potential PRINCIPLES OF FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE Pond ecosystem Oxygen budget Desirable fish species for culture Living space Supplementary feeding Pond fertility Diseases and their control CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDRAINABLE AND DRAINABLE PONDS Undrainable ponds 3.1.1 General morphometry 3.1.2 Physico-chemical environment 3.1.3 Community structure and function Drainable ponds PRESENT PRACTICES OF FISH CULTURE IN PONDS Carp culture Integrated carp farming 4.2.1 Integrated fish-pig farming 4.2.2 Integrated fish-duck farming 4.2.3 Integrated fish-poultry farming Air-breathing fish culture Sewage-fed fish culture RENOVATION OF EXISTING PONDS When to take up the renovation work Deweeding Dewatering and drying Contouring Desilting Reclamation of derelict water bodies Maintenance of dykes CONSTRUCTION OF NEW PONDS AND FARMS Site selection 6.1.1 Topography 6.1.2 Source of water and its quality 6.1.3 Soil type Designing 6.2.1 Water area ratio among pond types 6.2.2 Dyke Construction 6.3.1 Time of construction 6.3.2 Preparation of site 6.3.3 Marking the outlines
6.4 7. 7.1 7.2
8. 8.1
8.2
8.3
9. 9.1
9.2
9.3
10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5
6.3.4 Pre-excavation work 6.3.5 Pond excavation and construction of dykes 6.3.6 Water inlet structure Maintenance FISH SPECIES SUITABLE FOR CULTURE IN PONDS Criteria for selection of suitable fish species Fish species suitable for culture in undrainable ponds 7.2.1 Catla 7.2.2 Rohu 7.2.3 Mrigal 7.2.4 Silver carp 7.2.5 Grass carp 7.2.6 Common carp PROCUREMENT OF INPUTS Procurement of seed 8.1.1 Collection of spawn from riverine sources 8.1.2 Bundh breeding 8.1.3 Induced spawning by hypophysation 8.1.4 Production of common carp seed Feed 8.2.1 Natural food 8.2.2 Supplementary feed Fertilizers 8.3.1 Organic manures 8.3.2 Inorganic fertilizers POND MANAGEMENT Pre-stocking management 9.1.1 Eradication and control of aquatic weeds and algae 9.1.2 Eradication of unwanted fish 9.1.3 Eradication of predatory insects 9.1.4 Fertilization of ponds Stocking 9.2.1 Stocking of nursery ponds 9.2.2 Stocking of rearing ponds 9.2.3 Stocking of growout/stocking ponds 9.2.4 Method of stocking Post-stocking management 9.3.1 Feeding 9.3.2 Periodic fertilization 9.3.3 Pond environmental monitoring 9.3.4 Fish health monitoring MANAGEMENT OF COMMON HAZARDS Deficiency of dissolved oxygen Appearance of algal blooms Common carp problem Problem of no rain and plenty of rain Problem of predation
10.6 Poaching 10.7 Leakages in embankment 10.8 Outbreak of diseases 10.8.1 General considerations 10.8.2 Common diseases 10.8.3 Therapy of fish diseases 11. HARVESTING 11.1 Harvesting in nursery ponds 11.2 Harvesting in rearing ponds 11.3 Harvesting in growout ponds 11.3.1 Complete harvesting 11.3.2 Partial harvesting 11.4 Application of proper gear 11.5 Precautions 12. TRANSPORT AND MARKETING 12.1 Transport of fresh fish 12.2 Transport of live fish 12.2.1 Conditioning and preparation for transport 12.2.2 Open system of transport 12.2.3 Closed system of transport 12.2.4 Drugs and chemical aids 12.3 Marketing 12.3.1 Market potential 12.3.2 Marketing of table-size fish 12.3.3 Marketing of fish seed 13. ECONOMICS OF CULTURE OPERATIONS 13.1 Raising of fry 13.2 Raising of fingerlings 13.3 Raising of table-size fish 14. AQUACULTURE EXTENSION 14.1 Objective 14.2 Launching aquaculture extension programme 14.2.1 Programme planning 14.2.2 Programme implementation 14.2.3 Programme evaluation 14.3 Important considerations 15. REFERENCES APPENDICES

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Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER 325

Fish culture in undrainable ponds A manual for extension

PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT

3.2 4. 4.1 4.2

6.4 7. 7.1 7.2

10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

1.1 Fish as Food

1.2 High Multiplication Capacity and Minimal Water Requirement

1.3 Low Energy Requirement for Protein Production

1.4 Warm Water favours Fish Growth

1.5 Aquaculture Production Potential

1.6 Employment Potential

Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

2. PRINCIPLES OF FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE

2.1 Pond ecosystem

Figure 1. Pond Ecosystem

Solubility of oxygen (mg/l)

2.2 Oxygen budget

Figure 3. Oxygen Cycle in Pond

Figure 4. Effect of Algal Bloom on Oxygen Production

Figure 5. Dial Oxygen Production/Consumption Pattern under Algal Bloom/Weed Infestation

Figure 6. Relation between Stocking Density and Production

2.3 Desirable fish species for culture

2.4 Living space

2.5 Supplementary feeding

2.6 Pond fertility

2.7 Diseases and their control

Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDRAINABLE AND DRAINABLE PONDS

3.1 Undrainable ponds

3.1.1 General morphometry

3.1.2 Physico-chemical environment

3.1.3 Community structure and function

3.2 Drainable ponds

Figure 7. Microbial Decomposition Process at the Sediment - Water Interface

Figure 8a. Well Managed Pond

Figure 8b. Badly Managed Pond

Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

4. PRESENT PRACTICES OF FISH CULTURE IN PONDS

4.2 Integrated carp farming

4.2.1 Integrated fish - pig farming

4.2.2 Integrated fish - duck farming

Figure 9a. Fish-cum-pig farming (wooden pigsty)

Figure 9b. Fish-cum-pig farming (concrete pigsty)

Figure 10a. Fish-cum-duck farming (duck house in pond)

Figure 10b. Fish-cum-duck farming (duck house in pond dyke)

4.2.3 Integrated fish - poultry farming

4.3 Air-breathing fish culture

4.4 Sewage-fed fish culture

Produced by: Fisheries and Aquaculture

Title: Fish Culture in undrainable ponds - A manual for extension...

5. RENOVATION OF EXISTING PONDS

5.1 When to take up the renovation work

5.3 Dewatering and drying

Figure 11. Drained-out pond with furrows

5.6 Reclamation of derelict water bodies