HOMEWORK 1 Q1: List various Commands used to perform following operations a) Make your Home Directory your current

t directory. b) cd /home/particle/muondata c) d)

Moves from ANY directory into the muondata sub-directory of your home directory. Takes you back to your home directory

e)
f) cd ~

g) (/home/particle)
ANS. Use the 'cd' command without any target; that always puts you in the
home directory which becomes by default the working directory.

You can use the cd command to do more than change to a home directory: You can use it to change to any directory by specifying a valid absolute or relative path. The syntax is as follows:

[amrood]$cd dirname [amrood]$

Here, dirname is the name of the directory that you want to change to. For example, the command:

[amrood]$cd /usr/local/bin [amrood]$

Changes to the directory /usr/local/bin. From this directory you can cd to the directory /usr/home/amrood using the following relative path:

[amrood]$cd ../../home/amrood [amrood]$

h) To display who is logged in your system.

i) who command is used to get the list of the usernames who are

currently logged in. Output of the who command contains the following columns: user name, tty number, date and time, machine address.

j) $ who

k) ramesh pts/0 l) jason pts/1 m) john pts/2

2009-03-28 22:57 (dev-db-server) 2009-03-28 23:01 (dev-db-server) 2009-03-28 23:04 (dev-db-server)

n) To change password for the current user. o) To move the directory /usr/local to /opt/pgms. p) To list various files and directories in current working directory.

Q2: Give a brief structural overview of Linux operating system with an appropriate diagram? INTRODUCTION Architecture is the main blood line of any technology. The same is applicable for the operating systems also. The Linux operating system is having its unique architecture. Linux is having kernel and shell as its major components. This unit cover the topics related with the architecture of the Linux operating system and file structure. OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you should be able to understand: structure of Linux; Linux Kernel ; system data structure; subsystem architecture; and Linux file structure. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LINUX Two Major components of Linux 1. Shell

2. Kerne Diagram.. Shell 1. Shell is the command interpreter which reads the program we type at terminal, line by line and perform the required operations. 2. The shell is the part of Linux O.S that acts as an intermediary between user and the O.S. 3. It develops a shell around the system that converts our instructions into commands, which helps the system to understand and act on it. 4. Linux system provides every user its own copy of shell program which makes him work freely without any interference of other users. Kernel The other component of the Linux O.S is the kernel which makes a direct interface with the hardware components. The Kernel Performs Different Functions The kernel make creation and deletion of processes, schedule the memory management and I/O management of the processor. It provides a mechanism for synchronization of processes so that processes synchronize their actions. It provides mechanism for inter process communication. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE The Linux kernel is useful as a whole when participates as one part in a larger system. Following shows a decomposition of the entire Linux operating system:

Q3: Explain various features of Linux? Updated kernel and core technology stack

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 provides a completely updated core, including the operating system kernel, compiler and developer toolchain, libraries, drivers and included applications (e.g. httpd, samba, nfs, etc). The overall platform has grown significantly, with approximately 30% more packages than the previous release, providing many new and improved features. Red Hat has been the leading developer and contributor of technologies to the Linux upstream kernel for many years and uses them to create a kernel that includes a comprehensive set of enterprise-strength capabilities. It is designed to allow future capabilities to be incorporated without impacting certified applications (by keeping APIs/ABIs stable). Virtualization Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 features fully integrated virtualization based on the KVM hypervisor. The tight integration means that KVM benefits from a number of core kernel features such as the tickless kernel, cgroups and the CFQ (Completely Fair Queuing) scheduler, etc. Additionally, Red Hat's leadership in KVM development has fostered the development of sophisticated paravirtualization capabilities that encompass non-traditional devices such as the clock, interrupt controller, spinlock subsystem and vmchannel. A range of new features improve scalability, I/O performance and deployment flexibility. The application environment is consistent for physical and virtual systems, simplifying the

adoption of virtualization. Support for features such as transparent huge pages, SR-IOV, virtualized asynchronous I/O, and message signaled interrupts deliver performance improvements for all guests, from the largest enterprise application to the Windows desktop. Scalability increases include more memory and CPUs per guest, more guests/server. Also, to ensure forward compatibility, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 is able to run as a full or paravirtualized Xen guest on Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 Xen-based hosts. Performance Beta 1 - June 2010 The wide range of performance enhancements in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 reaches all components of the platform. A few examples include: per-LUN flush daemons that enable dramatic performance improvements for enterprise applications deployed on large I/O subsystems (previously a single daemon was shared); kernel multi-queue network device support is used to provide QoSbased transmission and virtualization performance improvements; ticketed locks provide spinlock acquisition fairness in large-scale SMP systems (typically NUMA systems with >16 CPUs); filesystem performance improvements are provided by the new default filesystem, Ext4, and the optional XFS filesystem. Client/Desktop Client support enhancements for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 focus on two areas: the native Linux desktop and VDI/HVD (Virtual Desktop Infrastructure/Hosted

Virtual Desktop). Significant enhancements to the native Linux desktop include support for OpenChange, which allows MAPI access to Microsoft Exchange servers; greatly reduced boot times; improved laptop suspend, resume, docking station and projector support; many graphics/multimedia improvements; and a complete update of all desktop applications (browser, office suite, etc.). VDI/HVD capabilities enable centralized hosting of both Microsoft Windows and Red Hat Enterprise Linux desktops. High-performance, intelligent communication between the server and client, optimized for today's multimedia environments, is provided by the Red Hat-developed SPICE protocol. Development The development environment for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 has been thoroughly updated with the latest compilers and tools. The GCC 4.4 compiler provides OpenMP 3.0 conformance, allowing developers to create portable, parallel programs. It also provides C++0x conformance features and debuginfo handling improvements. Glibc malloc optimizations improve the speed and efficiency of large and NUMA memory allocations. The gdb debugger features numerous improvements including greatly improved C++ debugging, pretty printing of C++ classes, optimizations to assist debugging of large programs, non-blocking thread debugging, asynchronous interaction, and enhanced Python scripting capabilities. The Systemtap tracing and profiling utility can take advantage of pre-configured kernel tracepoints, C, C++ and Java user-space

probing and backtracing. Analysis of core system performance can be aided by using PCL to profile processor hardware operations. The Eclipse IDE offers Java, C & C++ development enhancements, and new integration with Valgrind and OProfile. Scalability Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 scales to the largest systems on the market today with plenty of headroom for systems expected in the next decade. Tested and supported limits will grow in step with top-of-the-line hardware capabilities, while theoretical limits are exceptionally high. For example, for x86-64 systems, limits of up to 4,096 CPUs, 33,000 IRQs. 64TB of memory, 4 million processes, and 32,000 thread per process, give an idea of the capacity of the system. In line with these increases, enhanced software algorithms, for example in the scheduler and spinlock subsystems, ensure that the operating system can handle huge systems efficiently. Q4: Write a short note on a) Chmod The chmod command is used to change access permissions to files and directories. The format is chmod permissions filename

> chmod 755 file.txt

To see what permissions a file or directory has in linux, you use the ls command with option -l (eg: ls -l) which gives a long format listing.

> ls -l -rwxr--r-- 1 root root 765 Apr 23 09:22 file.txt

The permissions are the first 10 characters of the line (-rwxrwx---) and can be broken down as follows.
rwx r-File Owner Group type r-All 765 Apr 23 file.txt Mod Links Owner Group Size Filename date 1 root root