Cohesion and Paper Organization

Overview:
What is cohesion? What strategies can we use to build cohesion between sentences? How do we organize paragraphs and entire essays? How does genre influence organization?

What is cohesion?
Cohesion refers to connections between sentences. In a cohesive paragraph, each sentence is related to the next, and separate sentences work together to make a unified whole. Cohesive sentences and paragraphs seem to grow and depend on each other. Sentences and paragraphs that are not cohesive seem disjointed and often leave the reader confused. Recognizing Cohesive Paragraphs Lacks Cohesion Captain James Cook discovered the island of Hawaii in 1779. Mauna Kea, on Hawaii, is the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Cook might have noticed the many mountains on the island as he sailed into Kealakekua Bay. The island also has five major volcanoes. Mauna Loa, another mountain on the island, is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Kilauea is the most active volcano on earth. It continues to enlarge the land that makes up this largest island in the Hawaiian chain. The volcano sends forth lava continuously (The Longman Writers Companion 32). Cohesive In 1779, Captain James Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay and discovered the island of Hawaii. As he entered the bay, did Cook notice the many mountains on the island? Perhaps he noticed Mauna Kea, the tallest mountain in the Pacific. Perhaps he spotted one or more of the five major volcanoes. One of these, Mauna Loa, is a dormant volcano that last erupted in 1984. Another, Kilauea, is the most active volcano on earth. It sends forth lava continuously. In addition, it keeps adding to the landmass of what is already the largest island in the Hawaiian chain (The Longman Writer's Companion 32). Questions for Discussion What makes the first paragraph awkward or "bumpy?" What makes the second paragraph cohesive? Do you notice any words that signal the reader and allow her to follow along? Highlight these words in the second paragraph.

What strategies can we use to build cohesion between sentences? A. Reader Expectation Have you ever finished someone's sentence or known what he or she was going to say before he or she said it? If so, it is because what he or she said before set up a series of expectations for you. Conversely, have you ever had to stop someone who was talking to you and ask him or her to explain what he or she just said? Most likely, your confusion was the result of the speakers failure to fulfill an expectation he or she had set up.

When we are reading, we usually cannot ask the writer to explain an idea further. Therefore, when we are writing, we MUST keep reader expectation in mind. We must occasionally stop writing and put ourselves in our reader's shoes to determine whether our writing makes sense. One very easy way to do this is to read your writing out loud and listen to it as though you are the reader. What does reader expectation have to do with cohesion? Almost everything!! A reader's expectations come from what was written before. As readers, we expect the writer to stay on task and follow through. When the writer does not do this, the writing may seem disjointed. It is writing with roadblocks. The reader cannot read on because he or she has become confused. Exercise Look again at the example of a coherent paragraph. Delete the second sentence of the paragraph, the question. Discuss how that deletion alters reader expectation. In what way does the presence of the question change the expectation set up by the opening sentence? Compose an alternative second sentence in the form of a statement, rather than a question. Compare your version to the first in terms of reader expectation (Kolln 42).

B. Use the Known-New Contract

Notice how, in the following paragraph, each succeeding sentence is connected to what has gone before: Portland, sixty miles from the Pacific Ocean, is by no means immune to the suburbanization that has sapped the vitality from many cities. Its suburbs now contain about two-thirds of the area's 1.4 million residents and about half of the area's jobs. Yet as the suburbs have grown, the downtown has become more attractive and popular than ever. Downtown Portland has distinct edges. Its eastern border is the deep, navigable Willamette River, lined for more than a mile by Tom McCall Waterfront Park, a grassy, mostly level expanse suited to events that draw thousands such as the Rose Festival (Portland calls itself the "City of Roses"), a blues festival, and a summer symphony series. Its western border is the steep West Hills, which contain Washington Park, home of the International Rosefest Gardens, where more that 400 varieties of roses are cultivated, and Forest Park whose 4,800 acres of Douglas fir, alder, and maple, constitute one of the largest national preserves and hiking areas in any American city. -Philip Langdon, "How Portland Does It," The Atlantic Monthly (November 1992). Sample reproduced from Rhetorical Grammar by Martha Kolln Each sentence begins with "known" information and proceeds with "new" information. The known information is in the subject slot while the new information goes in the predicate slot. Read the sentences out loud, noticing how you stress the new information. Of course, not every kind of writing is going to flow this way. However, this is so usual that we can think of it as a "contract" - the reader has a right to expect each sentence to be connected to what has gone before by means of a known element. Exercise Revise these passages to improve their cohesion. Think especially about reader expectation and the known-new contract.

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The Gateway Arch at the edge of the Mississippi River in Saint Louis is the worlds tallest monument. Eero Saarinem designed the stainless steel structure that commemorates the Westward Movement. Psychologists believe that color conveys emotional messages. Advertisers routinely manipulate consumers using color psychology. The pure white backgrounds and bold primary colors of detergent boxes are thought to influence buyers. Cleanliness and strength are associated with those colors. Getting chilled or getting your feet wet will not cause a cold. Weather is not the culprit that causes the common cold. Viruses are to blame. (Kolln, Rhetorical Grammar 47-48).

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C. Understand the Road Signs of Writing Metadiscourse refers to signals that help the reader understand the writers message: it is discourse about discourse; signals that communicate about communication. You can think of these signals as road signs that clarify the purpose or direction of a passage. For example, "for example" is an example of such a road sign. When a sentence begins with "for example," the reader expects the writer to offer an example of a previously discussed concept. Examples of Road Signs e.g. for example first, in the first place, finally, on the one hand/on the other hand not only . . . but also moreover, furthermore, likewise, also meanwhile, afterwards, previously however, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand therefore, so, consequently, as a result, of course nevertheless, yet, still, at any rate, after all, of course namely, for example, for instance, that is, in other words thus, then, in conclusion How do we organize paragraphs and entire essays? The guiding organizational principle in your essay is the thesis statement. Your thesis statement should include both a topic and a controlling idea. Topic + Controlling Idea= Thesis ECU Transit System + should be restructured to better serve students, faculty, and staff Thesis ECU Transit System should be restructured to better serve students, faculty, and staff. Every sentence and paragraph in your essay should directly or indirectly related to your thesis statement, and the way in which you craft your thesis statement should signal to the reader how your essay will proceed. From Easy Access by Michael Keene and Katherine Adams:

With this thesis Getting a good summer beach rental requires four steps that you should complete during March and April, the writer promises a chronological structure, which requires discussing the steps in order, with a paragraph or more given to each one. Paragraph 1 Your first step will be to get a list of the reputable real estate offices in the area and work through the hype in their catalogues. Paragraph 2 After you have completed the preliminary analusis, you should talk to the most reputable offices about their rental options. Paragraph 3 When you have reviewed the catalogues and special options, you should be ready to narrow your choices and make the final decision. Paragraph 4 Although you are almost finished now, you should carefully review the contract and policies before you rent a house or condominium. After reading this thesis A fun weekend at the North Carolina coast can cost as little as $400 if you plan carefully for entertainment, food, and lodging, an audience would naturally expect a general-to specific structure, with the general assertion stated in the introduction and with separate paragraphs providing the specifics on the three items. Paragraph 1 By using the special deals advertised in beach newspapers, you can enjoy the best entertainment at reasonable prices. Paragraph 2 Local fish and vegetable stores as well as the specials offered at non-tourist restaurants provide delicious, economical dining. Paragraph 3 By investigating return condos and other unadvertised real estate options, you can get an excellent house or condominium at a very low rate. For an essay with the thesis Because of recent environmental problems, you should avoid the North Carolina beaches in late August, the writer might choose a specific-to-general structure, in which the problems would first be enumerate and then the recommendation would appear in the conclusion. You might begin with a general statement of topic, describe the growing environmental problems, and conclude with the thesis. Initial Statement of Topic: Given recent developments on the North Carolina Coast, planning a beach vacation requires some knowledge of environmental conditions. Paragraph 1: The beginning of the hurricane season has in recent years brought huge clumps of seaweed to the shore in late August. Paragraph 2: Mosquitoes, spawned in standing water at coastal construction sites, also come out en mass at that time.

Paragraph 3: Stinging jellyfish, called sea nettles come into shallow waters in late August to feed on plankton, a food source that has generally increased by recent beach dredging.

Conventional Methods of Academic Essay Organization 1. Sequence in time or space used for narrative or descriptive writing characterized by explicit time markers 2. Logical Order common in persuasive or argumentative discourse one sentence is a proposition and the next is a conclusion or result 3. Amplification one sentence clarifies an earlier one by defining, qualifying or illustrating it 4. Accumulation one sentence introduces an idea or example similar to that of preceding sentence often introduced by transitional words such as likewise, also, and, moreover 5. Contrast contrast the idea of one sentence with that of another 6. Repetition - two or more sentences are linked by repetition of key words 7. Parallelism duplication of sentence structures 8. Comparison- compare the idea of one sentence with that of another 9. Definition- explaining a sentence, topic, idea, or concept beginning with general information and moving toward specifics 10. Cause and Effect- State and explain the causes of a phenomenon and then identify, explain, and discuss the effects, relying on the logical order principle 11. Problem-Solution- Identify problems and propose solutions to those problems, relying on the logical order principle Exercise For the thesis statement above ECU Transit System should be restructured to better serve students, faculty, and staff, use the Problem Solution/Logical Order organization strategy compose solid topic sentences for a five to six paragraph essay. Then, link these topic sentences together using the Road Signs of writing that we covered above.

A word to the wise from Lisa Edes Work in Progress As the examples we have covered indicate, your subject matter may naturally lend itself to a certain method of organization. In some cases, perhaps if you were asked to write an essay contrasting two types of computer operating systems, you would be able to use a single method of organization. More often, however, you will need to use several methods of organization in a single essay. In considering how you can best draw on methods of conventional organization, remember not to impose these methods formulaically. Begin thinking how to organize your writing by reflecting on your goals as a writer and your rhetoric situation. Remember, form should grow out of meaning and not be imposed on it.