Part 5 Photography

INDEX Sl. No Topic Page No 1 Role of Different Elements involved in Photography 3 2 Overview of Photographic Process 25 3 Role of Photography and Photographer in Communication 26 4 Photographic Significance of Light 29 5 Nature and General Properties of light and Image Formation 31 6 Pinhole and Box Camera 34 7 SLR Camera 37 8 Digital Camera 42 9 Camera Lens 48 10 Aperture 53 11 Shutter Speed 58 12 Focusing 61 13 Incident and reflected light 68 14 Average and Non-average scene of light and converting to exposure 68 15 Exposure 69

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION AND ELEMENTS Photographic composition is the pleasing arrangement of subject matter elements within the picture area. When we look at a scene we selectively see only the important elements and more or less ignore the rest. A camera, on the other hand, sees all the details within the field of view. This is the reason some of our pictures are often disappointing. Good pictures are seldom created by chance. To make the most of any subject, you

must understand the basic principles of composition. The way you arrange the elements of a scene within a picture, catch the viewers attention, please the eye, or make a clear statement are all qualities of good composition. By developing photographic composition skills, you can produce photographs that suggest movement, life, depth, shape, and form, recreating the impact of the original scene. How are photographic composition skills developed? You look, you study, you practice. Every time you take a picture, look all around within the viewfinder. Consider the way each element will be recorded and how it relates to the overall composition. You must become thoroughly familiar with the camera and learn how the operation of each control alters the image. Experiment with the camera and look at the results carefully to see if they meet your expectations. With experience and knowledge of your equipment, you begin to "think through your camera" so you are free to concentrate on composition. Devote serious study to the principles of good composition. Study books and magazine articles on composition. You should analyze various media: motion pictures, TV, magazines, books and newspapers, and evaluate what you see. What is good about this picture or that TV image? What is bad about it? What principles of good composition could you apply in a different way to make the picture better? Good or correct composition is impossible to define precisely. There are no hardand-fast rules to follow that ensure good composition in every photograph. There are only the principles and elements that provide a means of achieving pleasing composition when applied properly. Some of these principles and elements are as follows: Center of interest Subject placement Simplicity Viewpoint and camera angle Balance Shapes and lines Pattern Volume Lighting Texture Tone Contrast Framing Foreground

 Background Perspective As you study these principles of composition, you should soon come to a realization that some are very similar and overlap one another a great deal. The principles of composition that follow apply equally to both still and motion media photography. CENTER OF INTEREST Each picture should have only one principal idea, topic, or center of interest to which the viewer's eyes are attracted. Subordinate elements within the picture must support and focus attention on the principal feature so it alone is emphasized. A picture without a dominant center of interest or one with more than one dominant center of interest is puzzling to a viewer. Subsequently, the viewer becomes confused and wonders what the picture is all about. When the picture has one, and only one, dominant "point of interest," the viewer quickly understands the picture. When people are subordinate elements within the picture and they are looking in a direction other than at the camera, the viewers attention is directed from the people to what they are looking at, which should be the center of interest; for example, when people are grouped around a piece of machinery that is the center of interest of the picture, have them look at the machine, rather than the camera. SUBJECT PLACEMENT Sometimes good composition is obtained by placing the center of interest in the geometrical center of the picture; it is generally not a good idea to place it there. Too frequently it divides the picture into equal halves and makes the picture uninteresting and difficult to balance. By dividing the picture area into thirds, both vertically and horizontally, and locating the center of interest at one of the intersections of the imaginary lines, you can usually create a feeling of balance to the composition (Fig.5-5). In photographic composition there are two general guides for determining the best location for the center of interest. The first is the principle of thirds. The other is dynamic symmetry. In the principle of thirds, the intersection of lines that divide the picture area into thirds are marked by Os. These intersections are good locations for the center of interest in most photographs. Notice we said THE center of interest. Remember, have only one center of interest to a picture-keep it simple. The principle of dynamic symmetry is a similar idea. A good location for the center of interest is found by drawing or imagining a diagonal line from one corner to an opposite corner.

Then, draw a second line perpendicular to the first from a third corner (fig. 5-6). The intersections of the lines are the location for the center of interest. SIMPLICITY Simplicity is the key to most good pictures. The simpler and more direct a picture is, the clearer and stronger is the resulting statement. First, select a subject that lends itself to a simple arrangement; for example, instead of photographing an entire area that would confuse the viewer, frame in on some important element within the area. Second, select different viewpoints or camera angles. Look at the foreground and background. Try high and low angles as well as normal eye-level viewpoints. Be sure there is nothing in the background to distract the viewer's attention from the main point of the picture. Likewise, check to see there is nothing objectional in the foreground to block the entrance of the human eye into the picture. A last point of simplicity-tell only one story. Ensure there is only enough material in the picture to convey one single idea. Although each picture is composed of numerous small parts and contributing elements, none should attract more of the viewer's attention than the primary object of the picture. The primary object is the reason the picture is being made in the first place; therefore, all other elements should merely support and emphasize the main object. Do not allow the scene to be cluttered with confusing elements and lines that detract from the primary point of the picture. VIEWPOINT AND CAMERA ANGLE The proper viewpoint or camera angle is an important factor in good composition. Repositioning your subject within the viewfinder frame and changing the camera viewpoint or camera angle are two simple ways of controlling composition. Most of the subjects you photograph are three-dimensional and should be photographed from an angle (to the right or left of and/or from higher or lower than the subject) that allows the viewer to see more than one side of the subject. The photographer should study the subject from different sides and angles. This greatly assists in composing the subject for the best balance and helps to select a background that compliments, not distracts from the subject. Viewpoint is the camera position in relationship to the subject. They are of two types- Low viewpoint and high viewpoint. Camera angle is the angle in which the camera lens is tilted. Again, they are broadly classified into two categories- Low angle and High angle. Low Viewpoint and Low Camera Angle: A low viewpoint can be used to distort scale or add strength to a picture or to emphasize certain elements within the picture. A

low camera angle is achieved when the camera angle is located below the point of primary interest and pointed upward. Low angles tend to lend strength and dominance to a subject and dramatize the subject. Low angle shots are used when dramatic impact is desired. This type of shot is very useful for separating the subject from the background, for eliminating unwanted foreground and background, and for creating the illusion of greater size and speed (fig. 5-7). High Viewpoint and High Camera Angle: High viewpoints and high camera angles help orient the viewer, because they show relationships among all elements within the picture area and produce a psychological effect by minimizing the apparent strength or size of the subject (fig. 5-8). BALANCE Balance in photographic composition is a matter of making pictures look harmonious. Each element in a picture has a certain amount of value in respect to all the other elements. Every tone, mass, shape, tree, rock figure, building, line, or shadow contributes a certain amount of weight that must be arranged correctly in the composition to give the impression of balance. The subject placement within the picture area is the factor that must be carefully considered. Composition is kept in balance by two different methods: symmetrical, or formal, balance and asymmetrical, or informal, balance.

Symmetrical, or Formal, Balance : Symmetrical, or formal, balance in a photograph is achieved when elements on both sides of the picture are of equal weight (fig. 5-9A). Pictures with formal balance may look static and unexciting; however, they do present an air of dignity. Formal balance does not always mean a picture has to have the seesaw in perspective. The forces or weights are to be symmetrical. Asymmetrical, or Informal, Balance: Asymmetrical balance is introduced when the presumed weight of two or more lighter objects is equalized by a single heavier object placed on the other side of the imaginary pivot point (fig. 5-10). Asymmetrical balance is more difficult to achieve than symmetrical balance, because of the problem of establishing relative weight values for dissimilar elements within the picture area as well as presenting some form of stability.

Aspects of Balance There are many other factors to consider in order to make pictures appear balanced. Some of these are as follows: An object far from the center of the picture seems to have more weight than one near the center. Objects in the upperpart of a picture seem heavier than objects of the same size in the lower part of a picture. Isolation seems to increase the weight of an object. Intensely interesting objects seem to have more compositional weight. Regular shapes seem to have more weight than irregular shapes. Elements on the right side of an asymmetrical picture appear to have more weight than elements of the same size on the left side of the picture. The directions in which figures, lines, and shapes appear to be moving within the picture area are important to balance; for example, a person may be walking in a direction, or his eyes may be looking in a direction, or the shape of some element creates a feeling of movement. When the feeling of direction is present within a scene, it tends to upset the balance if judged on the size of the subject alone. SHAPES AND LINES Shapes and lines are important elements in photographic composition. When properly used, shapes and lines can create a desired effect. As a photographer, you usually have control over the way shapes and lines are used in your pictures. Shape is a two-dimensional element basic to picture composition and is usually the first means by which a viewer identifies an object within the picture. Form is the three-dimensional equivalent of shape. Even though shape is only two-dimensional, with the proper application of lighting and tonal range, you can bring out form and give your subjects a three-dimensional quality. Lighting can also subdue or even destroy form by causing dark shadows that may cause several shapes to merge into one. Shapes can be made more dominant by placing them against plain contrasting backgrounds; for example, consider again the white sail against the dark water background. The greatest emphasis of shape is achieved when the shape is silhouetted (fig. 5-11), thus eliminating other qualities of the shape, such as texture and roundness, or the illusion of the third dimension. Lines can be effective elements of composition, because they give structure to your photographs. Lines can unify composition by directing the viewer's eyes and attention to the main point of the picture or lead the eyes from one part of the picture

to another. Through linear perspective, lines can lend a sense of depth to a photograph. A good leading line is one that starts near the bottom corner of the scene and continues unbroken until it reaches the point of interest (fig. 5-12). Vertical, diagonal, horizontal, and curved lines create different moods. Vertical lines communicate a sense of strength, rigidity, power, and solidarity to the viewer. On the other hand, horizontal lines represent peace, tranquillity, and quietness. A generally accepted practice is to use a vertical format for pictures having predominantly vertical lines and horizontal format for pictures having predominantly horizontal lines. Again, this is a generally accepted practice, NOT a rule. PATTERN Creating your pictures around repeating elements or patterns provides picture unity and structure. Pattern repetition creates rhythm that the eyes enjoy following (fig. 515). Pattern can be used as the primary subject but is most often used as a subordinate element to enhance composition. When pattern is used as a supporting element, it must be used carefully so it does not confuse or overwhelm the viewer. Pictures that are purely pattern are seldom used, because they tend to be monotonous. Patterns should be used to strengthen and add interest to your subject. Shape is the most common and powerful pattern element. Repeated lines, tone, and color can also provide unity to your composition and combinations of these create interesting pictures. Triangles, squares, and circles are the basic shapes to look for in a pattern. Triangles and squares are usually static but can be placed to create a tension-filled, dynamic effect. Circles and curves are pleasing pattern shapes. VOLUME When photographing most subjects, you face the problem of how to symbolize threedimensional objects in a two-dimensional picture. The solution becomes simple when a distinction is made between the two different ways three-dimensional objects appear: as positive, or occupied space (volume) or as negative, or unoccupied space. For the best picture of the machine shop, you should light the machines in a way that the three-dimensional form is represented, while creating a sense of depth by reducing the intensity of illumination toward the back of the shop. LIGHTING Lighting is also an important creative element of composition. Light and shadows can be used in composition to create mood, to draw attention to an area, to modify or distort shape, or to bring out form and texture in the subject. Shadows are a key to apparent form in photographs. Without shadows, the subject

records without form, curvature, or texture appearing flat and lifeless. This does not mean that shadows must be harsh and black to achieve the effects of form, curvature, and texture. They may be soft, yet of sufficient density to show the most delicate roundness and form. When the lighting is harsh, such as on a clear, sunny day, shadows have sharply defined edges and are probably very dark, sometimes to the point that they appear stronger than the primary subject and attract attention to themselves. TEXTURE Texture helps to emphasize the features and details in a photograph. By capturing "texture" of objects being photographed, you can create form. When people observe a soft, furry object or a smooth, shining surface, they have a strong urge to touch it. You can provide much of the pleasure people get from the feel of touching such objects by rendering texture in your pictures. Texture can be used to give realism and character to a picture and may in itself be the subject of a photograph. When an area in a photograph shows rich texture, the textured area usually creates a form or shape; therefore, it should be considered in planning the photograph (fig. 5-16). TONE Tone is probably the most intangible element of composition. Tone may consist of shadings from white-to-gray-to-black, or it may consist of darks against lights with little or no grays. The use of dark areas against light areas is a common method of adding the feeling of a third dimension to a two-dimensional black-and-white picture. The interaction of light against dark shades in varying degrees helps to set the mood of a composition. A picture consisting of dark or somber shades conveys mystery, intrigue, or sadness. When the tones are mostly light and airy, the picture portrays lightness, joy, or airiness. CONTRAST Contrast in photographic composition is an effective means of directing the viewer's attention to the center of interest. Positioning of subject elements to create contrast gives them added emphasis and directs the viewer's attention. When we speak of contrast as it relates to composition, we are referring to both tonal contrast, as in black-and-white photography, and color contrast as it relates to color photography. In black-and-white photography, contrast is the difference in subject tones from white-to-gray-to-black or from the lightest tone to the darkest tone. In color photography different colors create contrast. Tonal Contrast: In black-and-white photography, contrast is considered either high,

normal, or low. A high-contrast scene or photograph consists primarily of white and black with few or no middle gray tones. A mine worker in sooty clothes against a light background is an example of a high-contrast (contrasty) scene. Most scenes you photograph have normal contrast. A low-contrast (flat) scene has colors or tones in which highlights and shadows have very little difference in densities. In black-and-white photography, high contrast conveys a sense of hardness and is characteristic of strength and power. Low contrast conveys a sense of softness and is characteristic of gentleness and mildness. Color Contrast: Color contrast is an effective compositional element in color photography, just as tone is in black-and-white photography. Colors with opposite characteristics contrast strongly when placed together. Each color accentuates the qualities of the other and makes the color images stand out dramatically. Color contrast is enhanced when you create the contrast of detail against mass. An example is a single, bright, red flower in a clear, glass vase photographed against a bright, green background. Cold colors (bluish) and warm colors (reddish) almost always contrast. Cold colors recede, while warm colors advance. Light colors contrast against dark ones, and a bold color offsets a weak color. FRAMING Framing is another technique photographers use to direct the viewer's attention to the primary subject of a picture. Positioned around the subject, a tree, an archway, or even people, for example, can create a frame within the picture area. Subjects enclosed by a frame become separated from the rest of the picture and are emphasized. An element used as a frame should not draw attention to itself. Ideally, the frame should relate to the theme of the picture; for example, a line of aircraft parked on the flight line framed by the wing and prop of another aircraft. Not only is framing an effective means of directing the viewer's attention, it can also be used to obscure undesirable foregrounds and backgrounds. The illusion of depth can be created in a picture by the effective use of framing (fig. 5-19). FOREGROUND A large percentage of otherwise good pictures is ruined, because they include unnecessary or distracting foreground. This common fault can result from the photographer standing too far away from their subject when they take a picture, or the fact that normal focal length or standard lenses cover a relatively wide angle of view.

In most cases, the foreground should be sharply focused and of sufficient depth to furnish substantial support for the subject. No object in the foreground should ever be so prominent that it distracts from the subject. You should clear the foreground of items that have no connection with the picture. Generally, the foreground contains the leading line that is the line that leads the eye into the photograph and toward the point of interest. Whether this line is an object or series of objects or shadows, it should be sharply focused. A fuzzy, out-of-focus foreground usually irritates the senses and detracts from emphasis on the subject matter. BACKGROUND The background is almost as important an element in good composition as the camera angle. Be particularly observant of the background to see that it contains nothing distracting. A tree or pole that was unnoticed in the distance behind a person when composing the scene may appear in the photograph to be growing out of his or her collar or supporting his or her head. The background should be subordinate to the main subject in both tone and interest. It should also make the subject stand out and present it to best advantage. Unsharpness and blur are effective ways for separating the subject from the background. While the subject is in motion, the subject can be pictured sharply and the background blurred by panning the subject (fig. 5-20). Occasionally, you may want to reverse these effects and record the subject unsharp or blurred and the background sharp. This is done to create the impression of the subject being closer to the viewer or to express motion by holding the camera still as you use a shutter speed that is too slow to "stop" the motion. PERSPECTIVE Perspective refers to the relationship of imaged objects in a photograph. This includes their relative positions and sizes and the space between them. In other words, perspective in the composition of a photograph is the way real threedimensional objects are pictured in a photograph that has a two-dimensional plane. When you know the principles of perspective and skillfully apply them, the photographs you produce show a good rendition of the subject's form and shape, and the viewer is given the sensation of volume, space, depth, and distance. Additionally, the photographer can manipulate perspective to change the illusion of space and distance by either expanding or compressing these factors, therefore providing a sense of scale within the picture.

Linear Perspective: The human eye judges distance by the way elements within a scene diminish in size, and the angle at which lines and planes converge. This is called linear perspective. The distance between camera and subject and the lens focal length are critical factors affecting linear perspective. This perspective changes as the camera position or viewpoint changes. When the focal length of the lens is changed but the lens-to-subject distance remains unchanged, there is a change in the image size of the objects, but no change in perspective. On the other hand, when the lens-to-subject distance and lens focal length are both changed, the relationship between objects is altered and perspective is changed. By using the right combination of camera-to-subject distance and lens focal length, a photographer can create a picture that looks deep or shallow. This feeling of depth or shallowness is only an illusion, but it is an important compositional factor. Rectilinear Perspective: Most lenses produce rectilinear perspective that are typical of what the human eye sees. This is to say that lines that are straight in the subject are reproduced straight in the picture. Most pictures are made with rectilinear lenses. Vanishing Point Perspective: In vision, lines that are parallel to each other give the sensation of meeting at vanishing points. When parallel lines, either horizontal or vertical, are perpendicular to the lens axis, the vanishing points are assumed to be at infinity. Other lines, those which are parallel to the lens axis, and all other parallel lines at all other angles to the lens axis meet at definable vanishing points. Thus lines that are parallel to the lens axis, or nearly parallel, start in the front of the picture and meet at vanishing points within the picture or at finite points outside the picture (fig. 5-21). Height Perspective: The place where the base of an object is located on the ground in a picture is a clue to its distance from the camera viewpoint; for example, in a landscape scene, the ground or ground plane rises toward the horizon. The higher up in the ground area of the picture (up to the horizon) that the base of an object is located, the further away it seems from the viewpoint and the greater its height perspective. Overlap Perspective: Another clue to distance in a photograph is overlap perspective. When subjects within the picture are on about the same line of sight, those objects closer to the camera viewpoint overlap more distant objects and partially hide them. It is obvious to the viewer that the partially obstructed object is behind the unobstructed object. This overlap is repeated many times within the picture and

gives the viewer a sense of depth and a perception of the relative distance of objects. Dwindling Size Perspective: Through the experience of vision, you are aware of the size of many common objects, such as people, trees, cars, buildings, and animals; for example, you are aware that most adults are about 5 to 6 feet tall; therefore, when two people are shown in a picture and one appears twice as tall as the other, you cannot assume that one is in reality taller than the other. Instead you assume the taller person is closer and the shorter person farther away from the camera viewpoint. In this same manner, you make a size relationship evaluation of all familiar objects. Thus you can make a distance determination from this size relationship evaluation. The farther away an object is from the viewpoint, the smaller it appears; therefore, when subjects of familiar size are included in a photograph, they help to establish the scale of the picture (fig. 5-22). Scale helps the viewer determine or visualize the actual size or relative size of the objects in the picture. Volume Perspective: When a subject is lighted with very diffused light, the threedimensional form or volume of the subject is difficult to perceive because of the lack of distinct shadows. If, on the other hand, subjects are lighted with strong directional light from angles that cause part of the subject to be fully lighted and other parts to be in shadow, a visual clue of the subject's form or volume is provided When a number of such objects are included within the picture area, the perception of form, volume, and depth is increased. When front or side lighting is used, the length, depth, and shape of the shadows cast on the ground provide a perspective of each object's volume. Also, the distance between shadows cast on the ground helps you to perceive the overall depth of the scene. Atmospheric Perspective: For all practical purposes, air is transparent. For most photography, this is fundamentally true; however, when pictures are made of subjects at great distances, the air is actually less than fully transparent. This is because air contains very fine particles of water vapor, dust, smoke, and so on. These particles scatter light and change its direction. The presence of scattering shows distant subjects in pictures as having a veil or haze. The appearance or effect of this scattering is proportional to the distance of the objects from the viewpoint. The greater the distance, the greater the amount of veiling or haze (fig. 5-23). PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING Lighting forms the most important aspect of photography. Photography in itself is playing with light and the term photography literally translates as Drawing with light.

The key points about lighting are: Outdoor Lighting Daylight and sunlight are not a constant source, because they change hourly and with the weather, season, location, and latitude. This changing daylight can alter the apparent shapes, colors, tones, and forms of a scene. The color of sunlight changes most rapidly at the extreme ends of the day. Strong color changes also occur during storms, haze, or mist and on blue wintery days. The direction of light changes as the sun moves across the sky. The shape and direction of shadows are altered, and the different directions of sunlight greatly affect the appearance of a scene. The quality of sunlight depends on its strength and direction. Strong, direct sunlight is "hard" because it produces dark, well-defined shadows and brilliant highlights, with strong modeling of form. Sunlight is hardest on clear summer days at noon. Strong sunlight makes strong colors more brilliant, but weak colors pale. Sunlight is diffused by haze, mist, and pollution in the air. This diffused or reflected light is softer; it produces weak, soft shadows and dull highlights. Directionless, diffused sunlight is often called "flat" lighting because it produces fine detail but subdues or flattens form. Weak, directionless sunlight provides vibrant, well-saturated colors. Frontlighting The old adage about keeping the sun at your back is a good place to continue our discussion of outdoor lighting. The type of lighting created when the sun is in back of the photographer is called frontlighting. This over-the-shoulder lighting was probably the first photographic advice you ever received. This may seem to be a universal recipe for good photography. But it is not. The case against over-theshoulder lighting is it produces a flattened effect, doing nothing to bring out detail or provide an impression of depth. The human eye sees in three dimensions and can compensate for poor lighting. A photograph is only two-dimensional; therefore, to give an impression of form, depth, and texture to the subject, you should ideally have the light come from the side or at least at an angle. Side Lighting As you gain experience with various types of outdoor lighting, you discover that interesting effects can be achieved by changing the angle of the light falling on your subject. As you turn your subject, change the camera viewpoint, or wait for the sun to move, the light falls more on one side, and more shadows are cast on the opposite side of the subject. For pictures in which rendering texture is important, side lighting is ideal.

Look at a brick wall, first in direct front sunlight and then in side lighting. Direct, front sunlight shows the pattern of the bricks and mortar in a flat, uninformative way, but side lighting creates shadows in every little crevice (fig. 5-24). The effect increases as the light is more parallel with the wall until long shadows fall from the smallest irregularity in the brickwork. This can give an almost 3-D effect to a photograph. Side lighting is particularly important with black-and- white photography that relies on gray tones, rather than color, to record the subject. Shadows caused by side lighting reveal details that can create striking pictures from ordinary objects that are otherwise hardly worth photographing in black and white. Anything that has a noticeable texture-like the ripples of sand on a beach, for example-gains impact when lit from the side. Landscapes, buildings, people, all look better when sidelighted. Pictures made with side lighting usually have harsh shadows and are contrasty. To lighten the shadows and reduce the contrast, you may want to use some type of reflector to direct additional skylight into the shadow areas or use fill-in flash, whichever is more convenient. Backlighting When the sun is in front of the photographer, coming directly at the camera, you have what is referred to as backlighting; that is, the subject is backlit. This type of lighting can be very effective for pictures of people outdoors in bright sunlight. In bright sunlight, when subjects are front-lighted or even sidelighted, they may be uncomfortable and squint their eyes. Backlighting helps to eliminate this problem. Backlighting may also require the use of a reflector or fill-in flash to brighten up the dark shadows and improve subject detail. Backlighting is also used to produce a silhouette effect. When you use backlighting, avoid having the sun rays fall directly on the lens (except for special effects). A lens hood or some other means of shading the lens should be used to prevent lens flare. COMPOSITION Still photographs are subject to the aesthetic rules of picture composition. A few factors are as follows: Concept of Extreme close-ups (ECU), close-ups (CU), medium shots (MS), few long shots (LS), and extreme long shots (ELS). The aspect ratio of the picture can be changed so picture elements can be played around with. The aspect ratio is the ratio of picture height to width. There is vertical

format as well as horizontal format in still photography, unlike the television medium. The camera is the eyes of the viewer. Therefore, camera angle, as well as the arrangement of elements within the frame, must be considered. When shooting uncontrolled action, you may not be able to predetermine composition. Sometimes all you can do is correct certain compositional errors. Still photography also uses the same principles of composition as the video camera. Use high- and low-camera angles with caution. High angles tend to shorten the legs of a person. Low angles may distort the body and face of the subject. Of course, watch for objects that seem to be growing out of or are balanced on a person's head. BASIC SEQUENCE In photography, you can change the image size by changing the camera-to-subject distance or by using a zoom lens (which also changes the field of view). When clicking picutres, there are three basic shots or sequences you must use: long shots (LS), medium shots (MS), and closeup shots (CU) (fig. 13-10). The type of shot being used can limit or increase the amount of visual information presented to the viewer. Long shots generally establish a location. A medium shot is used primarily as a transition between a long shot and closeup shot. Closeup shots create impact and provide more detail and less visual information pertaining to the subject's surroundings. Shot classifications can be broken down into five categories: extreme long shots, long shots, medium shots, closeup shots, and extreme closeup shots. CAMERA HEIGHT The best average camera height for a head-and-shoulders type of portrait is slightly above the subject's eye level. This places the subject's eyes well above the center of the picture space. Slightly above eye level then is a good place to start. Most portraits are made from this camera viewpoint, but individual features and characters of the subject often dictate a higher or lower camera position. For three-quarter portraits, either sitting or standing, the camera height may need to be changed. For example, you may want to start with the camera level at the upper chest or even at the eye level of the subject. Other factors that should be considered when selecting the camera height (especially with a head-and-shoulder portrait) include the shape of the subjects face and facial features, such as a long nose and the length of the subject's neck By changing the height of the camera in relation to the

subject, you can make corrections to emphasize or de-emphasize features of the subject. For full-length portraits, you should start with the camera height about waist level and the lens parallel to the subject. When the camera height is too high or too low and the camera lens is tilted, distortion of the subject occurs. When the camera is too low, the subject's feet appear large and the head small. When the camera is too high, the subject's head and upper body appear large and top heavy. A camera position below the eye level of a subject can produce a side effect that may be distracting; that is, showing the nostrils more prominently and causing them to appear as two black holes. To help remedy this situation, you should place the modeling light higher to cast a shadow beneath the nose, so the nostrils appear to blend in with the shadow area. Portrait Composition and Subject Placement As in every type of photography, in portraiture there must be one, and only one, principal point of interest. Naturally, in a portrait, this is the subjects face. You can emphasize the point of interest in a portrait by doing the following: Having it contrast with the background Giving it the strongest lighting Posing the subject and arranging the props so all elements point to it Locating it at a strong point within the picture area Where are the strong points within a portrait picture space? The principle of thirds, as discussed in chapter 5, applies to portraiture as well. These are the areas within a portrait that attract eye attention and are the preferred locations for the center of interest (fig. 7-3). In a portrait, when the main point of interest is located at Point A, the secondary point of interest should be at Point D. If B is the point of interest, C becomes the secondary interest point. Such an arrangement obviously balances the composition. As stated earlier, the subject's face is the point of interest in a portrait and, of course, covers a considerable area in the picture space. Usually in portrait composition, the eyes fall close to Points A or B. But these positions are approximations only. The final adjustment of the head depends upon several factors: the eye direction, the shape of the body, and the leading lines. No rule can be given for best portrait composition. Rules only give guidance to a rough approximation of good placement. You can only arrive at the best composition for each portrait through the feeling for balance and subject position. When the head and shoulders are placed high in the picture frame, a sense of dignity

and stability is gained. Such placement is particularly appropriate when the subject is a person of importance, such as the CO. However, when the head is too high (fig. 74), viewing the picture is uncomfortable because there is a feeling that if the subject stood up he would bump his head. Also, when the head is too high, the proportion between head and body areas becomes awkward. Most inexperienced photographers place the head too low, rather than too high. This is usually the result of the photographer's desire to show as large a head as possible. When the head is too low, there is not enough body to support it (fig. 7-5). When the head is turned toward the side, avoid having the tip of the nose from coinciding with the outline of the cheek or projecting only slightly beyond the cheek line. In either case, the far eye will be divided by the nose. When the tip of the nose sticks out only a little beyond the cheek line, it appears as a lump on the cheek Before you seat a subject, suggest that the subject may like to check his or her appearance in a mirror. Combing the hair, straightening a tie, setting a hat at the proper angle, and smoothing out the lay of the clothes should ensure a neat, wellgroomed appearance. When the subject is in military uniform, be sure that medals, ribbons, insignia of grade or rate, and other accessories are worn properly. These minor details are easily overlooked and failure to correct a discrepancy may make it necessary to retake the portrait. When a military subject is seated, one particularly important point to consider is the lay of the coat collar. The collar has a tendency to separate from the back of the subject's neck and project outward resulting in the impression of a hump. The coat should be pulled down to make the collar fit properly and make the line of the subjects back appear free from slouch or slump. When the portrait includes only the head and shoulders, the drape of the coat can be improved by unbuttoning the lower button and pulling the bottom of the coat down. The sleeves of a coat are another problem, particularly when you photograph a seated subject. There is a tendency for the sleeves to work up and wrinkle at the elbows, allowing either too much wrist or too much shirt cuff to show. To help remedy this, have the subject pull the sleeves of the coat down and straighten out the wrinkles as much as possible. Wrinkles, folds, and unwanted creases in a uniform detract from a neat appearance. When the subject is wearing a long-sleeved shirt under a coat and the hands will appear in the portrait, both shirt cuffs should be visible or both should be out of sight. Do not have one cuff visible and the other not. Stay near the camera and tell the subject what to do. You are obligated to give directions regarding the pose. A subject is not able to see all posing aspects for the

portrait. Whether the subject is an admiral or seaman, you are expected to detect and correct any discrepancy in pose, uniform, gestures, or actions, and so on. One of the greatest obstacles to successful portraiture is the timidness of some photographers and the way they handle the subject. Never take a portrait when something about the portrait is wrong because of fear or timidity to speak and act in the presence of high grade. The results will be disappointing and embarrassing. When the military subject is to be photographed uncovered, be sure that the hat is removed far enough in advance so any impression on the forehead caused by the hatband has time to disappear. When the subject shows a tendency to squint or blink, suggest that he rest his eyes by closing them for a moment. The facial expression is an important element to a good portrait. Unless some method is used to induce a pleasant expression, the subject will generally appear bored and uninteresting. Telling a subject to look this way or smile is not enough to cause the subject to smile. A forced smile sometimes looks more like a frown. A good method to get a pleasant expression is through conversation. Talk about a recent incident, a funny story, the weather, or any other topic that will cause the subject to concentrate on something other than the business of making a portrait. With most people, a smile is contagious. When you smile at a person, the person usually responds with a smile. Beware of a broad smile 7-8.because it rarely looks attractive, and it is usually not appropriate for a person in a military uniform. While you are trying to induce the expression that will show off the subject to the best advantage, be particularly observant of the details necessary to maintain a neat appearance and good composition.

AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS LIGHT

Lighting Optics

Exposure Measurement Camera/Enlarger Emulsion (Charged Couple Device) Latent Image Processing Development Fixation Presentation

CROSS SECTION OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM Emulsion

Ag-Br/ Ag-Cl

THE ROLE OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHER IN THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Today, photography has become a powerful means of communication and a mode of visual expression that touches human life in many ways. For example, photography has become popular as a means of recording and storing memories. Most of the billions of photographs taken today are snapshots--casual records to document personal events such as vacations, birthdays, and weddings. Photographs are used extensively by newspapers, magazines, books, and television to convey information and advertise products and services. Practical applications of photography are found in nearly every human endeavor from astronomy to medical diagnosis and industrial quality control to living spaces. Photography extends human vision into the realm of objects that are invisible because they are too small or too distant, or events that occur too rapidly for the naked eye to detect. A camera can be used in locations too dangerous for humans. Photographs can also be objects of art that explore the human condition and provide aesthetic pleasure. For millions of people, photography is a satisfying hobby or a rewarding career. Today photography is widely recognized as a fine art. Photographs are displayed in art museums, prized by collectors, discussed by critics, and studied in art history courses. Because of the special nature of photography, however, this was not always the case. In the early days of photography some people considered the medium something of a poor relation to the older, established visual arts, such as drawing and painting. The arguments stemmed from the fact that a camera is a mechanical instrument. Because the mechanical procedure of taking a picture is automatic, detractors claimed that photography required no coordination of hand and eye and none of the manual skills essential to drawing and painting. They also argued that photography required no creativity or imagination because the photographic subject was "ready-made" and did not require manipulation or control by the photographer. Since its invention in 1839, photography's unique powers of visual description have been used to record, report, and inform. People prefer to see things with their own eyes, but when this is impossible the camera can often serve the same purpose almost as well. It is not true that photographs never lie--they can be falsified and manipulated. Nevertheless, a photograph can carry a strong measure of authenticity and conviction. As a nonverbal means of communication, photography can surmount the barriers of

language and communicate through universal visual symbols. Photographs are well suited for use in the mass media. Today they are reproduced by the billions, and they can be found everywhere: in the pages of newspapers, magazines, books, catalogs, and brochures; on display in billboards, shop windows, and posters; broadcast over television; and organized into slide shows and film strips.

Photography is also essential to the advertising industry. In efforts to sell a product, attractive photographs of the item are used. Photography is also widely used in education and training within the academic world, industry, and the armed services. Photographs in the mass-communication media have made the faces of political leaders, popular entertainers, and other celebrities familiar to the public. When a newsworthy event occurs photojournalists are there to record it. Photojournalists sometimes spend months covering a story. The result of such labor is often a powerful, revealing picture essay that probes far beneath the surface of events. Photographs are also often used in attempts to sway public opinion. Governments, political parties, and special-interest groups have long used the graphic representation and emotional impact of photographs to further their causes. Such use may result in destructive propaganda, such as that of the Nazis during the Third Reich. Photography can also help to bring about desirable changes. Photographs of the Yellowstone region were instrumental in Congress's decision to establish that area as a national park, and photographs of child laborers helped to bring about legislation protecting children from exploitation ROLE OF PHOTOGRAPHER: A camera, no matter how many automatic features it may have, is a lifeless piece of equipment until a person uses it. It then becomes a uniquely responsive tool--an extension of the photographer's eye and mind. A photographer creates a picture by a process of selection. Photographers looking through the camera's viewfinder must decide what to include and what to exclude from the scene. They select the distance from which to take the picture and the precise angle that best suits their purpose.

They select the instant in which to trip the shutter. This decision may require hours of patient waiting until the light is exactly right or it may be a split-second decision, but the photographer's sense of timing is always crucial. Photographers can expand or flatten perspective by the use of certain lenses. They can freeze motion or record it as a blur, depending on their choice of shutter speed. They can create an infinite number of lighting effects with flashes or floodlights. They can alter the tonal values or colors in a picture by their choice of film and filters. These are only a few of the controls available to a photographer when taking a picture. Later, in the darkroom, many additional choices are available. They basically decide the following: Subject: The chief role of a photographer would be to select or decide on a particular subject to work on. This could include selection of a theme or even the kind of treatment that one would like to imply to any particular kind of photography. For example, a wild life photographer would treat its subject completely different from the way a fashion photographer would. This treatment is the prerogative of the photographer and to a large extent depends on his previous experiences and knowledge or skill sets. Lighting: Different photographers use this particular element very differently. It completely depends on the photographers ability to play with lights and shadows, contrasts and colors. It greatly helps to decide the mood of the entire photo shoot. As the need be, the photographer may decide to accentuate the detailing of a particular subject and manipulate the lighting accordingly. He/she may also lay emphasis on the texture and contouring of a subject with the help of effective lighting techniques. Aesthetics: A great picture taken largely depends on the aesthetic sense of the photographer. He/she would select the important elements to be kept in the frame, then would decide their positioning and finally their inter relativity. These things added together would make up a good composition and an aesthetically rich picture. A picture needs to be well balanced in terms of its lay out, lighting, colors and contrasts. Therefore it is completely in the hands of the photographer to make or break the picture.

PHOTOGRAPHIC SENSE OF LIGHT The importance of light Without light, photography would not exist. In fact, the word photography comes from the word photo, a Greek word meaning "light". The concept of Light needs to be understood thoroughly before delving into details of photography. Even if one has the most sophisticated of cameras, and the most expensive and sharpest of lenses, without light his/her photographs would be impossible, and the cameras and lenses would be rendered useless. Light and the photograph To understand why light is important to a photograph; you must understand how an image is captured onto your film. The film you place in your camera is a photosensitive material, which means a material that is sensitive to light. These films react in a way that when light rays hit it, an image is formed. However, to actually see the image you must first process, or develop the film. Deciding factor, shutter speed & aperture The use of light in a photograph can be the deciding factor of whether that picture will be spectacular or terrible. When you use your camera to automatically chose

aperture and shutter speed, what your camera is actually doing is using the built in light meter and measuring how much light is being reflected to the camera. But that doesn't mean that's all there is to it. The angle of the light entering the frame has also to be considered. What kind of shadows you want, and whether you want to use fill-in-flash (using flash to light the subject if you have a really bright background) are all choices to be made by the photographer. If you are shooting at night you can create impressive effects like lights in motion, pictures with moonlight, or silhouettes like the one in the picture. Angle of Light The angle of light should be taken into careful consideration whenever you feel like you want to create a specific effect. Shadows can be very powerful when cast over half of someone's face. In this photo on the left the light is striking the statue's face from the rear right of the camera and this adds more depth to the picture. It also adds more coloring because if front-lighting was used his face would likely be over exposed, and if back-lighting was used his face would just be black like a silhouette. Indoors and Outdoors The effect of rays of light indoors and outdoors can be quite a spectacular one. An aspect of some of the greatest photographic works is the ability to visually see the rays of sun beam. Whether be it during the orange glow of the setting sun sprayed across the sky, light pouring through a window or from artificial lights, the beans can render the picture an impressive unearthly look. The only way to obtain something like this is a narrow aperture (high f/stop) and a very slow shutter speed. Silhouettes Silhouettes are another interesting method of using light. The way to create a silhouette is to have significantly bright light coming from behind the subject. In doing this it is important to take your camera light reading off the background instead of the subject in order for the camera to adjust for an exposure based on the backlight. This is done by focusing on the background while taking the light meter reading and then focusing on the subject while clicking. In this case, the subject will be underexposed like in the picture and will appear dark.

The Many Types of Light Sunlight- This is an example of natural light, or light that is not created by people. This light comes from the sun. While the sun gives enough light for films to be exposed, you must still do some serious thinking before taking the picture. For one, the time of day will affect the quality of your photo, as you will learn. Overcast skylight- Though related to sunlight, this type of light is different in many ways. Here, you will not get the harsh shadows that appear in direct sun. Thanks to the clouds that block the sun, light is diffused, or scattered, thus softening shadows. Also, clouds can give a dramatic touch to your photos. Indoor(artificial) light- This is the toughest type of light to get a good, bright picture. Unless you have incredibly bright searchlights as the main room lighting, you will need a reasonably fast lens and perhaps a tripod to get a good exposure. You may think of using flash, though its not recommended if there is limited lighting. Control You cannot take complete control over light except if you have access to a photo studio. The shutter affects light Along with recording motion, shutter speed can also determine about how much light will reach the film, just like what apertures do. Remember that film is a very light sensitive material. The longer the shutter is open, the more light the film is exposed to. Lastly, remember there is nothing called a Correct Exposure it is just in your mind. It is your perception and depends completely on how you want your composition to be! NATURE AND GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT USEFUL IN PHOTOGRAPHY BASIC LIGHTING CONDITIONS Five lighting conditions give characteristic effects which can be easily recognized. In practice, these basic conditions are rarely used .It is more usual to combine the separate characters of 2 or more by adopting a compromise. Frontal Lighting: Frontal lighting is called flat or shadow-less lighting; it can give a high key picture of subjects which have no strong colour or tone contrast of their own. When the light shines on to the front of the subject it casts no definite shadows that are visible from the camera position. the subject is recognizable only by its shape against the

backdrop & by it sown difference of colour and tone. Front lighting is often encountered in everyday life when the sun shines from behind the observer. Side lighting: When the light shines from one side on to the subject, it illuminates that side brightly & leaves the other in complete darkness. This light is accepted as natural. Top lighting: When the light shines from directly over the subject it casts all shadows vertically downwards over the subject .Generally, it highlights the features in the same way as side lighting. Lighting from below: In this form of lighting, the shadows are cast upwards. Projecting features are brightly lighted on the lower side & the upper surfaces are in shadows. This light suggests drama and artificiality.

Lighting from behind: When the light shines from behind the subject, all shadows are cast towards the observer. If the light is directly behind, the only indication of its presence may be a brilliant rim of light produced when the rays are reflected from surface roughness, fibers, hair; the general effect looking something like an eclipse of the sun. The rim of light becomes wider as the lamp moves around towards the side, top or bottom of the subject. This light leaves the front of the subject completely in shadow. So they are rarely used as a sole source of photographic lighting. When it is used, it is as effect lights & not as a principal illumination. THE BASIC LIGHTS: There are only 4 functions that any particular light source can fulfill 1) It may be the PRINCIPAL (or MODELLING) LIGHT 2) A FILL IN LIGHT 3) An EFFECT LIGHT 4) Or maybe to light up the BACKGROUND A principal light creates most noticeable highlights & casts most important shadows. The job of the fill in light is to illuminate the shadows cast by the principal light.

LIGHT CONTROL Before a light source can be usefully employed for photography, there must be some means of controlling it. The power of external lighting sources is controlled by: The switch which turns it full on or off Inserting a dimming resistance in the circuit (power of light is continuously variable between full power & off) Series- parallel switching arrangement (adjustable to give full power, reduced power of a fixed value and off) The concentration of light is controlled by: 1) Shaped reflectors behind the light source. 2) Spotlight in front Incase of reflectors, the light is spread & depending on the surface of the reflector somewhat diffused. This is helpful in providing general illumination of fairly large areas. With a spotlight, the light can be concentrated on a smaller area & used to get a crisper result with harder shadows. When maximum diffusion is required, a diffuser is fitted in front of either the reflector or spotlight. The colour of the light may be controlled by: The choice of the source Use of colour filter over the light The position of light source is the most fundamental of all controls. To enable convenient alteration of the light position, various supports, brackets & stands are made so that the direction & angle of the light is adjustable with ease. TIME OF THE DAY The quality of light and its effect on the picture is determined by the time of the day as well. Day light: Gods light is best: daylight is the raw material for photography & has infinite range of effects. Dawn has wonderful photographic properties. The light is clean, clear and cold. It is shadow less with little difference between the highlight & shadows.

Sunrise brings a warm, romantic light containing more red than blue tones. The suns rays are sharper than at sunset. There is high definition on directly lit subjects, but as the sun rises in the sky, the quality of light changes quickly, leaving very little time to shoot. Morning: The sun climbing in a blue sky provides a clean, almost colorless light. Visibility is good and shadows are clearly defined although not yet totally black. Midday is not the best time for general photography since the sun is too directly overhead. There is a tremendous difference of exposure between shadows & highlight areas. The light is usually hazy for landscape shots, although in the winter or after rain, it can be suitable. The hard light with its black shadows can be used to advantage with a polarizing filter. Afternoon: As the sun gets lower in the sky, modeling comes back into the landscape. The warm quality of the light is good for skin tones. This diffused light is best for backlighting. If shooting water, it sparkles & the long shadows appear blue and very beautiful. Some points to note For portraits, reading must be taken of the subjects nose. Shade in flattering to people, because it is diffused & flat. At midday, where direct light is too harsh, shade can be used to god effect. Be careful while using a colour film: Shade can lend a blue or greenish cast. In the morning or afternoon, a halo effect can be achieved by placing the subject between the sun & camera. Depending on the strength of the halo light required, a reflector maybe used to fill the front of the subject with light. Snow reflects light so be careful with exposure. Fog gives muted colours, allowing key images to be picked out from the background. Bracket exposure to be sure of obtaining the picture you want in difficult conditions. Rain makes surface glossy & highlights sparkle. After the rain, the clearing sky provides a clean, soft light as if the air has been washed clean! CAMERA: PINHOLE-THE ORIGINAL CAMERA

Pinhole Camera Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham), , invented the pinhole camera, and explained why the image was upside down. Around 1600, Della Porta reinvented the pinhole camera. Apparently he was the first European to publish any information on the pinhole camera and is sometimes incorrectly credited with its invention. If one wants to play with intuitions and is interested in a more mysterious image, pinhole might be what he wants. Pinhole is very cheap and ia an easy way to obtain a large negative, useful for non-silver printing. To make a pinhole, all you really need is a light-tight box. Almost anything can be turned into a camera. All kinds of light-sensitive materials (both black and white and color film and photo paper) will work. And it's easy to make a pinhole, or pinholes for multiple imaging. An image comes through the pinhole at about a 150 degree angle, which in photo terms is a very wide angle. If the distance from the pinhole to the film is 3" that means that this wide angled pinhole image circle hitting the film will be 10" in diameter or so. If you use a 6" deep suitcase as a camera you can get a 20" wide image. (The diameter of the image is approximately 3-1/2 times the distance between the film and the pinhole.) Pinhole cameras are available commercially, many of which are meant for use with film holders and Polaroid backs. You can also turn your existing lens cameras into pinhole. For instance, if you have a 35mm camera, just remove the lens and use a body cap with a large hole in it over which you have taped the pinhole. Micro drilled pinholes are also available commercially. If you decide you want a fairly sharp pinhole image, you will need to know that the greater the distance between the pinhole and the film, the larger the hole should be. A few examples are: a 1/4mm pinhole for 1-1/2" focal length camera; a 1/3mm pinhole for 3" focal length camera; a 1/2mm pinhole for a 6" focal length camera. To make the image less sharp, the hole should be larger than the recommended optimal size. Even a hole the size of a thumbtack shaft will make a recognizable image in a 6" camera.

The farther the light travels inside the camera, the weaker the light becomes. In other words, the 6" suitcase pinhole camera described above will take longer to expose than a 3" camera. There are many ways to judge exposure times. For your first images, you might want to keep your camera still by placing it on a wall or on the ground, or on a tripod if your camera has a tripod mount. Also, do not allow the sun to hit the pinhole because it overexposes the film, although later on you may want to experiment with its spectral effects, unusual in both black and white and color. In the past two decades, a great amount of fascinating pinhole imagery has been made by many photographers throughout the world. Thomas Bachler of Germany made pinhole images by placing film in his mouth and forming his lips into a pinhole. When the Berlin Wall came down, Marcus Kaiser used holes in the wall as the vessel for his camera, placing a film holder taped to one side of the hole, and a pinhole taped to the other side of the hole. He then reversed the procedure, so that he could make pinhole images of both East and West Berlin. Dominique Stroobant of Italy made six month long pinhole exposures of the sun crossing the sky.

THE BOX CAMERA

The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box camera is shaped more or less like a box, hence the name. A box camera has a simple optical system, often only in the form of a simple meniscus lens. It usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for daylight photography only. In the 1950s, box cameras with photographic flash were introduced, allowing indoor photos. Typical box cameras are:

The Kodak introduced in 1888, the first commercially successful box camera for roll film -- the advertising slogan being You press the button - we do the rest. The Kodak Brownie, a long lasting series of classical box cameras using roll film. The Ansco panda was designed to compete directly with the Brownies. It used 620 film. The Kodak Instamatic using 126 film, later 110 film. The modern disposable camera using 135 film.

Some things you ought to know: 1.) Some box cameras will take one image with one simple click of the shutter. Others will take one image when the shutter lever is pushed down and one image when the shutter lever is pulled back up. 2.) Turn the winder knob after each exposure. That is, unless you plan to take a multiple exposure shot. I can't think of any box cameras that have a double exposure prevention feature. 3.) .) After exposing your first roll of film turn the winder knob until no more backing paper appears in the counter window. Open the camera in the darkroom, or an area with subdued light - the take-up spool may not have wound the film tightly. If the film is more than a bit loose, it may have some light leaks at the edges. Some box cameras will take one image with one simple click of the shutter. Others will take one image when the shutter lever is pushed . 4.) Often, box camera lenses will be located on the inside of the shutter. This is why folks will sometimes state that their cameras are nice, "but the lens is missing. 5.) Some brands of box cameras come with a few options. Eg. (Evans Box Camera) This camera has a yellow filter built in. The Agfa Cadet has a viewfinder that folds out.

Some box cameras will take one image with one simple click of the shutter. Others will take one image when the shutter lever is pushed down and one image when the shutter lever is pulled back up

Turn the winder knob after each exposure. That is, unless you plan to take a multiple exposure shot. I can't think of any box cameras that have a double exposure prevention feature. After exposing your first roll of film, turn the winder knob until no more backing paper appears in the counter window. Open the camera in or an area with subdued light - the take-up spool may not have wound the film tightly. If the film is more than a bit loose, it may have some light leaks at the edges. Often, box camera lenses will be located on the inside of the shutter. This is why folks will sometimes state that their cameras are nice, "but the lens is missing. Some brands of box cameras come with a few options.

SLR CAMERA THE MOST VERSATILE CAMERA The single-lens reflex (SLR) camera uses an automatic moving mirror system which permits the photographer to see exactly what will be captured by the film or digital imaging system, as opposed to non-SLR cameras where the view through the viewfinder could be significantly different from what was captured on film. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras with viewfinders had two optical light paths: one path through the lens to the film, and another path positioned slightly off to the side seen by the photographer. Because the viewfinder and the film lens cannot share the same optical path, the viewfinder is aimed to intersect with the film lens at a fixed point somewhere in front of the camera. This is more or less helpful for pictures taken at a middle or longer distance but a close-up shot framed in the viewfinder will not look the same as the film image. Moreover, focusing the lens of a non-SLR camera when it is opened to wider apertures (such as in low light or while using low-speed film) is not easy. SLR cameras permit direct viewing using a pentaprism situated above the optical path through the lens to the film plane. Light is reflected by a movable mirror upwards into the pentaprism where it is reflected several times until it aligns with the

viewfinder. When the shutter is released, the mirror moves out of the light path and the light shines directly onto the film, or in the case of a DSLR, the CCD or CMOS imaging sensor. The focus can be adjusted manually by the photographer or automatically by the autofocus system. The viewfinder can include a matte focusing screen located just above the mirror system to diffuse the light. This system permits accurate viewing, composing and focusing, especially useful with interchangeable lenses. Up until the 1990s, SLR was the most advanced photographic preview system available. But the recent development and refinement of digital imaging technology with an on-camera live LCD preview screen has overshadowed SLR's popularity. Nearly all inexpensive compact digital cameras now include an LCD preview screen allowing the photographer to see exactly what the CCD is capturing. However, SLR is still popular in high-end and professional cameras, because the pixel resolution, contrast ratio, and color gamut of an LCD preview screen cannot compete with the clarity and shadow detail of a direct-viewed optical SLR viewfinder.

DIGITAL SLRS (DSLRS) Canon, Nikon and Pentax have all developed digital SLR cameras using the same lens mounts as on their respective film SLR cameras. Konica Minolta did the same, but in 2006 sold their camera technology to Sony, who now build DSLRs based on the Minolta lens mount. Samsung builds DSLRs based on the Pentax lens mount. Olympus, on the other hand, chose to create a new digital-only Four Thirds System SLR standard, adopted later by Panasonic and Leica. FILM FORMATS Early SLRs were built for large format photography, but this film format has largely lost favor among professional photographers. SLR film-based cameras have been produced for most film formats as well as for digital formats. These film-based SLRs use the 35 mm format as, this film format offers a variety of emulsions and film sensitivity speeds, usable image quality and a good market cost. 35 mm film comes in

a variety of exposure lengths: 20 exposure, 24 exposure and 36 exposure rolls. Medium format SLRs provide a higher-quality image with a negative that can be more easily retouched than the smaller 35 mm negative, when this capability is required. A small number of SLRs were built for APS such as the Canon IXUS and the Nikon Pronea cameras. SLRs were also introduced for film formats as small as Kodak's 110, such as the Pentax Auto 110 which had interchangeable lenses. Common Features Other features found on many SLR cameras include through-the-lens (TTL) metering and sophisticated flash control referred to as 'dedicated electronic flash'. In a dedicated system, once the dedicated electronic flash is inserted into the camera's hot shoe and turned on, there is then communication between camera and flash. The camera's synchronization speed is set, along with the aperture. Many camera models on the market today actually measure the light that reflects off of the film plane, controls the flash duration of the electronic flash (some flash units have a flash duration range of 1/1000 of a second to 1/50,000 of a second), and then terminate exposure when the camera has received enough light for the exposure. Some electronic flash units can send out several short bursts of flash to measure the distance, use the camera's inboard sensor(s) to determine the amount of light that is reflected from the subject, then send out a main pulse of light of just the right amount of light energy for a perfectly exposed photograph. Sophisticated cameras can even make it easy for the photographer to balance electronic flash and available light for an evenly balanced scene. While these capabilities are hardly unique to the SLR, manufacturers included them early on in the top models, whereas the best rangefinder cameras adopted such features later. Advantages Many of the advantages of SLR cameras derive from viewing and focusing the image through the attached lens. Most other types of cameras do not have this function; subjects are seen through a viewfinder that is near the lens, making the photographer's view different from that of the lens. SLR cameras provide

photographers with precision and confidence; they provide a viewing image that will be exposed onto the negative exactly as it is seen through the lens. There is no parallax error, and exact focus can be confirmed by eye especially in macro photography and when photographing using long telephoto lenses. The depth of field may be seen by stopping down to the attached lens aperture, which is only possible on most SLR cameras except for the least expensive models. Because of the SLR's versatility, most manufacturers have a vast range of lenses and accessories available for them Compared to most fixed-lens compact cameras, the most commonly used and inexpensive SLR lenses offer a wider aperture range and larger maximum aperture (typically f/1.4 to f/1.8 for a 50 mm lens). This allows photographs to be taken in lower light conditions without flash, and allows a narrower depth of field, which is useful for blurring the background behind the subject, making the subject more prominent. 'Fast' lenses are commonly used in theater photography, portrait photography, surveillance photography, and all other photography requiring a large maximum aperture. The variety of lenses also allows for the camera to be used and adapted in many different situations. This provides the photographer with considerably more control (i.e., how the image is viewed and framed) than would be the case with a view camera. In addition, some SLR lenses are manufactured with extremely long focal lengths, allowing a photographer to be a considerable distance away from the subject and yet still expose a sharp, focused image. This is particularly useful if the subject includes dangerous animals (e.g., wildlife); the subject prefers anonymity to being photographed; or else, the photographer's presence is unwanted (e.g., celebrity photography or surveillance photography). Practically all SLR and DSLR camera bodies can also be attached to telescopes and microscopes via an adapter tube to further enhance their imaging capabilities. Disadvantages In most cases, single-lens reflex cameras cannot be made as small or as light as other camera designs such as rangefinder cameras, autofocus compact cameras and digital cameras with electronic viewfinders (EVF) owing to the mirror box and pentaprism/pentamirror. The mirror box also prevents lenses from having rear

elements closer to the film or sensor to be mounted unless the camera has a mirror lockup feature; this means that simple designs for wide angle lenses cannot be used. Instead, larger and more complex retro focus designs are required. The SLR mirror 'blacks-out' the viewfinder image during the exposure. In addition, the movement of the reflex mirror takes time, limiting the maximum shooting speed. The mirror system can also cause noise and vibration. Partially-reflective (pellicle) fixed mirrors avoid these problems and have been used in a very few designs including the Canon Pellix and the Canon EOS-1N RS, but these designs introduce their own problems. These pellicle mirrors reduce the amount of light travelling to the film plane or sensor and also can distort the light passing through them, resulting in a less-sharp image. To avoid the noise and vibration, many professional cameras offer a mirror lock-up feature, however, this feature totally disables the SLR's automatic focusing ability. Currently, most digital SLRs cannot display a live preview on their rear LCD displays, unlike digicams or bridge cameras, and must be held to the eye to view and compose the image. This situation is changing with the arrival of the Olympus E-330, Olympus E-410, Olympus E-510, Panasonic DMC-L1, Panasonic DMC-L10, Pentax K20D,Leica Digilux 3, Canon EOS 40D, Canon EOS 450D, Canon EOS-1D Mark III, and Nikon D300 cameras. Electronic viewfinders have the potential to give the 'viewing-experience' of a DSLR (through-the-lens viewing) without many of the disadvantages, but as of 2006 sensor capability and display technology is insufficient for wide acceptance among the advanced amateur or professional markets that purchase and use digital SLRs. Reliability of SLRs SLRs vary widely in their construction and typically have bodies made of plastic or magnesium. Most manufacturers don't cite durability specifications, but some report shutter life expectancies for professional models. For instance, the Canon EOS 1Ds MkII is rated for 200,000 shutter cycles and the newer Nikon D3 is rated for 300,000 with its exotic carbon fiber/kevlar shutter. Because many SLRs have interchangeable lenses, there is a tendency for dust, sand and dirt to get into the main body of the camera through the mirror box when the lens is removed, thus

dirtying or even jamming the mirror movement mechanism or the shutter curtain mechanism itself. In addition, these particles can also jam or otherwise hinder the focusing feature of a lens if they enter into the focusing helicoid. The problem of sensor cleaning has been somewhat reduced in DSLRs as some cameras have a builtin sensor cleaning unit.

DIGITAL CAMERA Digital camera (or digicam for short) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images on a light-sensitive sensor. Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still photographs. Digital cameras can include features that are not found in film cameras, such as displaying an image on the camera's screen immediately after it is recorded, the capacity to take thousands of images on a single small memory device, the ability to record video with sound, the ability to edit images, and deletion of images allowing re-use of the storage they occupied. Digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. The Hubble Space Telescope and other astronomical devices are essentially specialised digital cameras. Classification Digital cameras can be classified into several categories:

Compact digital cameras Compact cameras are designed to be small and portable; the smallest are described as subcompacts or "ultra-compacts". They are easy to use, sacrificing advanced features and picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using Lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo. They may have limited motion picture capability. They have a greater depth of field, allowing objects within a large range of distances from the camera to be in sharp focus. They are particularly suitable for casual and "snapshot" use.

Bridge cameras Bridge or SLR-like cameras are higher-end digital cameras that physically resemble DSLRs and share with them some advanced features, but share with compacts the framing of the photo using live preview and small sensor sizes. Line-scan camera systems A line-scan camera is a camera device containing a line-scan image sensor chip, and a focusing mechanism. These cameras are almost solely used in industrial settings to capture an image of a constant stream of moving material. Unlike video cameras, line-scan cameras use a single array of pixel sensors, instead of a matrix of them. Data coming from the line-scan camera has a frequency, where the camera scans a line, waits, and repeats. The data coming from the line-scan camera is commonly processed by a computer, to collect the one-dimensional line data and to create a two-dimensional image. The collected two-dimensional image data is then processed by image-processing methods for industrial purposes. Line-scan technology is capable of capturing data extremely fast, and at very high image resolutions. Usually under these conditions, resulting collected image data can quickly exceed 100MB in a fraction of a second. Line-scan-camerabased integrated systems, therefore are usually designed to

streamline the camera's output in order to meet the system's objective, using computer technology which is also affordable. Line-scan cameras intended for the parcel handling industry can integrate adaptive focusing mechanisms to scan six sides of any rectangular parcel in focus, regardless of angle, and size. The resulting 2-D captured images could contain, but are not limited to 1D and 2D barcodes, address information, and any pattern that can be processed via image processing methods. Since the images are 2-D, they are also human-readable and can be viewable on a computer screen.

Conversion of film cameras to digital Majority of 35 mm film cameras cannot be converted to digital formats, the reworking would be expensive, especially as lenses have been evolving with the cameras. For conversions to digitized versions, to give enough space for the electronics and allow liquid crystal displays to be previewed, would require removing the back of the camera and replacing it with a custom built digital unit. Many early professional SLR cameras, such as the NC2000 and the Kodak DCS series, were developed from 35 mm film cameras. The technology of the time, however, meant that rather than being a digital "back" the body was mounted on a large and blocky digital unit, often bigger than the camera portion itself. These were factory built cameras, however, not aftermarket conversions. Image data storage Most digital cameras utilize some form of removable storage to store image data. While the vast majority of the media types are some form of flash memory (CompactFlash, SD, etc.) there are storage methods that use other technologies such as Microdrives (very small hard disk drives), CD single (185 MB), and 3.5" floppy disks. Although JPEG is the most common method of compressing image data, there are

other methods such as TIFF and RAW (the latter being highly non-standardized across brands and even models of a brand). Most cameras include Exif data that provides metadata about the picture. Such Exif data include aperture, exposure time, focal length, date & time taken, and camera model. Some of the removable storage technologies include all of the following: CompactFlash (CF-I) Memory Stick Microdrive (CF-II) MultiMediaCard (MMC) MiniSD Card microSD Other formats include Onboard flash memory: Cheap cameras and cameras secondary to the device's main use (such as a camera phone) Video Floppy: 2x2 inch (50 mm 50 mm) floppy disk used for early analog cameras PC Card hard drives: Early professional cameras (discontinued) Thermal printer: known only in one model of camera that printed images immediately rather than storing FP Memory: a 2-4 MB serial flash memory, known from the Mustek/Relisys Dimera low end cameras Most manufacturers of digital cameras do not provide drivers and software to allow their cameras to work with Linux or other free software. Still, many cameras use the standard USB storage protocol, and are thus easily usable. WORKING OF DIGITAL CAMERA

The digital camera is not something of a magic box that came out of the blue and made wonders! The digital camera is very much like the conventional analog camera, but the technology has been altered. It also contains most of the associated

components that the conventional camera contains, like lens and a shutter for letting in light, however instead of reaching a photosensitive film, the light is made to fall upon array of image sensors or photosensitive cells. Much of the differences are like this, yet most of it still remains in oblivion for the ordinary people. And it order that the digital camera gets its true respect, it is necessary to explore these areas of truth and reveal them in light. The sensor array is basically a microchip about 10 mm across. Every image sensor is a charged-couple device (CCD) converting light into electric charges, and is essentially a silicon chip used to measure light. These charges are stored as analog data that are then converted to digital via a device called an analog to digital converter (ADC). Over the chip are present a collection of very small light-sensitive diodes, named photosites, or pixels that convert light (or more scientifically, photons) into electrical charges called electrons. The pixels are very much light sensitive, therefore with brighter light striking them, produces greater build up of electrical charges.

Each 1000 array receptor creates 1 pixel, and every pixel corresponds to some information stored. The light enters the digital camera via the lens, which is the same mechanism as the conventional analog camera. And this light hits the CCD when the photographer presses the shutter button. The shutter opens and thereby illuminates every pixel, however with various intensities.

Taking a look apart, it can be observed that quite a few digital cameras use CMOS (meaning complementary metal oxide semiconductor, a technology of manufacturing these microchips) technology based microchips as image sensors. The basic advantage is that the CMOS sensors are appreciably cheaper and simpler to fabricate than CCDs. Another great advantage from CMOS sensors is that these take very less power compared to other technology, which adds up to the fact as to their extensive use, and can thus even support the implementation of additional circuitry on the same chip like ADC, some control units etc. Thus it can be stated that CMOS technology

based cameras are small, light, cheap and also energy efficient, yet at the cost of some amount of image quality. However the common trend remains that all cameras of the mega pixel range and higher up use CCD chips instead of CMOS. This is because of the fact of picture quality only, leaving aside the price differences. This is basically the fact about how digital cameras work! Having known this much difference would not come in the photographing expertise of the users, but it always feels a kind of satisfaction on understanding the inner depths of a device that is so close to the eyes!

LENS

Lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. The lens may be divided into several categories depending on the classification. Simple Lens & Compound Lens A simple lens is a lens consisting of a single optical element. A compound lens is an array of simple lenses (elements) with a common axis; the use of multiple elements allows more optical aberrations to be corrected than is possible with a single element. Convex Lens & Concave Lens A convex lens is a lens that has at least one surface that curves outwards. Only the convex lens is capable of forming a real image hence a camera is furnished with this variety of lens. The convex lens is also known as the converging lens or the positive lens. A concave lens is a lens that has at least one surface that curves outwards. The image formed by a concave lens is a virtual image; hence its use is quite limited. Normal Lens, Wide-angle Lens & Telephoto Lens Normal/Standard Lens: A lens on a camera which records a view similar to the view seen by a normal human eye is called as a normal lens. A normal lens gives the perspective similar to the impression made by a normal human eye. Technically speaking, a standard/normal lens is that whose focal length is numerically equal to the diagonal of picture format. Wide-angle/Short Focus Lens: A lens having focal length shorter than a normal lens is called a wide angle or short focus lens. Lenses with focal lengths 35mm, 28mm, 24mm, 16mm, 12mm, 8mm, 6mm, etc are called wide angle lens and they cover a wider view. Since they are used from close distance, these lens generally record distortion. The things and relative distance between two objects look elongated when shot with a wide angle lens.

Telephoto/Long Focus Lens: Lens with focal length longer than normal lens is called as telephoto/long focus lens. It has a narrow angle of view and gives telescopic effect hence the name telephoto lens. The perspective is shallow i.e. the relative distance between objects appears to be compressed. Longer the focal length, narrower the view and more the telescopic effect. Auxiliary Lens Auxiliary lens cannot work independently on a camera; instead they are used in combination with a camera lens. Teleconverter A teleconverter is placed between the camera body and camera lens so as to increase the focal length of camera lens by some multiple like 2X or 3X. There is a loss in effective aperture when a converter is used; hence the exposure has to be increased. Picture quality also suffers to some extent. Close-up/Supplementary Lens This is a simple attachment for taking close-up shots. Close-up lenses are positive lenses and hence are attached to the front of the camera lens. IMAGE FORMATION BY A LENS The image formed by a converging lens can be made using only three principal rays. Ray 1 is the ray which travels parallel to the axis and after going through the lens it passes through the focal point. Ray 2 passes through the centre of the lens. Ray 3 goes through the focal point and then travels parallel to the axis after passing through the lens. Thus any point on the object can be mapped, using the rays above, into a corresponding point on the image. This point is located on the intersection of the rays. In the example, thought the image is formed by intersection of just three rays, and on a relatively simple lens, in reality every point on the subject reflects the light rays

falling on it and all these rays converge together at one point to form an image and this holds true for any image formed by complex compound lens used in SLR cameras. LENS PROPERTIES & THEIR PHOTOGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE A focal plane is a plane that is parallel to the image plane. There are three focal planes; front, rear, and principal (optical centre). They are also called the focal points. The perpendicular axis extending through these focal points is referred to as the focal axis. The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens to the front or rear focal point along its focal axis. For a simple, symmetric lens these are the same distance. The focal length of a lens is determined primarily by the curvature of its surfaces. It is also affected by the index of refraction of the glass and the medium in which the lens resides. The index of refraction is simply the ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum and the speed of light in a given substance. The greater the curvature, the thicker the lens, and the shorter the focal length is. The image distance describes where an in-focus image of the subject is formed. It can also be described as the point where the rays of light from a distant object converge and are in focus. If the image distance is positive, the image is formed behind the focal plane (typically a convex lens). If it is negative, the image is in front of the focal plane (typically a concave lens). A negative distance image is also referred to as a "virtual image". An object at infinity is in focus at the focal length. So, the camera and lens are designed such that the principal focal point is one focal length in front of the image sensor when focused at infinity. If the subject of our attention is closer than infinity, the focused image is no longer at one focal length. Since this new image distance does not fall on the image sensor, it will be out of focus. Moving the image sensor is not practical and moving the camera or subject will change the compositing and hence the meaning. So, we move the lens, thus moving the relative position of the focal plane(s). This increased distance will put the focused image where the image sensor lies. The aperture of the lens describes the size of the opening that allows light to pass through. For example, if the focal length were 200mm, a lens opening of 50mm would be F4. A lens opening of 6.25mm would be F32. So, for a given focal length, a larger opening will give you a smaller number. Since the aperture size controls the

amount of light that hits the sensor, it directly effects the amount of time (shutter speed) needed for proper exposures. The maximum aperture (smallest number) is important because it directly relates to the maximum amount of light the lens can capture. It will usually also reflect the overall quality of the lens. As the focal length of the lens increases, the diameter of the aperture opening needs to increase to maintain the same F-stop. This is ultimately limited by the diameter of the lens barrel itself. The aperture is frequently positioned as near as mechanically possible to the principal focal plane. Depth of field (DOF) defines the sharpness of objects that are in front of and behind the main subject. Smaller apertures (larger f-stops) give more DOF while larger apertures give less DOF. But the aperture is not the only variable. In addition to the focal length, subject distance and the circle of confusion also affect DOF. The circle of confusion is a subjective measurement of the smallest detail (single image element) needed so that any blur cannot be detected. Different values are used for different film and digital formats and even for different enlargement objectives. Wide-angle lenses have more DOF than telephoto lenses, other factors remaining constant. But, you have to move back from the subject for the telephoto lens to frame the same image. This almost negates the difference. For example, at F8 a 50mm lens has 4.6 feet DOF with the subject at 10 feet. With a 100mm lens the subject has to be at 18 feet for the same image. At this distance, the 100mm lens yields 4 feet DOF. In summary, DOF can be very critical in extreme close-up photography. The refractive power of a lens is measured in dioptres and is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length (1/F) in meters. It is a measurement of the amount that the light bends as it passes through the lens. The shorter the focal length, the more the lens refracts the rays of light. Dioptres are used to determine the magnification power of the lens. A one-dioptre change increases magnification by 25%. Lens power is typically indicated by an "X" such as 2X or 4X. Unfortunately there are several different formulas used to convert dioptres to power ratings (X). Plus, or positive focal powers are called convergent (producing a real image) and minus, or negative powers are called divergent (producing a virtual image). Dioptre is commonly used to rate magnifying glasses, microscopes, telescopes, and binoculars. Some telescope manufacturers define power (X) as the focal length divided by the lens diameter. And some photo lenses define power as the relationship between the focal lengths at the ends of the zoom range. The focal length is the primary measurement used to rate camera lenses. Because of these different measurement techniques, "X" power is not a consistent

way to rate lenses unless you are comparing two models of the same device from the same manufacturer. In addition, the magnification of a lens should not be confused with the reproduction ratio of a projection system. The reproduction ratio is the relationship between the physical size of an image on the film plane and the physical size of the actual object being viewed. It has nothing to do with the size of a print you might make from the photograph. A one to one ratio can be achieved at any focal length with the correct and equal image and object distance. The greater the focal length of the lens, the greater this distance will be. The Angle of View (AOV), like magnification, is directly related to the focal length. However, to calculate the angle of view you also need to know the size of the image sensor. You can use the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal measurement. The term Field of View is often used interchangeably with angle of view erroneously. The field of view is a linear measurement that is also dependent on the subject distance. It will also be different when using the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal measurement. Lens specifications usually include the Angle of Coverage. This refers to the circular image of acceptable quality formed behind the lens at infinity focus. It is not dependant on the sensor size.

APERTURE What is an aperture? Aperture refers to the lens diaphragm opening inside a photographic lens. The size of the diaphragm opening in a camera lens regulates amount of light passes through onto the film inside the camera the moment when the shutter curtain in camera opens during an exposure process. The size of an aperture in a lens can either be a fixed or the most popular form in an adjustable type (like an SLR camera). Aperture

size is usually calibrated in f-numbers or f-stops. I.e. those little numbers engraved on the lens barrel like f22 (f/22), 16 (f/16), f/11, f/8.0, f/5.6, f/4.0, f/2.8, f/2.0, f/1.8 etc. Each of this value represents one time the amount of light either more or less in quantity. Meaning to say, f/16 will let in 1X the amount of light than a diaphragm opening of f/22 and so forth; while on the other hand, an aperture of f/4.0 will let in 1X lesser than that of f/2.8 etc. Note: the diaphragm blades inside this manual focus Canon FD lens control the amount of light passing through the lens that eventually hitting to the film during an exposure process. The 'amount', or simply explained in layman term - opening changes according to selection of aperture (f/number). In this case, it is indicated by the f-numbers that imprinted on the lens barrel.

LENS SIDE: If a simple word "diaphragm" can be confusing to you, just try to think numbers engraved on the lens barrel are not referred to aperture diaphragm but rather, as just number to let you refer the size of the lens diaphragm. So, just memorize these numeric settings as they represent the corresponding size of the lens diaphragm inside the lens and let you determine and control how much light you would require to let into the camera for a proper exposure by way of selecting an appropriate aperture diaphragm from large to small (lens opening). But technically, these numbers refer to the relative physical opening of the lens diaphragm.

Modern Autofocus SLR cameras may have a different ways in manipulating the aperture. One of the trend is - the aperture value is now control via a thumb wheel on the camera (usually near the shutter release button) and the AF lens has no aperture ring to alter the value. Each camera manufacturer usually has their own series of lenses under a trade name to verify its usage, various compatibility issues with their previous camera model's function etc. For an instance, Canon manual focus lenses are called "FD" or "FL"; while their newer series of autofocus lenses (AF) designed for their Canon EOS Series cameras are referred as "EF" (Electro Focus). Each of these MF/AF lenses has their own respective way to illustrate the control of aperture in the camera. When you turn the aperture ring on a lens to vary the aperture, you will be able to check visually the set opening of the lens diaphragm (Opens bigger or stopping smaller).

There are many camera brands out in the market, thus, it is indeed very difficult compile all of them at one time. Anyway, the three popular camera brands to illustrate the whereabouts of these aperture on the lens. (A) is a typical FA lens by Pentax; (B) is a typical manual focus Nikkor zoom lens from Nikon; while the (C) is a Zuiko lens by Olympus. Reminder: - the key to an theoretical good EXPOSURE = Aperture + Shutter speed Aperture value(s): f/64, f/32, f/22, f/16, f/11, f/8.0, f/5.6, f/4.0, f/2.8, f/2.0, f/1.8/f1.4 etc. Control via the lens section Shutter speed(s): 1/8000, 1/4000, 1/2000, 1/1000, 1/500, 1/250, 1/125, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1 sec, etc. Control via the Camera section

Remember: For a theoretical "perfect" exposure to be formed i.e. nice colour balance, every details shown or simply a photo that you are happy about, take a good combination between using an aperture with the appropriate matching shutter speed for any given film speed (ASA/ISO) are required. The latter refers to the film speed of the film roll used. i.e. ASA 100, ASA 200, ASA 400 etc. the faster the film speed used, you can use to capture lower lighting situation but at the expense of grainer output of prints / slides. Each step increment in the use of film speed will also indirectly correspond with one step of aperture OR shutter speed.

Aperture and its direct relation that might affect in your photography

Other than controlling the amount of light entering into the camera, What else does aperture do ? When the shutter button is released, light passes through the aperture diaphragm and hit the film, an exposure is formed. Basically, aperture, along with duration/timing of the shutter curtain opening, both contribute to a the formation of an exposure. But aperture also affects an important photographic element called "depth of field" (short form "DOF"). Depth of field is just the technical term used to describe the 'zone' of sharpness' between nearest and farthest of a subject in focus (to be more exact, distance of sharp focus in front and behind, subject on which the lens is focused). Another factor you need to know is: All the markings on the lens barrel are double in effect . i.e. f/11 doubles the amount of light of f16, f2 allows 1X more light than of f2.8 does into the camera etc. With a mechanical SLR camera, with the proper exposure guide suggested by the built-in meter in a camera, you need to adjust both aperture and shutter speed yourself (it is termed as manual setting in an automatic camera). Usually in the case

of an automatic camera, you will still have manual control operating as if you are using a mechanical camera. Typically, a few extra choices of exposure control methods may be provided:- the first is called "Aperture Priority" (some camera uses a symbol "Av" - short for "aperture value"; the next is "Shutter Priority" (Tv - short for "Timing value". Aperture priority means you select the aperture to determine the depth of field yourself and the camera will set to the appropriate shutter speeds to match your aperture selected for a optimum exposure suggested by the camera's built-in electronic metering circuit, while shutter priority will let you select the preferred shutter speed setting and the camera will select the matching aperture values to match your choice. The third option is called the "Programmed Mode"(P short for "Programmed Auto", where the camera select both the aperture value and the shutter speed for you and you may have no control in determine the depth of field yourself. (some cameras offer a another mode called flexi-program - I think it is too complicated to explain here). Newer range of autofocus SLR cameras use a new method of controlling aperture. You will find there is NO NEED to set aperture via the lens aperture ring; instead aperture is controlled by the thumb wheel for BOTH shutter Speed (B) and Aperture (A). A method first pioneered by Canon on their manual focus Camera, the Canon T90 back in 1986. Although this new electronic input method is different from older SLR cameras, the principle remains the same. The VISIBLE confirmation of the selected aperture used on camera like this type is via the LCD on the top panel OR through the viewfinder. SHUTTER SPEED Most basically it is defined as- shutter speed is the amount of time that the shutter is open. Shutter speed is measured in seconds - or in most cases fractions of seconds. The bigger the denominator the faster the speed (ie 1/1000 is much faster than 1/30). In most cases youll probably be using shutter speeds of 1/60th of a second or faster. This is because anything slower than this is very difficult to use without getting camera shake. Camera shake is when your camera is moving while the shutter is open and results in blur in your photos. If youre using a slow shutter speed (anything slower than 1/60) you will need to either use a tripod or some type of image stabilization (more and more cameras are coming with this built in).

Shutter speeds available to you on your camera will usually double (approximately) with each setting. As a result youll usually have the options for the following shutter speeds - 1/500, 1/250, 1/125, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8 etc. This doubling is handy to keep in mind as aperture settings also double the amount of light that is let in - as a result increasing shutter speed by one stop and decreasing aperture by one stop should give you similar exposure levels (but well talk more about this in a future post). Some cameras also give you the option for very slow shutter speeds that are not fractions of seconds but are measured in seconds (for example 1 second, 10 seconds, 30 seconds etc). These are used in very low light situations, when youre going after special effects and/or when youre trying to capture a lot of movement in a shot). Some cameras also give you the option to shoot in B (or Bulb) mode. Bulb mode lets you keep the shutter open for as long as you hold it down. When considering what shutter speed to use in an image you should always ask yourself whether anything in your scene is moving and how youd like to capture that movement. If there is movement in your scene you have the choice of either freezing the movement (so it looks still) or letting the moving object intentionally blur (giving it a sense of movement). To freeze movement in an image (like in the surfing shot above) youll want to choose a faster shutter speed and to let the movement blur youll want to choose a slower shutter speed. The actual speeds you should choose will vary depending upon the speed of the subject in your shot and how much you want it to be blurred. Motion is not always bad - There are times when motion is good. For example when youre taking a photo of a waterfall and want to show how fast the water is flowing, or when youre taking a shot of a racing car and want to give it a feeling of speed, or when youre taking a shot of a star scape and want to show how the stars move over a longer period of time etc. In all of these instances choosing a longer shutter speed will be the way to go. However in all of these cases you need to use a tripod or youll run the risk of ruining the shots by adding camera movement (a different type of blur than motion blur). Focal Length and Shutter Speed - another thing to consider when choosing shutter

speed is the focal length of the lens youre using. Longer focal lengths will accentuate the amount of camera shake you have and so youll need to choose a faster shutter speed (unless you have image stabilization in your lens or camera). The rule of thumb to use with focal length in non image stabilized situations) is to choose a shutter speed with a denominator that is larger than the focal length of the lens. For example if you have a lens that is 50mm 1/60th is probably ok but if you have a 200mm lens youll probably want to shoot at around 1/250. Bringing it Together - Remember that thinking about Shutter Speed in isolation from the other two elements of the Exposure Triangle (aperture and ISO) is not really a good idea. As you change shutter speed youll need to change one or both of the other elements to compensate for it. For example if you speed up your shutter speed one stop (for example from 1/125th to 1/250th) youre effectively letting half as much light into your camera. To compensate for this youll probably need to increase your aperture one stop (for example from f16 to f11). The other alternative would be to choose a faster ISO rating (you might want to move from ISO 100 to ISO 400 for example). Shutter Speed and The Real World SITUATION SETTING SPEED A hummingbird is hovering above a flower, and you don't want it's wings to be blurry Very fast shutter speed 2000 to 4000 Your kids are playing soccer, and you want the images to be sharp and clear Fast shutter speed 500 to 1000 You are taking a portrait of your favorite pet, and your pet is being polite and sitting still Moderate shutter speed 125 to 500 A carousel is spinning and you want to show how fast it is going by letting the horses blur Slow shutter speed and tripod 8 to 60 You want to take a photograph of your favorite building at night Very slow shutter speed and tripod 8" to 30"

BLUR

Intentional blurring of a subject can result from either using a slow shutter speed when the camera is held still while the subject moves, using a slow shutter speed while the camera is moved parallel with the subject and at the same rate of speed by panning. For a stationary camera, you simply mount the camera on a tripod or other film support and select a shutter speed of 1\30msec. or slower. With this any part of the subject that is in motion will be blurred. The faster the subject motion and the slower the shutter speed, the greater the degree of blur. For a moving camera, the shutter speed can range from 1\30 sec. to 1\125 sec. And still be effective. Follow the subjects movement, and then gently squeeze the shutter release while you pivot on the axis, following the subject with the camera all the while the shutter remains open and then some, just to prevent any jarring motion of your affecting the image. Here subject remains sharp and unblurred its the background that becomes a total blur. TIMED EXPOSURES Some of the most exciting exposure effects come about by using shutter speeds of one second or longer. The camera should be mounted on good solid support to avoid any unwanted blur. When you go beyond the shutter speeds marked off on your cameras shutter speed dial, you have to count off seconds. Have a watch with a second hand or have a sense of timing. Use the manual mode of the camera. Dont worry about accuracy; with most exposures you have some leeway. For example- time a fireworks exposure from 1 sec. To 5 sec and achieve good result star trails require counting time in hours.

FOCUSING The focal length of a lens is usually displayed on the lens barrel. Pictured below is a Nikon lens with a focal length of 50mm. The maximum aperture is f/1.8 (also often written as, F1.8). 35mm Film Do not confuse '35mm' lens with a focal length of 35mm. The former refers to traditional 35mm film camera format (also known as 135 format). In other words, '35mm film camera' refers to the 135 film format -- not the lens format. [35mm is the width of the film including the sprockets.] 35mm Equivalent Normal, Wide-Angle, Telephoto, Zoom We usually categorize lenses as having a wide-angle, normal or telephoto focal length. A normal 35mm lens covers a 24x36mm film with a field of view that corresponds approximately to our normal vision; a lens with a focal length of 50mm (55mm is also popular) is considered as normal. Any lens with a focal length less than 50mm (or 55mm) can be considered as wide-angle; any lens with a focal length greater than 50mm (or 55mm) can be considered as telephoto. A zoom lens offers a range of focal lengths. The table below lists some of the more popular focal lengths. Lens Popular Focal Lengths for 35mm cameras Wide-angle 18mm, 20mm, 28mm, 35mm Normal 50mm, 55mm Telephoto 90mm, 135mm, 200mm, 300mm Depth of focus is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image plane (the film plane in a camera) in relation to the lens. In a camera, depth of focus indicates the tolerance of the film's displacement within the camera, and is therefore sometimes referred to as "lens-to-film tolerance. Depth of focus vs depth of field: While the phrase depth of focus was historically used, and is sometimes still used, to mean depth of field, in modern times it is more often reserved for the image-side depth. Depth of field is a measurement of depth of acceptable sharpness in the object space, or subject space. Depth of focus, however, is a measurement of how much distance exists behind the lens wherein the film plane will remain sharply in focus. It can be viewed as the flip side of depth of field, occurring oJn the opposite side of the lens.

Where depth of field often can be measured in macroscopic units such as meters and feet, depth of focus is typically measured in microscopic units such as fractions of a millimetre or thousandths of an inch.J The same factors that determine depth of field also determine depth of focus, but these factors can have different effects than they have in depth of field. Both depth of field and depth of focus increase with smaller apertures. For distant subjects (beyond macro range), depth of focus is relatively insensitive to focal length and subject distance, for a fixed f-number. In the macro region, depth of focus increases with longer focal length or closer subject distance, while depth of field decreases. Determining factors In small-format cameras, the smaller circle of confusion limit yields a proportionately smaller depth of focus. In motion picture cameras, different lens mount and camera gate combinations have exact flange focal depth measurements to which lenses are calibrated. The choice to place gels or other filters behind the lens becomes a much more critical decision when dealing with smaller formats. Placement of items behind the lens will alter the optics pathway, shifting the focal plane. Therefore, often this insertion must be done in concert with stopping down the lens in order to compensate enough to make any shift negligible given a greater depth of focus. It is often advised in 35 mm motion picture filming not to use filters behind the lens if the lens is wider than 25 mm. Lens Markings Primer The picture below of a typical lens (in this case a 28mm) shows four sets of markings. At top is the distance scale (on the lens' focus barrel) showing figures in feet and meters (this also shows the infinity position). The bottom set of figures shows the selected f-stop for the lens. These are on the lens aperture ring and, as you change the aperture, the selected f-stop under the central line on the depth of field scale will tell you what aperture you've selected. To find out what part of a scene is in focus is simply a matter of reading the distance

scales between the two marks for your selected f-stop on the depth of field scale. For example, let's say I've focused on something that's 3 feet away. If my lens is set at f/2.8, then reading the distance values at the two "2.8" marks on the lens shows that everything just shy of 3 feet to about 3.5 feet will be in focus (a little estimation is required in reading the distances). This is fine for isolating your subject from everything else. When we close the lens down to f/11, then reading the distances for the two "11" marks shows that everything between just over 2 feet and 5 feet will be in focus. If the lens is set to focus on infinity (the infinity mark is over the central mark on the depth of field scale), then you only need to read off the distance value for the f-stop mark to the left of the central depth of field scale as everything between it and infinity will be in focus. In this next picture, if I'd set my f-stop to f/5.6, everything from just over 10 feet to infinity would be in focus. If I'd selected f/16, it would be everything from 5 feet to infinity. Hyperfocal Focusing Hyperfocal focusing is based on the the fact that depth of field typically extends 2/3 behind the point focused on and 1/3 in front, but if you focus on infinity, the depth of field behind is completely wasted. You can make use of it if you refocus, putting the infinity mark (an "8" on its side) on the focusing ring against the aperture set on the depth of field scale (this is known as the hyperfocal point). If, for example, you set a 28mm lens to f/11 and focus on infinity, everything from about 9 feet (2.5m) to infinity will be sharp. Align the infinity mark against the f/11 position to give hyperfocal focusing and the depth of field now extends from 4 feet (1.2m) to infinity, which is essential if you want foreground interest to be pin-sharp. If you set your lens to f/16 and rotate the focus barrel to place the infinity mark over the "16" position, then reading the scales shows that everything between just under 3 feet to infinity will be sharp. The Hyperfocal distance is that point above the central mark on the depth of field scale when the infinity mark has been put over the required f-stop mark on the depth of field scale. In the case of the 28mm lens at f/11, that's 9 feet / 2.5m. At f/16, the hyperfocal distance would be 5 feet. Remember that the hyperfocal distance will be different for lenses of different focal length and different f-stops. This table shows the distances that will be in sharp focus for a 28mm lens set to focus at infinity (left) and set using hyperfocal focusing (right):

f-stop Lens Set at Infinity Lens Using Hyperfocal Focusing f/16 5 feet / 1.5 m to infinity 2.8 feet / 0.8 m to infinity f/11 9 feet / 2.5 m to infinity 4 feet / 1.2 m to infinity f/5.6 13 feet / 3.5 m to infinity 7 feet / 2 m to infinity The table below shows the hyperfocal distance for different lens and f-stop combinations. If your lens has a distance scale but lacks a depth of field scale, you can use this table to set your lens to the hyperfocal distance required. The wider the angle of a lens, the shorter its focal length and the deeper its depth of field. So, as an example, an 18mm lens will have deeper (longer) depth of field than a 105mm. Also, the smaller the aperture you use the greater the depth of field; i.e. for a lens of any given focal length, there's more depth of field with it at f/16 than at f/4, for example. Seeing the Difference Here's the difference between two images, one focused at infinity (top), the other hyperfocally focused (bottom):

Normal infinity focusing - note the blurred foreground at right

Normal infinity focusing - note the sharp foreground at right

Apparent sharpness

Precise focus is possible at only one distance; at that distance, a point object will produce a point image. At any other distance, a point object is defocused, and will produce a blur spot shaped like the aperture, which for the purpose of analysis is usually assumed to be circular. When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus; it is rendered as acceptably sharp. The diameter of the circle increases with distance from the point of focus; the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion. The acceptable circle of confusion is influenced by visual acuity, viewing conditions, and the amount by which the image is enlarged. The increase of the circle diameter with defocus is gradual, so the limits of depth of field are not hard boundaries between sharp and unsharp. Several other factors, such as subject matter, movement, and the distance of the subject from the camera, also influence when a given defocus becomes noticeable. The area within the depth of field appears sharp while the areas in front of and beyond the depth of field appear blurry. Effect of lens aperture For a given subject framing and camera position, the DOF is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the f-number, the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter. Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the fnumber) increases the DOF; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, and increases diffraction, placing a practical limit on the extent to which DOF can be increased by reducing the aperture diameter. Motion pictures make only limited use of this control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors, and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels. Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects. Obtaining maximum DOF Lens DOF scales

Many lenses for small- and medium-format cameras include scales that indicate the DOF for a given focus distance and f-number; the 35 mm lens in the image above is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The DOF scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to f-numbers; when the lens is set to a given f-number, the DOF extends between the distances that align with the f-number markings. Depth of field DOF at various Apertures f/22 f/4

f/8 f/2.8

Selective Focus

At f/32, the background is distracting At f/5.6, the flowers are isolated

EXPOSURE Meaning of exposure: Exposure may be defined as the amount of time the section of the film in the camera needs to be exposed to light in order to obtain a picture. Based on the above, there exist two concepts: a) Overexposure b) Underexposure. a) Overexposure: When the film is exposed to too much of light (more than what is necessary), the image is characterized with lot of bright zones which are known as highlights. This does not capture the object the way it is and instead emphasizes on the whiter areas of the frame. b) Underexposure: When the film is exposed to lesser light (lesser light than what is required to create a complete image) it is known as underexposure. An underexposed image is characterized by darker zones in most of the frame. Control of exposure: Exposure can be controlled using two devices present in a standard single lens reflex (SLR) camera. a) Shutter speed b) Aperture (f number) c) Film speed (ISO rating)

a) Shutter speed: The shutter speed determines the exposure of the film to light by the amount of time the shutter is open to light this is measured in seconds. Eg: 2 refers to 2 seconds and 1/10 refers to one tenth of a second. b) Aperture or f number: The aperture is a disc-like structure present in front of the lens and has a variable diameter. The larger the diameter, greater is the exposure and vice-versa. The aperture is measured using the f number. The f number usually ranges from 3.5 to 22. The value of the number is inversely proportional to the diameter of the aperture. Eg: At f number = 22, the diameter is the smallest and is highest at f number = 3.5. c) Film speed or ISO rating: The film speed is determined by the materials used in the manufacturing of the film. Film speeds with higher ISO number are manufactured with highly light-sensitive chemicals. This requires the film to be exposed to light for a lesser amount of time (as compared to film with a lower ISO number). On the other hand, a film with lower ISO number require the film to exposed to light for a longer periods of time since they are not incorporated with light sensitive chemicals.

Incident and reflected light: Incident light is defined as the light that is directly incident on a surface (the cameras lens in this case). Incident light has different properties when compared to reflected or refracted light. Incident light may be defined as the light that is directly incident on the lens of the camera from the object. Reflected light on the other hand, is light that has bounced off a surface and usually has the properties of the surface from which it has bounced off. Reflected light is usually diffused or has the colour properties of the surface from which it has bounced off. This plays a vital role in the composition of the photograph since this also plays a key role in the exposure time required for a photograph.

AVERAGE AND NON-AVERAGE SCENE OF LIGHT AND CONVERTING IT INTO EXPOSURE Cameras today are standardized to expect that any scene will be of standard brightness. These cameras deliver well under average conditions of light. Average scene of light is the amount of light received by the lens from all directions. The amount of light reflected from all directions is 18%; the amount of grey in the image. When the conditions of light exceed this standard, the camera will expose the image inaccurately. The camera is 'deceived' by the light (too much or too little) available and the main subject may be over or underexposed. These conditions are termed as non-average scene of light. Most cameras are not designed for non average settings such as: a backlit scene; where the source of light is behind the image, shining into the lens a sunset scene a snow covered scene a desert scene, with bright sand The brightness of the scene in the above mentioned examples is above normal: brighter than average, and will more often than not result in an underexposed (dark) image. A scene containing tones which are darker than the average will result in an overexposed (too bright) image, exposing the emulsion to excessive light. This is referred to as non-average lighting conditions. Under such conditions it is required that we manually adjust the exposure. Also, modern cameras have many special scenes programmed into them which we can turn to under such circumstances to match the scene being captured.

This problem can be tackled in the following ways: Exposure compensation:

This is the intentional over or under exposing of the image in order to match the scene of light or lighting conditions. If the scene is brighter than average, the exposure should be increased to make the image brighter. This overexposes the surroundings, but properly exposes the main subject. Exposure bracketing: Exposure bracketing means that you take two more pictures: one slightly underexposed (usually by dialing in a negative exposure compensation), and the second one slightly over-exposed (usually by dialing in a positive exposure compensation,), according to the camera's light meter. These three shots ensure that conditions of too much or too little light have been compensated for. Spot Metering: Some cameras have a spot metering mode with which it is possible to focus the centre spot on the view finder to spot on the part of the scene that needs to be properly exposed. EXPOSURE METERING IN SLR CAMERAS When we practice taking pictures using a Single-Lens Reflex Camera, chances are that the photograph will appear either over-exposed (burnt out) or under-exposed (too dark). On enquiry, youd figure out that in both these cases, youve let in either too much and too less light. As such, you would require a device that tell you the amount of light that is being let into your camera so that you can figure out for yourself whether you want you subject/background over/underexposed. An exposure meter serves the purpose of quantifying light, so that you can judge with confidence the amount of light that you want to let into your camera. Fortunately for you, the exposure meter comes installed in your SLR camera, measuring the amount of light that the lens conduits through to the film/image sensor. The kind of meter you have determines not only how it measures light, but how you should use it. There are two basic kinds of meters: reflected-light (they measure the light reflecting from a scene) and incident-light (they measure the light falling onto a scene). Each type has its advantages and its disadvantages. Some meters have

accessories that enable you to use them to read either reflected light or incident light. Reflected-light meters that read a wide angle of view are also called averaging meters. They account for most of the reflected-light meters in use, including those built into cameras. Another type of reflected-light meter, the spot meter, is designed to take readings from only a small part of the scene. METERING Multi-segment, Matrix, or Pattern Metering This is the latest metering system that divides the scene into a number of separate segments. The light in each of these segments is measured and then the information from all the segments contributes to the exposure settings. This takes into account not only the amount of light in each part of the scene, but also the significance of its location in the scene. For typical scenes that conform to one of the pre-programmed lighting models, the exposure set by the camera should be correct, and for over 90% of the time it usually is. Center Weighted, or Average Metering This is the metering method in vogue before multi-segment metering and works on the principle that the area in the center of the image is more critical than the edges. While it provides an average exposure setting based on the overall scene, it gives increasing emphasis to the light at near the center of the image. Spot Metering This only considers the exposure value of one small spot in the center of the image and ignores the rest of the scene. EXPOSURE DISPLAY An exposure display device exists for a single lens reflex camera including light display elements for displaying either shutter speed or aperture value. Nominal values representing either shutter speed or aperture value are marked on a glass plate disposed in the vicinity of the focusing plate of the camera's viewfinder. A first display section, comprising a first set of light display elements aligned with (and, if desired, located in between) the nominal values, creates a first exposure component (e.g. aperture value or shutter speed) display whose value is related to predetermined exposure conditions, such as object brightness, film sensitivity and the other exposure component (e.g. shutter speed or aperture).

A second display section, comprising a second set of light display elements, also aligned with the nominal values, creates a second display of the exposure component chosen to be displayed. The second display represents the actual position of the camera element controlling the displayed exposure component. In simpler words, when you look through the viewfinder of your SLR camera, certain crucial values such as F-Number (Aperture Value), Shutter Speed and Exposure values are displayed at the bottom or left margin of your viewfinder, depending on the make of your camera. This makes it easier to take a photograph because you can see the changes you make to your shutter speed, aperture and exposure settings while framing your photograph before clicking the shutter release button.

Semester One SIMC Batch 2010

Syllabus Notes Presentation Module: Photography

Team Coordinator Padma Venkatraman Team Members Name Roll Name Roll Arindam Mohanty 045 Prakash V 153 Ajay Hatti 073 Neeraj Meena 166

Neha Hooda 113 Pooja Meshram 168 Srinivasan S 112 NishantRoy Bombarde 186 Pranav Karnad 122 Ronak Sharma 221 Varun Ravindran 125 Nupur Bodas 236 Sachi Dudani 137 Sanjog Desai 241 Maheshwar Bhadane 148 Varun Banerjee Rahul Bhosle 103

Photography Module: Session Topic Student 1 Role of Different Elements involved in Photography Neeraj Meena 2 Overview of Photographic Process Ajay Hatti and Rahul Bhosle 3 Role of Photography and Photographer in Communication Nupur Bodas 4 Photographic Significance of Light NishantRoy Bombarde 5 Nature and General Properties of light and Image Formation Neha Hooda 6 Pinhole and Box Camera Pooja Meshram 7 SLR Camera Prakash V 8 Digital Camera Sanjog Desai 9 Camera Lens Ronak Sharma 10 Aperture Maheshwar Bhadane 11 Shutter Speed Sachi Dudani 12 Focusing Srinivasan S 13 Exposure, Incident and reflected light Pranav Karnad 14 Avg and Non-avg scene and converting to exposure Varun Ravindran

15 Exposure Arindam Mohanty

Compiling, editing, pictures and fill-ins: Padma Venkatraman and Varun Banerjee