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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. III - Pollution Control in Industrial Processes - V.
Beschkov
POLLUTION CONTROL IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

V. Beschkov Institute of Chemical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria Keywords: environment pollution, petroleum industry, energy production, chemical industries, emission control, waste minimization, energy savings, sustainable industrial development Contents 1. Introduction 2. Petroleum Industry 2.1 Pollution from Exploration and Production of Crude oil and Natural Gas 2.2 Pollution from Storage, Manipulation, and Transportation of Petroleum Liquids 2.3 Estimation of Pollution and Control Technologies for Petroleum Processing 2.3.1 Estimation of air pollution 2.3.2 Control technologies for water pollution and solid wastes 2.4 Concluding remarks 3. Energy Production from Fossil Fuels 3.1 Production, transportation and pre-combustion processing of fossil fuel and their contribution to environmental pollution 3.1.1 Coal mining, its impact on environment and technologies for pollution control 3.1.2 Pre-combustion cleaning 3.2 Power generation from fossil fuels 3.3 Power generation from gaseous and liquid fuels 3.4 Fuel Cells 3.5 Formation and control of pollutants in combustion 3.5.1 Greenhouse gases 3.5.2 Particulate matter 3.5.3 Specific pollutants 3.6 Post-combustion pollution control technologies 3.7 Concluding remarks 4. Inorganic Chemical Technology 4.1 Production of Sulfuric Acid 4.1.1 Manufacturing 4.1.2 Emissions in Air 4.1.3 Solid Waste 4.2 Production of Nitrate-Containing Fertilizers 4.2.1 Ammonia Synthesis 4.2.2 Emission Control in Ammonia Synthesis 4.2.3 Production of Nitric Acid 4.2.4 Emission Control at Nitric Acid Production 4.3 Soda Production 4.3.1 Emissions 4.4 Cement Industry 4.4.1 Production Principles
U SA NE M SC PL O E C EO H AP LS TE S R S
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. III - Pollution Control in Industrial Processes - V. Beschkov
4.4.2 Emissions 4.4.3 Pollution Reduction 5. Organic Chemical Industry 5.1 Bulk Chemical Industry 5.2 Emission Control 5.3 Pharmaceutical Industry 5.3.1 Chemical Syntheses and Related Emissions 5.3.2 Extraction of Natural and Biological Products and Emissions 5.3.3 Fermentation 5.3.4 Air Emissions Control Systems 5.3.5 Wastewater Treatment 5.3.6 Solid Waste Treatment 5.3.7 Pollution Prevention Options 6. Pulp and Paper 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Technologies for Pulp Production 6.2.1 Preparation 6.2.2 Pulping 6.2.3 Chemical pulping 6.2.4 Pulp processing 6.2.5 Bleaching 6.3 Pulp Preparation from Secondary Paper. Impact of Paper Recycling on the Environment 6.4 Emissions 6.4.1 Air emissions 6.4.2 Liquid emissions 7. Control of Pollution in Iron and Steel Industry 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Sinter production 7.3 Coke production. Control of pollution 7.4 Iron Production. Control of pollution 7.5 Iron making 7.5.1 Steel production. Control of pollution 7.5.2 Basic oxygen process (BOP) 7.5.3 Electric arc furnace (EAF) 7.5.4 Ferroalloy production. Control of pollution 7.6 Rolling. Control of pollution 7.7 Iron foundries. Control of pollution 7.8 Steel foundries. Control of pollution 8. Control of Pollution in Non-ferrous Metals Industry 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Production of aluminum 8.2.1 Process technology 8.2.2 Emissions control 8.2.3 Emissions minimization 8.3 Production of copper 8.3.1 Pyrometallurgy 8.3.2 Emissions
8.3.3 Hydrometallurgy 8.4 Lead Production 8.4.1 Primary lead production 8.4.2 Emissions 8.4.3 Secondary lead smelting 8.4.4 Air emissions and pollution control 8.5 Zinc production 8.5.1 Primary zinc production 8.5.2 Secondary zinc production 8.5.3 Emissions 9. Concluding Remarks Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch
Summary 1. Introduction
Environment pollution accompanies each stage of any industrial process, starting with raw material and fuel production and ending with waste treatment. Energy consumption plays a key role in every human activity. On the other hand its production is associated with severe pollution of air, soil and water. That is why energy saving, accomplished by any method contributes to reduction of the overall pollution of environment. The exhaustion of raw materials in nature, the increasing emission of greenhouse gases, the depletion of ozone layer and the severe pollution of underground water and soil prompted modern society to abandon the old fashioned approach of end-of-pipe emissions control. Nowadays the approach of environmentally sustainable industrial development is widely discussed and adopted. It comprises different methods for pollution minimization: to improve efficiency of processing of raw materials; to reduce raw materials input and energy consumption; to re-use by-products; to improve management practices. This approach is demonstrated here using the examples of chemical industries and energy production since they are the most powerful sources of environmental pollution in modern society, compared to all other industries.
In the nineteenth century, when the technically developed countries (according to the current standards) were few, the production rates and the environmental pollution were not a source of concern. In the twentieth century however, the technical revolution and the resulting economic changes prompted almost the whole world to adopt industrial development as a pattern for prosperity. However, this trend could not be without negative consequences. The extensive industrial development throughout the world lead to huge demand for energy and raw materials, resulting in exploitation of coal, oil and natural gas resources on a scale unseen hitherto. The consequence was generation of enormous amounts of waste and emissions to air and water bodies, overwhelming the capacity of nature to restore the environmental balance. Deforestation, caused by
different reasons in different countries, led to massive release of carbon dioxide, the commonest of the greenhouse gases. All this created serious climate changes, which have already been observed. The non-balanced use of certain organic chemicals, like solvents and chlorinated compounds, along with air transport, led to depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer in, menacing the life of the whole planet. An illustration of the profile of the most important industrial air pollutants in USA for 1997 with their sources of origin is given in Table 1.
Industry Sector Metal Mining Pulp and Paper Inorganic Chemicals Organic Chemicals Petroleum Refining Rubber and Misc. Plastics Stone, Clay and Concrete Iron and Steel Nonferrous Metals Pharmaceutic als Power Generation CO 4,670 566,883 153,294 112,410 734,630 2,200 NOx 39, 849 358,675 106,522 187,400 355,852 9,955 PT 173,566 111,210 34,664 16,053 36,141 5,182 SO2 17,690 493,313 194,153 176,115 619,775 21,720 VOC 915 127,809 65,427
105,059 340,639 662,233 87,939 24,654 4,425 308,534 1,386,461 214,243 6,586 153,607 31,136 19,088 232,347 253,538 21,311 366,208 5,986,757 464,542 13,827,511
180,350 313,982 132,945 34,337
83,882 11,058 37,214
57,384
Table 1: Air Pollutant Releases by Industry Sector in U.S.A. for 1997 (tons/year) (Source: Profile of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, EPA/310-R-97-005, http://www.es.epa.gov/oeca/sector).
New efficient and clean technologies and processes, which save raw product and energy, as well as involving by-product use and recycling, are beneficial for environmental protection by reduction of emissions to air, water and soil. At the same time natural resources can be spared for the future. This approach is known as environmentally sustainable industrial development (ESID), leading to reduction of natural resources consumption and to less environmental damage from raw material extraction. ESID leads particularly to lower energy demands and consequently to decrease in fuel consumption and production with less environment pollution, as well as reduction of emissions to all of components of environment and to reduction of waste treatment costs. The ESID approach was formally adopted at the World Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It is included in the development programs of the United Nations and the developed countries. Another document of global importance is the Protocol agreed at the Conference in Kyoto
(1997). It sets out commitments to limit greenhouse gas emissions for industrial countries for the period 2008 to 2012. These documents are up-to-date for engineers, scientists and operators to implement technology strategies and public policies that prevent, reduce, or eliminate adverse environmental consequences in chemical industry and metallurgy. The best way to reduce pollution is to prevent it in the first place. In the waste management hierarchy if source reduction is not feasible, the next alternative is waste recycling, then energy recovery and waste treatment as a last alternative. There are different practices for emission reduction. Different opportunities to reduce emissions in industrial processes, particularly due to the chemical industries, as the mostly powerfully polluting ones, are presented and discussed in this paper.
2. Petroleum Industry 2.1 Pollution from Exploration and Production of Crude oil and Natural Gas
The petroleum industry includes various activities to explore for, produce, and transport oil and petroleum products worldwide. Besides the production of fuels and lubricating oils, large refineries integrated with petrochemical plants may produce many different synthetic derivativesfrom pure chemicals to additives for fuels and lubricants, synthetic polymers, elastomers, etc. However, the world petroleum industry produces around 67 million tons of waste annually. Modern pollution control technologies applied by and developed for the petroleum industry are of great importance, both from the economic and environmental point of view. A comprehensive presentation and discussion on the impact of the petroleum industry on environment and ways to combat the resulting adverse effects is given in Control of Pollution in the Petroleum Industry.
Major activities in this branch of the petroleum industry include exploration and well site preparation; drilling; crude oil and gas production, enhanced (secondary) recovery and eventually some on-site processing. Air pollution from the production of oil and gas is by volatile hydrocarbons in fugitive emissions (mainly methane), as well as emissions from storage and manipulation. Exhaust combustion emissions are generated from compressors, pumps, drill engines and engines of servicing vehicles. Gas flaring is the major source of combustion emissions. The major source of secondary emissions is the water separated from the natural gas and crude oil. Underground water pollution is usually associated with enhanced recovery and desalting of crude oils. Solid wastes are mainly sludge from the desalting of the crude oil and storage vessels, spent mud, etc. 2.2 Pollution from Storage, Manipulation, and Transportation of Petroleum Liquids Storage, manipulation and transportation are operations, which are inherent to all
branches of the petroleum industry. Air emissions from storage and transportation are mainly evaporative hydrocarbon emissions from manipulationloading/unloadingand transit losses from storage tanks and tanks of transporting vehicles. Ballast water from transporting vessels and especially ocean-going tankers is the major source of secondary emissions, but also a major source of marine water pollution. Another source polluting underground water is leaking liquids from pipelines. Solid waste generated in storage and transportation is mainly sludge from the storage and transportation tanks. 2.3 Estimation of Pollution and Control Technologies for Petroleum Processing 2.3.1 Estimation of air pollution
Emissions to air from the petrochemical industry are usually presented as methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Table 1 shows that the petroleum industry is the biggest source of VOC emissions. Storage and handling emissions can be measured directly but are most often calculated. The most widely used control technologies include floating roofs, submerged filling, balancing the vapors from all tanks and collecting them in a separate tank, and condensation of excess vapors. Combustion emissions can be measured but on a larger scale are usually calculated from the amount and type of fuel burned in the particular burner. Typical control techniques are concentrated on improving the efficiency of combustion and diminishing heat losses. These include new types of burners, flue gases heat recovery, introducing new processes with lower energy consumption, etc. Flaring is used to control pressure and remove gas, which cannot be otherwise used.
Fugitive emissions (equipment leak emissions) are the most difficult to characterize, because they come from an enormous amount of point sources. The control technologies include inspection and maintenance programs, and change of equipment with more advanced seal design modifications. Process emissions are generated in the process units and are released from process vents. They are most frequently estimated from the material balances of the particular processes. Gas streams from all refinery processes are usually passed through gas treatment and sulfur recovery units to remove sulfur and recycle them to fuel gas. Particulates are captured in electrostatic precipitators or cyclone separators. Wet scrubbers may be used for catalytic cracking units in the future in order to eliminate catalyst fines. New developments include production units with reactive distillation, use of oxygen enriched air catalytic cracking, replacing of solvent dewaxing in lubricant production by catalytic dewaxing, bio-desulfurization of oil and oil products and so on. The water systems of a production or processing site (tanks, ponds, sewer system drains,
etc.) are the main source of secondary emissions. The main options for their control are diminishing the amount of wastewater and solid wastes and keeping wastewater and solid wastes in closed systems in order to control their release. 2.3.2 Control technologies for water pollution and solid wastes Many of the wastewater and solid wastes sources are similar in the different branches of the petroleum industry. Refineries provide much more options for regeneration and re-use of effluents. Some of the main directions in which these options are being further improved comprise decreasing the total amount of water used in refineries, introducing separate treatment for collection and treatment for wastewater, collecting separately and using rain and snow water, development of new, more efficient de-emulsifiers and systems for oil-water separation. Most refineries generate solid waste in a sludge form, spent caustics, spent process catalysts, filter clay, and incinerator ash. The best solution to the solid waste problem is the reduction of the generated amounts by developing new technologies and processes. 2.4 Concluding remarks
3. Energy Production from Fossil Fuels
The brief review presented shows that the best way to decrease emissions in the petroleum industry, either in air, liquid or solid, is to improve the economic efficiency of the facility. This means that one has to prevent leaks and non-controlled evaporation, to utilize and to recycle the waste as by-products, and to recover their energy as secondary fuels. Waste disposal is considered the last option and should be minimized.
Energy production and energy consumption play a key role in economic development and the health of the environment. The extensive use of fossil fuels began in the middle of the nineteenth century, associated with industrial development. However, power production from burning fossil fuel led to extremely severe pollution of air, water and soil, through greenhouse gases and by damaging the land. Power generation is the most powerful source of emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, non-comparable with any other industry (see Table 1). 3.1 Production, transportation and pre-combustion processing of fossil fuel and their contribution to environmental pollution Coal is a major source of energy for power stations. Almost 40% of the world's electricity is generated from coalmore than twice the proportion from any other fuel. Coal causes environmental problems associated with the release of particulate matter (PM), soot, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and sulfur and nitrogen oxides. 3.1.1 Coal mining, its impact on environment and technologies for pollution control
The environmental problems of power generation from coal combustion begin with its mining. Coal mining operations are sources of air pollution in the form of methane, coal or rock dust. Water pollutants are suspended and dissolved solids, sulfates, acidity and alkalinity. Acidity derives from oxidation of coal pyrites by the oxygen dissolved in water or contained in the pumped air. The overall effect of these reactions is the conversion of sulfur compounds into sulfuric acid. Back filling, grading, restoration, re-vegetation and post mining land uses are needed after surface mining. 3.1.2 Pre-combustion cleaning Pre-combustion cleaning is used to reduce the mineral and ash content in coal. Froth flotation is used for cleaning the fine classes of coal. Desulfurization, even partial, is a very important step in the pre-combustion cleaning of coal. Pyrites are removed (within 30-50%) by flotation. Distillate oils have negligible nitrogen and ash content with sulfur less than 0.3% (wt.). Residual oils contain significant quantities of metals, nitrogen, and sulfur. Waste oils include used crankcase oils from automobiles and trucks, used industrial lubricating oils, and other spent industrial oils (i.e., heat transfer fluids). High levels of halogenated solvents are also often found in waste oil. The most common pre-treatment scheme for waste oil uses sedimentation followed by filtration. Blending of waste oil with a virgin fuel oil is practised frequently and has the same effect as some of the pre-treatment processes. 3.2 Power generation from fossil fuels
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There are three main designs of combustion systems in which coal and air can be reacted, classified as fixed bed system, entrained (or suspended) bed system and fluidized bed system. The latter is characterized by sufficiently high velocity of the oxidizing gas to support or float the particles without carrying them out of the bed. A pressurized fluidized bed combustor (PFBC) system can drive both a gas turbine and a steam turbine. This arrangement is known as a combined cycle. Coal gasification is one of the clean systems of power generation because sulfur, nitrogen compounds and particulates are removed before the fuel is burned. In an integrated combined cycle with coal gasification coupled with an advanced gas turbine, gas can be cleaned of more than 99% of its sulfur and ash and 90% of its nitrogen pollutants. The gas is burned in the gas turbine. Exhaust heat is used to produce steam for steam turbines. Coal gasification can also take place in situ.
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Cholakov G. St., 4.14.4.3. Control of Pollution in the Petroleum Industry. (this issue) Doushanov D.L., 4.14.4.4. Control of Pollution in the Iron and Steel Industry (this issue). Edgar, T. F. (1983), Coal Processing and Pollution Control, Gulf Publ. Co., Houston, TX, USA. Elsom, D. M. (1992), Atmospheric pollution, Blackwell, U. K.
Blast furnace Slips and Accompaning Emission as an Air Pollution Source, US EPA , NTIS PB 261-065/AS.
Conners, A., and Mullen, J., (June 1980), Development in Coke Ovens Emission Control, Iron and Steel Engineer. Croenert H., Dalpke H.-L., Kilper W., Pothmann D., Berndt W., (1979), Papier, Fahserrohstoffe, in: Ullmanns Encyklopaedie der technischen Chemie (in German), 4th Edition, Verlag Chemie Weinheim, Band 17, pp. 531-576 (this chapter contains comprehensive and critical review on the different methods for pulp making). Development of Technology for Controlling Basic Oxygen Process Charging Emissions, US EPA , NTIS PB 277-011.
Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry (1998), Prepared by Energetics Inc. for the U.S. DOE, OIT. [A highly informative review of the refining industry, providing detailed analysis of its environmental impact in the USA.] Favrat D. (1999), in: Environmental Performance Indicators in Process Design and Operation, M.P.C. Weijnen, P.M. Herder (editors), Delft University Press, pp.17-36 (this paper presents the ESID approach in combination with the impact on life cycle for design of industrial processes). Flagan, R. C. and Seinfeld, J. H. (1988), Fundamentals of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA. Freeman, H.M., et al., (1995), Cleaner Technologies and Cleaner Products for Sustainable Development, NATO ASI Series, 2. Env.- Vol.2, Springer, Germany. [The types of technologies and strategy about of environmental and economic front are covered in this volume]. Glassman, I. (1987), Combustion, 2nd ed., Academic Press, Inc., London, UK. [Thermodynamic and chemical fundamentals of combustion]. Handbook of the Petroleum Processor (1986), Ed. G. A. Lastovkin, E. D. Radchenko and M. G. Rudin, Chemistry, Leningrad, Russia (in Russian).[Contains articles with abundance of data for the petroleum processing industry of the former Soviet Union] Heinrich, K., (2, 1990), Status report and potentials for development of HYL-III direct reduction technology, Metallurg. Plant Technol. Int. Hocking M.B. (1984), Modern Chemical Technology and Emission Control, Springer Verlag,
Heidelberg-New York, Chapters 5,6,7,9 (these chapters contain basic data for some traditional inorganic productions with emissions control). Kotzin, E.,L., (1989)., Metalcaster s Guide, Ed. American Foundrymen s Sciety, Des Plaines, IL Licht C.A., P.E. (1992), Secondary Lead Smelting, in: Air Pollution Engineering Manual (ed. A.J. Bounicore, W. Davis, R. Van Nostrand), N.Y., 723-726 (contains a comprehensive review of modern technology for secondary lead recovery and measures for air pollution control). Licht C.A., P.E. (1992), Secondary Zinc, in: Air Pollution Engineering Manual (ed. A.J. Bounicore, W. Davis, R. Van Nostrand), N.Y., 727-730 (contains a review of modern technology for secondary zinc recovery and measures for air pollution control). Linden, H. R (194), In: The greening of industrial ecosystems, National Academy of Engineering, Ed. Allenby, B., R. and D. J. Richards, Washington, DC, USA [Contains useful estimates and comparison of fossil fuel resources.] Melin A. (1979), Blei, in: Ullmanns Encyklopaedie der technischen Chemie (in German), 4th Edition, Verlag Chemie Weinheim, Band 8, pp. 542-583 (this chapter contains comprehensive review on the different methods for lead recovery and processing).
Nishimura, H. (1989), How to Conquer Air Pollution, Elsevier, Oxford, U K. Pollution and Its Containment (1990), Thomas Telford Ltd., U. K.
Meyers, R. A. (1997), Editor in Chief: R. A. Meyers, Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, 2 nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. [The latest handbook of petroleum refining processes] Moulins J. (1992), Copper Smelting, in: Air Pollution Engineering Manual (ed. A.J. Bounicore, W. Davis, R. Van Nostrand), N.Y., 624-631 (contains a review of modern technology for copper production and measures for air pollution control).
Pandya, S. B. (1987), Conventional Energy Technology, Tate McGraw-Hill Publ. Co., New Delhi, India. [A comprehensive textbook on energy technologies, including world wide and Indian experience].
Profile in the Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete Production Industry, EPA/310-R-95-017, pp. 15-32; 32-33 (a review of the modern achievements, toxic release inventories and methods for pollution control and reduction). http:// www.es.epa.gov/oeca/sector/. Profile of the Non-Ferrous Metals Industry, EPA/310-R-95-010, pp. 9-18; 21-30; 32-39; 50-52 (a review of the modern achievements and trends with methods for pollution control and management). http:// www.es.epa.gov/oeca/sector/.
Profile of the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, EPA/310-R-97-005, pp. 19-38; 40; 44-51; 58-59 (a review of the modern achievements, recent data for USA, toxic release inventories and new methods for pollution control and reduction). http:// www.epa.gov/oeca/sector/. Sorkin, Ia, G. (1983), Production Without Wastes in the Petroleum Processing Industry, Chemistry, Moscow, Russia (in Russian). [Provides a well informed review of pollution prevention in the refining industry of the former Soviet Union]. Toxic air pollution handbook (1994), Ed. D. R. Patrick, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, USA. [ A handbook for all aspects concerning toxic compounds.]. Web site of the US Environmental Protection Agency (http//www.epa.gov). [Provides information for all major problems covered in the topic]. Wei M.W. (1992), Primary Aluminium Industry, in: Air Pollution Engineering Manual (ed. A.J. Bounicore, W. Davis, R. Van Nostrand), 590-606 (contains a comprehensive review of modern technology and measures for air pollution control). Westbrook, C.,W., Environmental Assessment of Electric Submerged Arc Furnaces for Production of Ferroalloys, US EPA 68 - 02 - 2630. Wotte, J.,et al., (1996), Environmental Engineering and Pollution Prevention, NATO ASI Series, 2 Env.Vol. 18, Kluver Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. [Contains useful descriptions and evaluations of
contamination problems on industrial areas in connection with techniques for clean-up]. Biographical Sketch Venko N. Beschkov was born on December 6, 1946 in Sofia, Bulgaria. He graduated in chemistry in the Faculty of Chemistry, University of Sofia St. Climent Ohridski in 1969. . He got the scientific degrees PhD in 1978 and DSc in 1996 in the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria..He is currently Head of the Institute of Chemical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria He was a deputy-minister of environment protection in the Bulgarian Government (1991/92). He was and he is a member of different scientific councils and commissions to the Bulgarian Government and the Bulgarian National Assembly. He is a fellow of the World Innovation Foundation, the American Chemical Society, Head and member of the Bulgarian National Committee Man and Biosphere -UNESCO; Member of the Standing Committee for the Physical and Engineering Sciences (PESC) at the European Science Foundation, etc. .He is an editor of the journal Bulgarian Chemical Communications and he is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Biotechnology (Inderscience Enterprises Ltd).The scope of his scientific activities is mass transfer operations, bioprocess engineering (fine chemicals production, waste water treatment, gas pollution removal, etc.); over 75 scientific papers and 1 monograph published; more than 350 citations noted.. He is a leader of many scientific and applied projects financed by Bulgarian National Fund for Scientific Research, by the Fifth Framework Programme of EU and Bulgarian companies.

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POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES Vol. III - Pollution Control in Industrial Processes - V.

POLLUTION CONTROL IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

180,350 313,982 132,945 34,337

83,882 11,058 37,214

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