Training Halls of the Japanese Martial Tradition. A Symbolic Analysis of budo dojo in New York Author(s): John J.

Donohue Reviewed work(s): Source: Anthropos, Bd. 85, H. 1./3. (1990), pp. 55-63 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40462114 . Accessed: 30/09/2012 00:30
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85.1990:55-63 Anthropos

Halls of theJapaneseMartialTradition Training

A Symbolic of Analysis budo dojo in New York
JohnJ. Donohue

examines symbolic the of Abstract.Thisarticle aspects a type untary associations intheperpetuation parof play has in which itsorigins Japan, but ticular ofvoluntary organization and social organizaaspectsof cultural to poly-ethnic, environment urban ofNew has which spread the in mean- tion. It to the York symbolic City. seeks describe way which The rolesuchorganizations inperpetuatin an play understanding ingis expressed, thehopesthat enhanced of institution aidinthedelineation its ing ofthis ofsocial ethnic and in may type identity group solidarity poly-ethmartial symbolic nicsocio-cultural socialfunction. art, /Budodojo, Japanese environments as NewYork such analysis] in a sense,on thecultural content of from holds Ph. D. inanthropology theState a J. John Donohue Brook.He currently teaches of UniversityNewYorkat Stony at Adelphi University College. University's

Introduction

theirstudiesbein Anthropologists, expanding have social and political groups, yondkin-based so- 1. Budo dojo: A Brief or involuntary secondary Overview beeninterested long and thefunction their cialgroups, structure, they has focused organizations very on with Little serve. example, exam- Thisresearch (1957,1965),for links as in and associations Africa, hasCohen strong totraditional ined culture, inJapanese voluntary observation andparticipationtraining of and in on whofocused theeconomic political cluded (1969) of associa- inthearts kendo-a system oriented around the role ethnic, voluntary tribally-oriented intomore useoftheJapanese sword soloexercises the in and social groups tionsplayin integrating in The research useofa mock-sword simulated combat as well systems. complexsocio-economic of withgroupswhich as thearts judo andaikido systems concerned here is concerned presented in with self-defense without are but in havedeveloped Japan, which found weapons.All thesesysfrom actual combat deNew York City.Specifically voluntary tems developed techniques Japanese the era have been explored by Norbeck velopedduring feudal in Japan. associations As such,thesesystems hearken back to the (1962), Hsu (1975), and in moregeneraltreatof known retainers of ments Japanese Hall, and development a classofarmed society (Beardsley, or who the lords of Ward1959;Dore 1958,1967).Despitethediffer- as bushi samurai, served great from twelfth the the cenaidedconsiderably Japan thesestudies encein location, through nineteenth The of budois,ina very real associations turies. study modern of in theanalysis Japanese voluntary theperpetuation an ancient of train NewYork. sense, Japanese thepoliti- dition. have researchers emphasized Many This is not to say thatthesemodernbudo Volunof functions suchgroups. cal andeconomic do from limit- forms notdiffer their feudal arebyno means however, associations, predecessors. tary budo are ritualized, Theresearch In the first ofhuman tothese ed place, sportive activity. spheres of that methods combat; are for this on which paperis based wouldindicate they notmeant use as More importantly, role these suchgroups important in the true combatsystems. playan equally artsare not meretechniques, whatthe modern andthedataobtained ideational my during sphere, oriterm are Hsu's Japanese of jutsu;they rather systems groupswouldsupport study secondary of the vol- entedaround integration physical the stresses roleJapanese which work training, (1975)

Cityhinges, activities suchgroups, thewayinwhich of and this is content expressed, andreinforced. To conveyed, understand function suchgroups, the of we fully must explore symbolic first the which serve systems to bothdefine perpetuate organizations. and their This initialphase of ethnographic exploration the forms subject of matter thispaper.

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JohnJ. Donohue

mental and for In orientation. fact, transmission the insight the anesecultural discipline, philosophical and of of spirituality thedevelopment of variousaspectsof Japaneseculture promotion through as character. Thesesystems known do, which theseartsseemedto be as importantfeature are a as of skills be translated "way,"or "path,"and con- the development specifically as physical may imovertones the themselves. Cultural factors wereparticularly tain strong Buddhist concerning inkendo I studied, a The where large for search enlightenment. philosophical dojo propre- portant in- portion students of and their wereJapanese Americans these arebasedfind arts cepts uponwhich in ofJapanese beliefs found descent. in Japanese spiration indigenous and as Shinto, wellas Taoist,Confucian, Buddhist behind The kendo, judo,and concepts. philosophy in in Western aikido very is traditional itsnoninspi- 2. Symbolism the Japanese MartialTradition ration. of of budodojo also In all training Thesocialstructure modern halls,regardless ethnic composithe and I observed were of asso- tion, practices movements reflects typically patterns organization conof which transcended mundane socialstructure, ciatedwith specificallyfull meaning Japanese The siderations technique. fact,the impacted of In and anemphasis rank, on hierarchy, lineality. as which of the various are pervades practice modern systems often distinguished being meaning untermed budoindicates oneavenue an enhanced that to of specific traditions, variously ryu, part of is an hall socialentity through analor kai,andeachtraining is headedbyan derstanding this kan, to is or whose instructor,sensei, system. ability teach legiti- ysisofit as a symbolic with Budo maybe perceived preeminently as linealaffiliation a mizedthrough almost an symfound within its The socialem- bolic- thepractices customs and orsystem. Japanese style particular of forms serve reinforce articulate to and ceron status theranking individuals various through phasis whichare directly intosuperior inferior and status is relatedto the positions espe- tain concepts noticeable within members are maintenance thebudodojoas a socialgroup of and budo,where cially divided intoascending ranksof beginner's class theperpetuation concepts of vitalto itscontinuation.Thisis a very fundamental since observation, (kyu)and advanced grades(dan). have of to and in are Budo,therefore, a variety links tra- ritual symbolic practices any society conditional culture. of cerned of with and Theyare the result Japanese questions solidarity continuathepolitical ofthewarrior Japanese role in an of as history. tion.Nonetheless, analysis these practices havebeendecisively affected theideologi- symbolic withan emphasis their on They by phenomena, calcurrents Chinese Japanese of and demonstrates they that philosophical having impacted meaning, in many the to the And, systems. ways, socialorganiza- also relate implicit assumptions concerning tion budodojo hasbeenshaped thetemplate physical of and spiritual the by principles underlying oftraditional ofbudo.The heavily cultural Japanese society. practice implications The practice budotodayis one which of has ofpractice thesearts in also contribute toward the around world. presence socialen- fact the Its in that suchorganizations serve perpetuto spread may vironments which differ from ofJapan that would atea senseofJapanese ethnic some identity among hint budo' socialfunction complex that s is in environmentNew of and,to participantsthepoly-ethnic a certain elastic. com- YorkCity. extent, Despitean assumed in halls Thesymbolic ritual and of plexity socialroles,budotraining seemrelpractices budodojo in of ideational act to reinforce themes both of atively homogeneous terms their majorstructural elements. traditional and tradiJapanese society itsmartial The dojo inthis werelocated within the tion.For thepurposes thisanalysis can isoof we study NewYorkmetropolitan Despitethefact area. that late three dominant themes which pervadebudo these were the of and in organizations cross-cultural transplantstoday: importance rank hierarchy huwith substantial oftheir a made manrelations; emphasis thecorporate an on napart membership their of and between upofnonJapanese, retained they strong Jap- ture socialendeavor; thelink physicalandspiritual Much thebehavof development. iorI observed within dojo canbe directly the relat1 Sansom has pointed out that rank and social status are ed to theseconcepts. important characteristicsthroughout Japanese history The importance rankand hierarchy a of was of kin-basedpat(1963: 29), and theextension hierarchical, theme all thedojo I studied. unin The ternsof social relationsis a basic organizationalparadigm pervasive of is extendedto all categoriesof Japanesesocial relations(Hall challenged primacy thesensei (teacher) oneof and Beardsley1965: 82). themostdistinguishing features thetraditional of
Anthropos85.1990

Martial Tradition HallsoftheJapanese Training

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Japanesedojo, and is expressiveof a host of asand influences. sumptions A generalemphasison social rankand hierarchyhas, of course,been notedin Japanesesociety has in general. One anthropologist even labelled Japanesesociety"vertical" due to its strongconsciousnessof rankand status(Nakane 1970). This themeis echoed in budo today. hierarchical hall is stratified into The martialartstraining of higherand lower status. Gross distincgroups tionsare made, for instance,between the sensei and his students,and between dan holders and those who only hold kyu ranks. Even withinthe thereare minorand subtlesohowever, kyuranks, made betweenranks,betweenstucial distinctions dentswho have been members longerthanothers, active in competition as well as betweenstudents and thosewho are not. Junior students usually are most social and treathigherrankswith amongstthemselves, are also forged, relationships Important respect. however,across rank divisions.The relationsbetweensempaiand kyohai(seniorsand juniors)are In actual training. kendo, forinfostered through so stance, most practice sessions are structured that lower rankingstudentspractice their techranknique withand underthe guidanceof higher This was the case at all dojo I ing practitioners. studied. At two kendo dojo where I conducted partof myresearch,forinstance,yudansha (dan of holders)wouldlineup along thelength the dojo and lower rankingstudentswould line up facing would thenpair offforpractice them.All students intocouples composed of a seniorand juniorstudent. Of course, in the dojo, respectforone's seniorsis also coloredbythefactthattheir"seniority" is not the productof age, but of the developskills.Statuscan be linkedto age to of ment certain a certainextent,since a considerablepassage of to timeis necessary achieve highskillin budo. On the whole, however, status within the dojo is achieved. of The positionof importance the sensei,who the pinnacle of dojo society,cannot be occupies of The primacy themasteroverhisdisoverstated. of bearswithitnotonlyconnotations techniciples as but cal mastery, of moral authority well. of the Thisis partly result Buddhistinfluences, is the inwhich master perceivedas one who leads a The importanceof a disciple to enlightenment. is emphasized in Esoteric Budspiritualguide the influenced earlydeveldhism,whichstrongly of the moremystical practicesof the maropment knownas ryu.Zen Buddhism,which tial systems
85.1990 Anthropos

had a strong of impacton thedevelopment modern budo,2 also emphasizes the role of the masterin bringing a disciple to satori (enlightenment) mondo(questionand answerperiods) and through the posing of koan (riddles designedto bringthe discipleto enlightenment). The positionof the sensei is also stresseddue to the beliefthatthe transmission skill and inof in artscan onlybe obtainedfrom a sight themartial recognizedteacherwho standsat the end of a direct chain of master-disciple which relationships stretchesfromthe time of the particularstyle's founderto the present.In the aikido dojo I studname boards hungalong thewall ied, forinstance, demonstrated the linkage between students,the his in the instructor, superior thiscountry, present head of the art, and the art's founder. There is a veryreal sense of spiritual transmissionin budo. This is partly result thefactthat the of thefounders variousmartial wereveryoften of ryu charismaticindividualswho were considered to have had a flash of inspiration enlightenment or which led them to found theirsystem.The very a art personalexperienceoflearning martial under of thedirection a master whose technical and spiritual superiority dominatesthephysical completely and psychological states of the novice duringhis servesto perpetuatethissense of mystical training of transmission skilland insight. These ideas are expressedin a variety ways of in modern budo. The dojo itselfis divided into and lowerstatus.The kamiza,or spheresof higher centerof the dojo, and seat, is the spiritual deity It thefocusforall activity. indicates thattheactivities takingplace withinthe dojo have more than just a physical meaning,and are closelyrelatedto the spiritual aspect of existence. the One of the first things novice is taughtin thejudo dojo, forinstance,is to bow whenenterof ing onto the practicemats in the direction the kamiza, whichis usuallydemarcatedby the pressome calligraphy, a photo or ence ofa smallshrine, of the style'sfounder.All the dojo I studiedinsisted on thispoint of the etiquettefromall students,and all the dojo had some sortof tangible the object(s) whichservedto identify kamiza. It is to notethatjudo is a budoform which is interesting consideredto be almosta pure sportby some auand thorities, yetthejudo dojo I studiedcontinued to insiston properetiquetteconcerning kamithe za, and, in fact,had the mostelaborate deityseat of any dojo in the study.
of 2 See Suzuki's(1959) discussion Zen and swordsmanship.

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The dojo is thus symbolically divided into zones of higherand lower status. The kamiza, whichstandsat the head of the dojo and symbolizes the traditionsand beliefs of its adherents, marks area of highest the status,and is usuallyassociatedwiththe dojo sensei and higherranking students(yudansha). The joza, or lower seat, students line marksthe area wherelower ranking and is oftenthe area up forceremonialactivities, where visitorsare accomodated (and where the typically spent his timeduringthe anthropologist study). Since all modern budo formsalso rank their in of practitioners terms kyuand dan, these ranks are symbolizedby the wearing of some sort of special clothingwhose style or color identifies the wearer's status in termsof the martial arts system. is The mostcommonitemofsymbolic clothing the colored belt. By looking at the belt worn by of practitioners judo and aikido in the dojo I studof ied, I was able to place themin terms theirrank Color schemes varyto and technicalproficiency. from some extent school to school, butitmaygenwear a whitecolored erallybe said thatbeginners beltand advancedthrough shades (yeldarkening low, orange,green,blue, brown)untiltheyattain dan ranking,at which point they are granteda black belt. In manysystems, dan holders higherranking wearbeltswhichhave white,red and/or black verticalsegments. Thus thejudo senseiat one training hall I studied,as a 7th dan judoka, was privileged to weara whiteand red beltas thesignof a master technician and instructor. Dan holders in aikido are also symbolically identified the wearingof by thehakama,a typeof dividedskirt, wearingof the whichis forbidden lower grades. to Thereis thusconsiderable use symbolic ofcolors within modernbudo. White symbolizes death and emptiness Japan.Its use in thedojo generalin the ly relatesto conceptionsconcerning practitioner'sspiritual state.The whitecolored uniform of thejudoka symbolizes purity, his absence of ego, and unity with Void. This conceptof Voidis rethe latedto Buddhistideas concerning underlying the natureof reality.A spiritualunitywith the universe is, in fact,an underlying motivationof all modernbudo. The variouscoloredbeltswornbymanybudoka gerdarkeras the student advances through the ranks. This darkeningsuggests an accretion of knowledge,the belt servingas a type of litmus whichchangesits color as the studentdevelops. The use ofthedark,sombercolorsintheartof

kendoservesto symbolically thesemartial link artistswiththe samuraiof feudalJapan.As the coercivepowerbehindthefeudalorder,the bushiwere ideally consideredthe upholdersof justice. The moralheritage thewayof theswordwas heavily of in the formulation bushido, the of emphasized of philosophy to the warrior'sarts. body relating exToday this moral dimensionis symbolically pressed by the wearingof dark colored uniforms, since the god Fudo, the chastiser the wickedin of as Japanesebelief,is oftenportrayed darkblue in color. It is also interesting note thataikido adepts to wear a dark colored hakama and whitetop. The blendingof lightand dark, positiveand negative, bears an obvious symbolic withideas relationship and yang.Aikido, as an essentially concerning yin inreligiousversionof jujutsu, has been strongly fluencedby Taoist and Yin-Yang concepts, and thisis implicitly expressedby the color schemeof wornby its practitioners. the uniforms Belt coloris byno meanstheonlytypeofvisual symbolism encounteredin the dojo. In some more traditional budo, such as kendo, no colored beltsare wornas thestudent advancesthrough the ranks. The uniforms, addition, are identical in among both beginningand advanced students. More subtle visual clues are therefore used. Advanced kendoka can usuallybe identified the by faded and worn uniforms theywear, almost as a for badge of pride whichdemonstrates all to see the physicalwear and tear they have been subTheir bogu, or jected to in the course of training. kendoarmour, also battered is and worn.The handle oftheir shinai,themockswordused in training, is originally white,but is quicklystained a dark black or blue fromsweat and the dye whichseeps out from theirkote, the protective hand and wrist coverswornin mock combat. Such subtleindications rankand statusare of also reinforced all dojo bythepracticeof "bowin which ing in" and "bowing out," ritualactivities markthebeginning end ofall training. such and At all line rank ceremonies, students up in descending orderand bow to boththeir senseiand to thekamiza. Thus, the studentis explicitly remindedof his preciseplace in the dojo hierarchy. So greatis theemphasison rankthat,in some traditional lines dojo whichoperate on extremely and have a relatively large student body, it is rare forthe senseito directly instruct lowerranks.This taskis assignedto juniorinstructors yudansha. and This was thecase, forinstance, one ofthekendo at halls I studied. of Only withtime,the demonstration dedicaAnthropos85.1990

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of tion,and the development skill,can the beginfrom sensei. As a the nerhope formoreattention student'strainingproceeds and he advances in fromthe sensei rank,he garnersmore attention of statuswithin and is seatedinpositions higher the expressin veryconcrete dojo. These occurrences terms that,as the student advances, he or physical level of she approachesthe technicaland spiritual the master. themein themartial traThe seconddominant ditionis thatthe dojo is a corporatesocial entity. loston natureof budo is a factoften The corporate observerof the Japanese martial the uninformed Modern budo is not merelyone way to tradition. enhancepersonalskills.It is, in fact,a mostsevere and the will of the to typeof conformity tradition sensei. This is demonstrated the factthatstudying by transacat a dojo is not,strictly speaking,a market to contracts pay an intion,in whichtheindividual for structor a service. This, of course, requires Studentsdo pay theirteachera some clarification. withhim. of fee monthly fortheprivilege studying suchfeesranged forinstance, In thedojo I studied, dollarsa month.In addito from twenty-five forty tion, many dojo require an initiationfee of bedollarsfromthe begintweenten and twenty-five fees for and sometimeslevygrading ningstudent, rankexaminations. between a studentand his The relationship senseiis not, however,based on the conceptof a marketcontract.The studentcan make no demandson the teacher- he cannotrequirethatthe act instructor in such a way thatthe student"gets the his money'sworth."On the contrary, student in must place himself thehandsofthesensei,blindly trustthis individual,and do whatever is deThe sensei does mandedof himby the instructor. He not "owe" the studentanything. ratherconwiththe student sentsto sharehis skilland insight if he so desires. Such an action depends entirely of capauponthesensei's assessment thestudent's and behavior. bilities in the All reputabledojo reserve right, fact,to in a discontinue student'smembership the organibehaviorin or out of thetrainzationforimproper hall. At kendo dojo, forinstance,prospective ing are students oftenasked to fillout a fairly lengthly whichexplorestheapplifor application admission cant's backgroundand motivationsfor studying the art. in The sense a traineegetswhenenrolling the tenof budo is thathe or she is beinggranted study is to admission a group.The student notentitative tled to make demands on this group's members.
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One is expected,however, conform to to strictly its act customs,learn its traditions, in accordance to its values, and submit to its unrelenting discipline. to is Conformity tradition the major expressionofthecorporate natureofthe budo dojo. Such is conformity symbolically expressedin a number of ways. One of the hallmarks budo is the emof on the preciseemulationof the senphasisplaced sei's physicaltechnique by his students.On the surface such behavioris a logical methodforat] and tainingtechnicalproficiency, the demonstration of such skillis the methodthrough whichthe student advancesin rank.There are, however,different of interpretations thesame techniquein different dojo. Studentsare, of course, aware of this fact,but continueto emulate the orthodoxtechschool because "thisis the nique of their particular way we do it here." An informedobserver of the local judo or kendo scene can, in fact,oftenidentify student's a teacher or school merelyby observinghis techThus, physicalmovement nique at a tournament. in theartsthemselevs serveas an expression can of groupidentity. This sense ofbelonging a specialgroupis alto so enhancedbythe performance kata. Kata are of fixed series of techniques which have ordered, been formulated pastmembers an aid to gainas by technicalproficiency and spiritualmastery in ing arts.The accurateperformance theirparticular of kata is required for advancementin many budo forms, especiallyat the dan level. No deviationin of styleor content thekata is permitted. They are, in fact, consideredto be the movingheritageof traditions stylized of manymartial compendiums technicalknowledgeessentialforproperadvancement.As a student a performs kata, he or she parof of ticipatesin the transmission the insights the martialtradition a typeof culturalshortthrough hand - a symbolicmartialdance whichexpresses the individual's personalallegianceto, and undera particular martialtradition. standingof, is further fosteredby the Corporate identity uniform of students.All are required appearance to dressin a manner consonantwiththecustoms of the dojo and dictatesof the sensei. In judo and aikido dojo, all are requiredto wear a practiceuniformknownas a judogi. In aikido dojo although yudansha are not required to wear the hakama, mostdo so in conformance the grouppractice. to While judogi are always white in color, there is in of color. some flexibility kendoin terms uniform wear a practiceuniform All students composed of thehakama and keikogi,buttheseelementsof the

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John Donohue J.

uniform be anycombination white,blue, or can of black. In bothkendo dojo I studied,however,the of greatmajority studentswore the same color dark blue. Despite being given the option to choose the color of theirown uniform, most stuwhichwas identidentselected to wear a uniform cal to thatof theirfellowmembers. There is further of the uniform express use to groupmembership, especiallyin artslikejudo and kendo,wherelarge groupsof practitioners toget for Patches bearingthe name gether tournaments. ofthe dojo are frequently and sewnonto uniforms are both an expression of pride and membership. Such patchesare important of expressions althe I legianceeven within dojo itself.In mystudy, noticedthatnew studentsgenerallydid not wear did. Onlywhen suchpatches,whileseniorstudents became more involved with the dojo, beginners and in factbecame more well grewmore skillful, into the fabric of dojo society, did integrated theygenerally opt to wear these badges of social identity. In thejudo dojo I studied,forinstance,itwas the whenthe reallyonlyafter first promotion, kyu student could exchangethe whitebelt of a novice fora coloredone, thathe reallybegan to feelan accepted part of the dojo. A shorttime aftermany students donned theirfirst colored belt, theyalso began to proudly wear an embroidered patch whoseJapanesecharacters spelledout thename of The structure practiceitself veryuniform of is inthatitsform varies.All sessionsbeginand rarely end withthe bowingin ceremony. This is thenfollowed by warm-ups and basic practiceof selected The forceand tempoofpracticegenertechniques. allyspeeds up withtime,to thepointwhererandori (free fighting) keiko (practicematches) can or of begin- theculmination practice.The structural compositionand progressionof all practice sessionsfollowthisgeneraloutline.In addition,there is an emphasison orderly, efficient the movement, of forming straightlines, and trainingin pairs, whichis almostmilitary itsinspiration once in and again emphasizes the organized group nature of practice. The third majorthemesymbolically expressed in budo is the primacy physicalexertionin the of of development the humanspirit.It is forthisreason thatall modernbudo are intimately concerned with seishintarnen, Budo at its "spiritual forging." best is not a game, a sport,or even a methodof but of self-defense, a methodforthe development humanpotential.

thedojo.

E. O. Reischauerhas noted thatthe lack of a hobbyis consideredby the Japaneseto be considered tantamount an admissionof spiritualinto the (Reischauer 1977: 151). Further, completeness believe that"... like a Japanesesword, Japanese a man's characterneeds to be polished to avoid rustand dullness" (Fragerand Rohlen 1976: 259). The Japanese are supremenlyconscious of the need to cultivatethe spiritual aspects of the individual and have traditionally done thisthrough a of variety cultural practices.Concernwithseishin, or spirit,"... is undoubtedly crucialmatter a for of in it everyform religion Japan;teaching is a maarts;parentsand schools jor goal of all traditional worryabout the spiritual developmentof today's all youths;and, in fact,virtually aspectsof lifeand behaviorare grist theseishin for (Fraperspective" ger and Rohlen 1976: 256). The concern with of things the spirithas survivedbudo's migration outside of Japan. of in At first glance,therigor physical training budo servesa numberof fairly functions. practical It creates a sense of shared experience among and encouragesdojo solidarity. It groupmembers, also actsto heighten distinction the betweenmembers and non-members, since onlydojo members, it is assumed, possess the inclination,technical and staminato engagein suchtraining. knowledge, It is a powerful tool forcreatingan awarenessof corporate identityamong members then, since "we" are training, "we" "they"are onlywatching; are on the inside, "they" are not. The extreme levels of physical exertion found in budo training also servesto discouragethefaint hearted and weed out the insincere.Despite the somewhatexoticsurroundings, hintof esotrithe the ritual actions and language, most of the ca, course of studying budo is just plain hard work. The physical and mental strainimposed on the traineeservesbothto develop himtechnically and testhimspiritually, see whether willactually to he perseverein his study. In thissense, the initialperiod of training a is liminal period in terms of group membership. would indicatethe Many aspects of budo training liminal nature of training.The orderly,uniform the appearanceoftheclass members, sense ofanoof nymity coupled witha strong feeling groupidentity,the lack of status, the wearing of uniform and dress,the absence of rank,the humility total obedience demandedoftheaspiring budokaare all documentedcharacteristics liminality of (Turner 1974), and would all serveto emphasizethe transitionalnatureoftheir The activity. factthatmanyof thesecharacteristics permanent are factors budo in
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also the essentialforthe properpertraining servesto highlight essentially spir- thispower is thought in itual natureof activity the martialtradition. formance aikido techniques.Zen Buddhismhas of a It is notuntilhe has demonstrated minimum also strongly influencedbudo. All modern budo ofdedication theartbysuccessfully to earning pro- forms encouragethe practiceof zazen, or meditais motionthatthe student reallyconsidereda part tivesitting, beforeand after The calmand training. of the dojo. Up untilthatpoint,he is relegatedto perceptiongained throughthe use of Zen techfrom deity niques is thought favorably the thearea ofthedojo whichis farthest to affect For training. seatand thesenseiand, ofcourse,wearsan itemof some budoka itis problematical decide whether to his whichsymbolizes low status.In theju- their has used thetechniques Zen or whether art of clothing halls of the art has itselfbeen transformed do dojo it is a whitebelt. In the training into a typeof are conspicuousdue to the fact "movingZen." One kendo sensei observedin the kendo beginners to thattheyare notpermitted wear bogu (armour) studywould constantly make statements trainin in keiko (freepractice).Among ingthatwerepractically or actually direct from various engage quotes Zen sources, particularly not wear the hakama. aikidokabeginners those of the monk Tamay serve to underscorethe limi- kuan Soho (1573-1645) whose influence on All thesethings has nal statusof the beginner.Withtime and dedica- swordsmanship enduredto thisday (see Sato tion, however,the novice advances in skill and, 1986). In addition,the objectiveof seishi choetof of hence,in status.He is grantedthe privilege ex- su, transcending thoughts lifeand death, which hiswhitebeltfora coloredone; he begins lies at theheartof all budo training, clearly is Budchanging wears dhistin its inspiration. kendoin fullarmour;he proudly to practice Hard physicaltraining consideredthe only is thehakama of an aikido yudansha.The period of is has and is also liminality ended, and theindividual incorpo- way to masterthe modernbudo forms, and ratedinto the dojo community its tradition. considereda road to spiritual It enlightenment. is is of This periodof physical training also consid- believed that the integration mind and body ered one which has the most importantconse- whichis attainedduringthe practiceof a martial quencesforthe individual'sinnerdevelopment.It art is a way to transcendsubject-objectdistincordeal servesto cre- tions,to linkoneselfwithuniversal and to reach is believedthatsucha rigorous ki, humancompleteness.3 ate constancy, discipline,endurance, directness, a state of truly of and strength character.The poundingpunishAlthough this strongspiritualundercurrent and transforms runsthrough modernbudo, it shouldnotbe asall mentof the dojo literally reshapes the lines dictatedby un- sumedthatitdoes so to thedetriment thephysiof theindividual along spirit artlike aikido, the told masterswho have helped shape the modern cal. Even in a relatively gentle dictum stillheldthat"... itsmeaning revealed is is tradition. martial of There are a variety explicitlinksbetween only to those who are enlightened throughhard The vari- trailing"(Stevens 1984: 21). In all the dojo I studand budotraining spiritual development. informed thatany competent ous belief systemsof China and Japan, such as ied, I was explicitly of Taoism, Shinto,theFive Elementsand understanding budo restson actualparticipation Buddhism, and Confucianism, in training.4 YinYang schools of thought, When I first have all lefttheirmarkon modernbudo. began mystudyat a kendo dojo, The impact of these various belief systems forinstance,I took the timeto explainto manyof of just whatI was doing. I was inmaybe seen in a number ideas and actionsin the theseniorstudents We finda beliefin ki in formed one kendokathatthisstudy wouldn'tbe tradition. modernmartial by and various techniquesare likeanyotheracademicprojectI had done, sinceit all the modernbudo, use designedto enhance the practitioner's of this latentforce as force.Ki is understood a powerful, to in thatthereare twostreams philoinherent all creation.Ki is thought enable the 3 It is generally of recognized within martial the tradition sophicalinfluence today.Shinto martialartistto performfeats of super-normal as mysticism well as Yin-Yang, Taoist, and Five Elements strength, quickness,and coordination.In kendo, have had a profound on effect the traditional sword theory a utter shoutknownas a forinstance, practitioners arts (bujutsu) of the samurai,as well as the modernbudo kiai when strikingan opponent. This shout is form aikido. Confucianism Zen have had a majorimof and like the proper to both express and facilitate pacton themoremodern,"rational"do forms judo and thought kendo. To a certainextent,all modern budo attemptto use of ki in theexecutionof technique.Aikido, in blend these elements,withvarying levels of success. to makesovertreference theneed forki 4 particular, in the My participation training during conductof thisstudy the in the martialarts. The name aikido signifies of new depthto myunderstanding thetermparticibrought of ki" pant-observation. "wayof unifying and the properutilization
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J. John Donohue

ethnic of from hand, inbudodojoactsas a means perpetuating be wouldn't inkthatwas flowing my in for of descent a from body.This, identity individuals Japanese butsweatthatwas pouring my is imporenvironment. the implication wouldmakeformorepro- poly-ethnic was, Membership terms thoseof for in an tant socialandpsychological as on part. found Coming itdidfrom insights my as well,and servesto was thestatement a powerful otherethnic American student, backgrounds small-scale ideascon- createwell-defined, cultural of indicator howwellJapanese corporate groups where werebe- inanurban budoand spiritual environment, individual identity development cerning of into or the outside Japa- is often to fragmented spheres domains acingtransmitted practitioners and of kinship, orbit. nesesocio-cultural (Haneconomy, recreation tivity nerz1980:244). this in Budo dojo are so effective creating due and/or socialidentity totheinsenseofethnic Conclusion on the of tense manipulation symbols both intellecin levels.Training budois highly budo observations sym- tualandphysical concerning isthat Myfinal formulas in of in maintenance ritualized terms itsuse ofverbal bolsareimmensely (a important their of and the of andperpetuation socialentities, order) theconstant repetition despite fact sort liturgical conversaactions. awareofall of stereotyped are that budoka notconsciously Color,activity, many in with are within tion,movement all filled and of theimplicationscolor, ritual, custom meaning the there inmy in. This,of course,does not dojo. All activity train thedo they estimation, is, vitally jo of and in are mean these that symbols anylessrealorlessef- important thecommunication reiteration of themes budotoitsmembers, dominant within dojo are thethree Whilemany the fective. symbols of and or notexplicitly on, recognized commented they andthecreation perpetuation thesocialand in the cultural found the dojo. As such, are certainly by dojo members. felt Certainly atmosphere of of of hall character thetraining isa strong theexploration thesymbolic system thebudo "Japanese" of to fromthatethnicheri- dojoistheessential stepinthedevelopment first attraction individuals ofmodtage. anycompetent sociological understanding Budokaare,I learned a during study, rath- ernbudo. my lot er reluctant whenit comesto explaining their motivationsbeliefs or their of concerning study budo. Almost wereuncomfortable all answering my This articleis based on an eighteenmonthperiodofparof associationsknownas theirpersonalmotivationsticipant-observation voluntary concerning questions budo dojo - martial artstraining halls- in theNew York and feelings, mostwereunableto articulate and area. Despite the American location of themeaning behind of many aspects dojo custom metropolitan the inspiration, fieldwork, organization,and goals of and ritual. these organizations remainedessentially Japanese. My and thanks to Theydid, however, obeythesecustoms go Hagihara Edi, Kataoka Noboru,and Shiina in No to participate theserituals. budokafails re- Kiyoshi,all ofwhomgraciously opened theirdojo to me movehisor hershoeson entering dojo, or ne- duringthe study. a to the glects bowtoward kamiza.All understand that actina different inthedojo than you way you do outside allaccept guidance their the of sensei References it, Cited without memberTheyholddear their question. Beardsley,Richard K., JohnHall, and Robert E. Ward shipin thedojo. of Press. All thesethings Chicago: University Chicago indicate me the extreme 1959 VillageJapan. to exerted these over I power by symbols thebudoka Cohen,Abner and in Africa. Univerobserved trained and with That 1969 Custom Politics Urban Berkeley: during study. my of Press. sity California thesesymbols were oftennot overtly acknowlas werenotef- Dore, RonaldP. edged suchdoesnotmeanthat they of University California fective modifying in human behavior thedojo. 1958 CityLifein Japan.Berkeley: in Press. On the contrary, verysubtle,varied,and the nature thesecustoms rituals of and indi- Dore, RonaldP. (ed.) complex 1967 Aspects SocialChange Modern of in Princeton: Japan. catestheir nature socialvalue. and symbolic Princeton Press. University Whilean analysis thesocialfunction of such and Robert, serve outside scopeofthis is the and Frager, Future ThomasP. Rohlen work, groups 1976 The ofTradition: in Japanese Spirit the1980's. must left moredetailed be for examination anat In: L. Austin The Paradox Progress; of (ed.), Japan: other we note time, maybriefly thatmembership NewHaven:Yale University Press. pp. 255-278.
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Martial Tradition HallsoftheJapanese Training K. Hall,John andRichard Beardsley W., NewYork:McGraw Doorsto Japan. Hill. 1965 Twelve EdwinO. Reischauer, 1977 The Japanese. Press. Cambridge: Belknap

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Thomas P. Rohlen, Hannen,Ulf of in A the 1980 Exploring City.New York: Columbia ContinuityJapan: CorpoUniversity 1974 Sponsorship Cultural rate In: Press. Training Program. T. S. andW. P. Libra (eds.), Cultureand Behavior:SelectedReadings; Japanese Kenneth Little, Honolulu: Press pp. 332-341. University ofHawaii. Associations WestAfrican in 1957 The Role of Voluntary George American 59: Urbanization. Anthropologist 579-594. Sansom, of 1615-1867. Stanford: Stanford UniA of African As- 1963 A History Japan 1965 West Urbanization: Study Voluntary Press. versity in sociations Social Change.New York: Cambridge Press. University Sato Hiroaki (transi.) 1986 The Swordand theMind.Woodstock: Overlook The L. Francis K. Hsu, Press. Shankman 1975 Iemoto:The Heartof Japan.Cambridge: Publishing Company. John Stevens, 1984 Aikido:The Way of Harmony. Boulder:Shambhala Chie Nakane, Publications. of 1970 Japanese University California Berkeley: Society. Press. D. Suzuki, T. 1959 Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton: Princeton UniEdward Norbeck, Press. versity In: in Interest Associations Japan. R. J.Smith 1962 Common Culture: De- Turner, Its Victor W. andR. K. Beardsley (eds.), Japanese Al- 1974 The RitualProcess. and Harmondsworth: Books. pp. velopment Characteristics; 73-85.Chicago: Penguin Co. dinePublishing [Original 1969]

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