CHAPTER 9 : MUSCLES and MUSCLE TISSUE Types of Muscle Tissue o Myo, mys, sarco = muscle o Skeletal muscle fibers

s = longest muscle cells, have stripes (called striations) that can be controlled voluntarily (only type subject to voluntary control) Can contract rapidly, but tires easily and must rest after short periods of activity. o Cardiac muscle tisse only in heart Striated, but not voluntary o Smooth muscle tissue walls of hollow visceral organs Forces fluids + other substances through internal body channels No striations, not voluntary Functional Characteristics o Excitability/responsiveness/irritability ability to receive/respond to stimuli (any change in environment). o Contractility = ability to shorten forcibly o Extensibility = ability to be stretched/extended o Elasticity = ability of fiber to recoil + resume its resting length after being stretched. Muscle Functions = movement, maintains posture, stabilizes joints, generates heat o Producing Movement responsible for all locomotion, responds quickly to changes o Maintaining posture muscles function almost continuously, make one tiny adjustment after another o Stabilizing joints stabilize + strengthen joints o Generating heat generate heat as they contract, impt in maintaining normal body temp SKELETAL MUSCLE - each skeletal muscle is discrete organ made of fibers, bl vessels, nerve fibers, connective tissue Nerve and Blood Supply o Each muscle served by one nerve, an artery, 1+ veins branch profusely through conn tissue o Use much energy so needs continuous delivery of O2 and nutrients via arteries (wastes removed by veins) Connective Tissue Sheaths o Individ muscle fibers wrapped + held together by sev diff conn tissue sheaths (support cells + reinforce muscle) 1. Endomysium = each individ muscle fiber surrounded by fine sheath of areolar/reticular fibers 2. Perimusium + Fasicles = endoysium muscle fibers grouped into fasicles; surrounding each fascicle = layer of fibrous conn tissue = perimysium 3. Epimysium = overcoat of dense irregular conn tissue surrounds whole muscle o All conn tiss sheaths continuous with one another + tendons (so when muscle contracts, pull on these sheaths to transmit pulling force to bone to be moved). Attachments o When muscle contracts, movable bone (insertion) moves toward immovable (origin usually proximal). o Direct attachment = epimysium fused to periostium of bone o Indirect attachment = conn tiss extend beyond muscle as tendon or sheetlike aponeurosis Anchors muscle to conn tissue covering the bone; much more common (durable + small size) Microscopic Anatomy of Skel Mus Fiber - multiple oval nuclei just beneath sarcolemma (plasma memb); huge cells (10x avg body cell) since each fiber produced by fusion of hundreds of embryonic cells - sarcoplasm = (~cytoplasm) lg amts glycosomes + myoglobin (stores O2) Myofibrils = rodlike, parallel to length o Densely packed mitochon + other organelles appear to be squeezed between them. o Contain contractile elements - Striations, Sarcomeres, Myofilaments o Striations = repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands o Sarcomere = region of myofibril between 2 successive Z discs (A band flanked by half I band at each end) = functional units of skeletal muscle, smallest contractile unit of a muscle fiber

o o o

Thick filaments = extend entire length of A band Thin filaments = extend across I band + partway into A band Z disc- anchors thin filaments desmin/intermediate filaments from Z disc connect each myofibril to next

o M line presence of fine protein strands that hold adjacent thick filaments together Molec Composition of Myofilaments o Thick filaments composed of protein myosin has rodlike tail (2 interwoven polypeptide chains) terminating at flex hinge in 2 globular heads (from cross bridges = link thick + thin filaments) Tails form central part, heads face outward Heads contain actin binding sites + contain ATPase enzymes that split ATP to = energy for contraction o Thin filaments composed of protein actin (subunits = globular/G-actin) bear active sites where myosin heads attach Polymerized into long filaments = fibrous/F actin => backbone = 2 intertwined actin filaments Tropomysoin = block myosin binding sites of actin Troponin = binds Ca ions Sarcoplasmic Reticulum + T-Tubules o Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) = interconnecting tubules surround each myofibril + form cross channels at Aband-Iband juntions (terminal cisternae) Regulates intracell levels of Ca: stores Ca then releases when fiber stim to contract o T-Tubules = sarcolemma penetrates into cell, conduts impulses to deepest region of cell/every sarcomere = release of Ca; makes sure every myofibril in muscle fiber contracts at same time Runs btwn 2 term cisternae = triad Sliding Filament Model of Contraction o contraction = activation of myosins cross bridges (= force generating sites). o Sliding filament theory = during contract, thin fila slide past thick so actin + myosin overlap to greater degree in relaxed muscle fiber, thick + thin only overlap at ends of A band when muscle stim, myosin heads latch on to myo bind sites on actin in thin fila = sliding begins cross-bridge attachments = ratchets to generate tension + propel thin fila to center of sarcomere -> as occurs simultaneously in sarcomeres throughout the cell, the muscle cell shortens. Z discs pulled toward thick filaments = I bands shorten, distance btwn Z discs reduced, H zones disappear, A bands move closer but do not change in length Physiology of Skel Muscle Fiber o For muscle fiber to contract, must be stim + propogate A.P. along its sarcolemma Causes short-lived rise in Ca that is final trigger for contraction Excitation-contraction coupling = series of events linking elec signal to contraction Nerve Stimulus + Events at Neuromus Junction o Cells stim by motor neurons of somatic nervous system their axons travel to muscle cells and ends in neuromus junction with a single muscle fiber (each mus fiber has only one neuromus junction) o Within axon terminal = synaptic vesicles that contain Ach o When nerve impulses reaches end of axon, volt gated Ca channels in memb open, allowing Ca to flow in -> causes some of synaptic vesicles to fuse with axonal memb + release Ach into synap cleft by exocytosis -> Ach diffuses across cleft then attaches to ACh receptors on sarcolemma After Ach binds, broken down by acetylcholinesterase = prevents continued mus fiber contraction Generation of A.P. across sarcolemma o Resting sarcolemma is polarized (potential diff across meme) inside neg relative to outside o Binding of Ach at motor end plate opens chem. gated ion channels allows Na + K to pass More Na in than K out, so inside of sarcolem becomes less neg = depolarization Initially depolar= local elec event = end plate potential ignites A.P.. that spreads from neuromus junction across sarcolemma 1. Memb areas adjacent to motor end plate depolarized enters voltage gated Na channels, so Na enters initiating A.P. 2. A.P. propogated as local depolar spreads as voltage gated Na channels open 3. Repolarization restores sarcolemma to intitial polarized state from Na channels closing and K channels opening -> K diffuses out a. During repolar, muscle in refractory period cell cant be stim again until repolar complete o Once initiated, A.P. unstoppable ultimately results in contraction of muscle cell

Excitation-Contraction Coupling = sequence of events by which transmission of AP along sarcolemma leads to sliding of myofilaments (causes rise in intracell Ca that allows filaments to slide) o Occurs during latent period btwn AP intitiation and beginning of shortening 1. Net entry of Na intiates AP which is propogated along sarcolemma + down T-tubules 2. AP in T tub actuvates voltage sensitive receptors which trigger CA release from term cisternae of SR 3. Ca ions bind to troponin; troponin changes shape removing blocking action of tropomyosin = actin active sites exposed

4. Contraction myosin heads alternately attach to actin + detach, pullng actin filaments toward center of sarcomere (release of energy by ATP hydrolysis powers cycling process) 5. Removal of Ca by active transport into SR after AP ends 6. Tropomyosin blockage restored, blocking myosin bind sites on actin contraction ends + muscle fiber relaxes Muscle Fiber Contraction 1. Myosin head attaches to actin myofilament, forming a cross bridge 2. Phosphate (P) generated in prev contract cycle is released, initiating power stroke. Myosin head pivots and bends as it pulls on actin fila, sliding it toward M line then ADP released 3. New ATP attaches to myosin head link btwn myosin + actin weakens, cross-bridge detaches 4. As ATP is split (to ADP + P), myosin head is energized (cocked into high energy conform) -> back to step 1. Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle - force exerted by contracting muscle on object = muscle tension - opposing force exerted on the muscle be the weight of the object to be moved = load - isometric = muscle tension develops, but load not moved - isotonic = muscle tension developed overcomes load + muscle shortening occurs The Motor Unit as axon enters fiber, branches into many terminals and forms neuromus junct with a single motor fiber o Motor unit = a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies (may be 4-sev hundred) The Muscle Twitch = response of motor unit to single AP 1. Latent period first few ms following stim when excitation-contraction coupling occurring (muscle tension increasing) 2. Period of Contraction cross bridges are active, muscle shortens 3. Period of Relaxation initiated by reentry of Ca into SR., muscle tension decreases, returns to normal length Graded Muscle Responses o Graded in to ways: 1) changing freq of stim, or 2) changing strength of stim Muscle Response to changes in Stim Freq o Greater force = increasing firing rate of motor neurons o Wave summation = second contraction occurs before muscle has completely relaxed Muscle already partially contracted when next arrives, more Ca released than reclaimed so muscle tension produced by 2nd contraction causes more shortening. (contractions are summed). If stim strength held constant + muscle stim at faster rate, relaxat time becomes shorter, conc of Ca higher, and degree of summation higher = fused/complete tetanus Muscle Response to Stronger Stimuli o Recruitment (mult motor unit summation) controls force of contraction Threshold stimulus = first observable contraction Maximals stimulus = strongest stim that produces increased contractile force (pt where all motor units recruited) Increasing the stim beyond the max stim doesnt produce stronger contraction Dictated by size principle: smallest activated first, larger then larger excited (helps delay fatigue) Treppe: The Staircase Effect o When muscle begins to contract, initial contract only as strong as those that occur later to same strength o Treppe prob in response to increasing availability of Ca in sarcoplasm produce a slightly stronger contraction with each successive stimulus = basis of warm-up Muscle Tone relaxed muscles are almost always slightly contracted Isotonic + Isometric Contractions o Isotonic = muscle length changes, moves the load Concentric contractions = muscle shortens and does work Eccentric contractions = generates force as it lengthens (i.e. calf as go up hill), 50% more forceful o Isotometric contractions muscle neither shortens nor lengthens; occurs when a muscle attempts to move a load that is greater than the force (tension); thin filaments do not slide Occurs when maintaining posture or hold joints in stationary positions Muscle Tension Providing energy for Contraction Stored ATP o ATP provides energy for cross bridge movement + detachment + operation of Ca pump o Muscles store very limited reserves of ATP

After ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + P, regenerated by 3 pathways:

1. Interation of ADP with creatine phosphate : CP + ADP creatine + ATP

a. Used when metab pathways adjusting to suddenly higher demands for ATP b. Provide max power for 10-15s (i.e. 100m dash) 2. from stored glycogen via anaerobic glycolysis a. occurs in presence + absence of O2, but since doesnt use = anaerobic b. glucose broken down to 2 pyrvic acid molecules converted to lactic acid (since no O2) = 2 ATP c. liver cells can reconvert lactic acid to pyruvic acid or glucose or convert it to glycogen d. supports strenuous muscle activity for ~ 1 minute e. lg amts glucose used to produce rel small amts ATP 3. aerobic respiration : Glucose + O2 CO2 + H20 + ATP a. used during rest + light/moderate exercise b. occurs in the mitochondria, requires O2 c. provides high yield of ATP, but is sluggish Muscle Fatigue = state of physiological inability to contract though the muscle may still be receiving stimuli o Psychological/central fatigue =flesh still able to perform but we feel tired Oxygen debt = extra amt of O2 body must take in for restorative processes (O2 reserves replenished, ATP restored..) Force of Muscle Contraction: 1. Number of Muscle Fibers Stimulated = more motor units recruited, greater the force will be 2. Size of muscle fibers stimulated = bulkier the muscle, more tension it can develop + the greater its strength 3. Frequency of stimulation = when muscle stim rapidly, contractions summed stronger + more vigorous = tetanus 4. Degree of muscle stretch = optimeal length-tension relationship occurs when muscle slightly stretched and thin/thick filaments overlap optimally b/c it permits sliding along nearly entire length of thin filaments a. If muscle fiber stretched so filaments dont overlap, myosin heads dont have anything to attach to/cant generate tension b. If sarcomeres so compressed so Z discs abut thick filaments + thin fila touch, little/no shortening can occur Velocity + Duration of Contraction Speed of contraction slow fibers/fast fibers speed diff reflects how fast myo ATPases split ATP Major pathways for forming ATP oxidative fibers rely mostly on aerobic pathways, glycolytic fibers rely on glycolysis Therefore, slow oxidative fibers, fast oxidative fibers, fast glycolytic fibers (Table 9.2) Load- contract fastest when no added load Recruitment more motor units contracting, faster + more prolonged the contraction Effect of Exercise on Muscles Adaptations to exercise o Aerobic exercise = increase in # of capillaries + # mitochondria = more efficient mus metab o Muscle hypertrophy results from high intensity resistance exercise (anerobic conditions) Increased bulk from incrase in size of individ muscle fibers, not increased # of fibers SMOOTH MUSCLE = muscles in the walls of all the bodys hollow organs Microscopic Structure - spindle shaped, one centrally located nucleus, no striations (so no sarcomeres) - lack coarse connective tissue sheaths, most smooth muscle organized into sheets of closely apposed fibers - two sheets muscle present with fibers oriented at right angles to each other o longitiudinal layer = fibers run parallel to long axis of organ o circular layer = fibers run around circumference of organ (allows for peristalsis) - lack neuromuscular junctions, but innervating nerve fibers have bulbuous swellings = varicosities (release neurotrans into wide synaptic cleft in general area of smooth muscle cells = diffuse junctions) - lack organized SR T tubules absent, but SR has multiple caveolae = pouchlike infoldings that sequester bits of extracell fluid containing Ca close to membrane - contraction ends when calcium actively transported into SR (so excitation-contraction coup dependent on Ca) Myofilament differences no sarcomeres, but do have interdigitating thick + thin filaments 1. Ratio of thick to thin filaments much lower (1:13 compared to 1:2) 2. No troponin complex present 3. Thick + thin filaments arranged in stripes down cell, so contact in twisting way (like corkscrew) 4. Contain noncontractile intermed filaments that resist tension, attach at reg intervals to dense bodies that are tethered to sarcolemma forms intracell cytoskel that harnesses the pull generated by thick + thin fila Contraction of Smooth Muscle Mechanism + Characteristics of contraction

 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Adjacent smooth muscle fibers exhibit slow synchronized contractions, whole sheet responds to stimulus in unison o Gap junctions allow smooth muscles to transmit AP from fiber to fiber o Pacemaker cells set contractile pace for entire muscle sheet, are self-excitatory (but can be modified by external stimuli) o Like skeletal muscles in: 1. actin + myosin interact by sliding filament theory 2. final trigger for contraction is rise in intracell Ca level 3. sliding process energized by ATP Excitation Contraction coupling Ca ions enter cytosol from ECF or from scant SR Ca binds to + activates calmodulin Activated calmodulin activates the myosin light chain kinase enzymes Activated kinase enzyme catalyzes transfer of phosphate to myosin heads, activating the myo head ATPases phosphorylated myo heads from cross bridges with actin of thin fila, and shortening occurs Cross bridge activity ends when phosphate removed from myosin heads by phosphorylase enzymes + intracell Ca levels fall o

CH. 10: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM KNOW ALL MUSCLES! CH. 11: FUNDAMENTALS of the NERVOUS SYSTEM and NERVOUS TISSUE - Three overlapping functions: 1. Uses millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes inside + outside body = sensory input 2. Processes + interprets sensory input, decides what should be done = integration 3. Causes a response (motor output) by activating effector organs Organization of the nervous system - Two parts: 1. central nervous system (CNS) brain + spinal cord = integrating + command center; interprets sensory input + dictates motor responses 2. peripheral nervous system (PNS) outside CNS; consists of nerves that extend from the brain + spinal cord a. spinal nerves carry impulses to/from spinal cord b. cranial nerves carry impulses to/fro brain c. Two functional divisions i. Sensory/afferent division nerve fibers that convey impulses to CNS from sensory reeptors 1. sensory fibers from skin, skel muscles, joints = somatic afferent fibers 2. visceral afferent fibers transmit impulses from visercal organs ii. Motor/efferent division transmits impulses from CNS to effector organs (muscles + glands) 1. Has two parts: a. Somatic nervous system/voluntary nervous ststem = somatic motor nerve fibers (axons) that conduct impulses from CNS to skel muscles b. Autonomic nervous system/involuntary nervous system = visceral motor nerve fibers that regulates activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands i. Two function subdivisions: sympathetic + parasympathetic Histology of Nervous System - nervous tissue made up of 2 principal types of cells 1. supporting cells = smaller cells that surround + wrap more delicate neurons 2. neurons = excitable nerve cells that transmit elec signals Neuroglia/glial cells associate closely with neurons o 6 types each has unique function but all provide supporting scaffolding for neurons CNS neuroglia Astrocytes = most abundant/versatile support/brace neurons, anchor to blood capillaries Microglia = monitor neuron health, migrate when needed, may phagocytize Ependymal cells = line central cavities of brain + spinal cord; separate CSF of cavities from tissue fluid bathing cells of CNS Oligodendrocytes = produce myelin sheaths around fibers PNS neuroglia Satellite cells = surround neuron cell bodies in PNS Schwann cells = from myelin sheaths around larger nerve fibers in PNS (similar to oligoden) Neurons (aka nerve cells) o Special characteristics: Extreme longevity can function optimally for a lifetime

Amitotic lost their ability to divide so cannot be replaced if destroyed High metabolic rate require continuous + abundant supplies of oxygen and glucose Cell Body (soma) o Contains usual organelles (except for centrioles) rough ER = Nissl bodies, microtubules + neurofibrils from network throughout cell body o Most neuron cell bodies located in CNS Clusters of cell bodies in CNS = nuclei Cell bodies along nerves in PNS = ganglia Processes extend from cell body of neurons o Brain + spinal cord (CNS) contain neuron cell bodies and their processes (tracts) o PNS consists mainly of neuron processes (nerves) Dendrites o Short, tapering, diffusely branching extensions = main receptive/input regions o Provide surface area for receiving signals from other neurons convey incoming msgs toward cell body (short distance graded potentials) The Axon conducting region that generates nerve impulses and transmits them o Each neuron has single axon, arises from area of cell body called axon hillock o Long axon is called a nerve fiber o May have axon collaterals = occasional branches along their length o Braches profusely at end into terminal branches that have knoblike distal endings = axon terminals (secretory region) o When impulse reaches axon term, neurotrans are released either excite or inhibit neurons Myelin Sheath + Neurolemma o Long + large nerve fibers covered with myelin sheath protects + electrically insulates fibers, increases speed o Myelin sheaths in PNS formed by Schwann cells many concentric layers enclose the axon o

Adjacent Schwann cells do not touch have gaps (Nodes of Ranvier) Myelinated + unmyelinated axons found in CNS, but oligodendrocytes form Nodes of Ranvier present, lack a neurilemma o White matter = regions of brain + spinal cord containing dense myelinated fibers, are primarily fiber tracts o Gray matter = mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers Classification of Neurons classified by structure + function o Structural classification grouped according to # of processes 1. multipolar neurons = 3+ processes, most common (>99%), major neuron type in CNS 2. bipolar neurons = two processes (an axon + dendrite) on opposite sides; rare 3. unipolar neurons = single short process that divides into T; found in PNS (function as sensory neurons) i. more distal process/peripheral process = sensory receptor ii. central process= enters CNS o Functional classification according to direction in which the nerve impulse travels relative to CNS 1. Sensory/afferent neurons = impulses from skin/internal organs to/into CNS a. Virtually all are unipolar, their cell bodies located outside CNS 2. Motor/efferent neurons = carry impulses away from CNS to effector organs a. Most are multipolar, cell bodies located in the CNS 4. Interneurons/association neurons = between motor + sensory neurons, shuttle signals through CNS pathways a. Most within CNS, make up over 99% of neurons in body b. Almost all are multipolar Neurophysiology - neurons highly irritable when elec impulse is generate + conducted along length of its axon = action potential Role of Membrane Ion Channels o Ion channels = proteins that form molec gate that changes shape to open/close in response to spec signals Chemically/ligand gated channels = open when an appropriate chemical binds Voltage gated channels = open/close in response to changes in memb potential Mechanically gated channels = open in response to physical deformation of the receptor (i.e. touch) Leakage/non-gated channels = do not respond to these signals, are always open o When ion channels open, ions diffuse quickly across memb following their electrochem gradients create electrical currents + voltage changes Ions move along chem conc gradients when diffuse from area of high to low conc

Move along electrical gradients when move toward area of opposite elec charge Together = electrochem gradient The Resting Membrane Potential o Cytoplasmic (inside) negatively charged relative to the outside potential difference = resting memb potential and the memb is said to be polarized o Resting potential only occurs across the memb, the solutions inside + outside the cell are elec neutral o Cell cytosol contains lower conc of Na and higher conc of K than extra cell fluid K ions diffuse out of cell along conc gradient more easily than Na enters cell, so causes cell to become more neg inside (so neg interior of cell due to greater diffusion of K out of cell) Doesnt become equal because Na/K pump maintains the conc gradients Membrane Potentials that Act as Signals o Neurons use changes in memb potential as commun signals for receiving, integrating and sending info o Only perm changes are impt for info transfer o Two types of signals produced by change in memb potential: 1. graded potentials = incoming signals operating over short distances 2. action potentials = long-distance signals of axons o Depolarization = reduction in memb potential inside of memb becomes less neg ; increases prob of producing nerve impulses o Hyperpolarization = memb potential increases, becoming more neg; reduces prob of nerve impulses Graded Potentials = short lived localized changes in memb potential that can be either hyperpol or depolarizations o Cause current flows that decrease in magnitude with distance o Graded b/c magnitude varies directly with stimulus strength stronger stim = more voltage changes + further current flows o Decreases/dies out with increasing distance so can act as signals only over very short distances but are essential in initiating A.Ps Action Potentials/nerve impulse = way neurons send signals over long distances o Is a brief reversal of memb potential = depolar phease then repolariz phase then hyperpolarization o Dont decrease in strength with distance o Typically generated only in axons, o Transmits nerve impulses only when adequately stimulated stim changes permeability of neurons memb by opening specific voltage-gated channels on axon (open + close in response to changes in memb potential) o Transition from lical graded potential to AP takes place ot axon hillock Generation of Action Potential o Involves 3 consecutive but overlapping changes in memb permeability all induced by depolar of axon memb o Perm changes increase in Na perm restoration of Na impermeability increase in K permeability 1. Resting state: Voltage gated channels closed a. Each Na channel has 2 gates: activation gate that is closed at rest and responds to depolar by opening + inactivation gate that blocks the channel once its open i. Both gates must be open for Na to enter, but either can close the channel b. Each K gate has a single voltage sensitive gate (closed in resting, opens in response to depolar) 2. Depolarizing phase: Increase in Na perm + reversal of memb potential a. As axon memb depolarized, Na rushes into cell- influx of pos charge depolarizes and opens more Na chan so cell interior becomes progressively less negative b. When depolar reaches threshold, depolar becomes self generating = upward spike of AP 3. Repolarizing phase: increase in K permeability a. As Na entry declines, K channels open and K rushes out of cell (following electrochem grad) b. Internal neg of resting memb restored = repolarization 4. Hyperpolarization: K perm continues i. Excessive K efflux hyperpolarization/undershoot = slight dip in spike ii. Na channels begin to reset reopen inactivation gates and close activation gates Propogation of AP o Na channels in areas where AP just was are inactivated so no new AP is generated there, thus AP propogates away from point of origin repolarization wave chases depol wave down length of axon o Once initiated, AP is self propagating continues along axon at constant velocity Threshold + All or None Phenomenon o Not all local depolar produce APs must reach threshold values if an axon is to fire o Strong stim depolarize memb to threshold quickly, weaker stim must be applied for longer periods, very weak stim dont produce AP

o AP is all or none phenomenon either happens completely or doesnt happen at all Coding for Stimulus Intensity o Once generated, all APs indepdendent of stim strength + all APs alike o Strong stim cause nerve impulses to be generate more often than weak, so stim intensity coded for by the # of impulses generated per second = freq of APs Refractory Periods o When memb generating an AP + its Na chan open, neuron cant respond to another stim o Period from opening of Na chen until they begin to reset to their orig resting state = abs refactory period Ensures each AP is a separate all or none event and enforces one way transmission o Relative refractory period = interval following abs refract period most Na chan have returned to resting state, some K chan still open, repolarization is occurring Axons threshold for AP generation is elevated, so exceptionally strong stim can reopen Na chan and cause more frequent APs (but normal stim can not) Conduction Velocity depends on: 1. Axon diameter: larger the diameter, the faster it conducts impulses 2. Degree of myelination: presence of myelin sheath increases rate of AP prop prevents leakage of charge from axon, allows memb voltage to change more rapidly a. Salutatory conduction occurs in myelinated axons - APs triggered only at nodes = 30x faster The Synapse junction that mediates info transfer from one neuron to next/effector cell - synapses btwn axon endings of one neurons + dendrites of other neurons = axodendritic synapses - those btwn axon endings of one neuron + cell bodies of other neurons = axosomatic synapses - presynaptic neuron = conducts impulses towards the synapse - postsynaptic neuron = transmit elec signal away from the synapse - most neurons function as pre+postsynaptic neurons Electrical synapses = gap junctions btwn neurons that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent neurons and allow ions + sm molecules to flow directly from one neuron to the next = electrically coupled o Provide means of snynchronizing actvitiy of all interconnected neurons Chemical synapse = specialized for realease + reception of neurotransmitters o Made of two parts: 1) axon terminal of presyap memb w/synaptic vesicles containing neurotrans; 2.) neurotrans receptor region on memb of dendrite/cell body o Pre/post always separated by synaptic cleft prevents nerve impulse from being directly transmitted Instead, transmission is a chem. event that depends on neurotrans o Chem. synapses convert elec signals to chem. signals and converted back to elec signal Info Transfer across chem. synapse 1. Ca chan open in presynaptic axon term when nerve impulse reaches axon term, memb depolar opens both Na and Ca channels 2. Neurotrans released surge of Ca into term, directs synap vesicles to fuse with axon memb, empty their contents into synaptic cleft by exocytosis Ca then quickly removed 3. Neurotrans binds to postsynap receptors 4. Ion channels open in postsynap memb receptor chages cause ion chan to open + creates graded potentials postsynap neuron may be excited or inhibited a. The higher the impulse freq (so the more intense the stim), the grater the number of vesicles that fuse = greater the effect on the postsynap cell 5. Neurotrans effects are terminated as long as its bound, neurotrans continues to affect memb perm + block reception of additional signals. Terminating mechanisms may be: i. Degradation by enzymes in postsynap membrane or cleft ii. Reuptake by astrocytes or presynaptic terminal iii. Diffusion away from synapose Synaptic Delay Neural transmission across synapse slow b/c neurotrans has to be released, diffuse, bind to receptors = ratelimiting Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic integration Excitatory synapses + EPSPs neurotrans cause depolar of postsynap memb o Postsynaptic membs generally do not generate APs axons do; instead, local graded depolarization events called excitatory postsynaptic potentials occur at excitatory postsynaptic membranes Help trigger an AP distally at the axon hillock of the postsynap neuron (b/c EPSP spreads all the way to the axon hillock) If currents reaching the hillock are strong enough to depolzarize the axon to threshold, AP is generated Inhibitory Synapses + IPSPs reduces postsynap neurons ability to generate an AP o Most inhib neurotrans induce hyperpolarization of postsynap membrane inner face becomes more neg

Postsynap memb becomes less likely to fire and larger depolar currents required to indice an AP Integration + Modification of Synaptic effects Summation by the postsynaptic neurons o Single EPSP cannot induce an AP, but if 1000s of excitatory axon term are firing on the same postsynap memb, or if smaller # of term are delivering impulses rapidly, prob of reaching threshold depolar increases Thus, EPSPs can add together (summate) to influence the activity of the postsynaptic neuron o Two types of summation: 1. Temporal summation = 1+ presynap neurons transmit impulses in rapid-fire order and neurotrans realeased in quick succession i. First impulse triggers small EPSP and before it dissipates, successive impulses trigger more EPSP 2. Spatial summation = postsynap neuron stim at same time by lg # of terminals from the same of diff neurons huge # of receptors bind neurotrans + simultaneously initiate EPSP, which summate + enhance depolar - IPSPs also summate- cause postsynap neuron to be inhibited to a greater degree - Most neurons receive excitatory + inhibitory inputs axon hillock keeps running account of all the signals it receives amd their potential at any time reflects the sum of all incoming neural information - Partially depolarized neurons are facilitated more easily excited by successive depolarization events - b/c EPSPs and IPSPs are graded, most effective ones occur closest to the axon hillock o inhibitory synapses occur most often on the cell body, excitatory occur most often on the dendrites Synaptic Potentiation repeated or continuous used of synapse enhances presynap neurons ability to excite the postsynap neurons = larger than expected postsynaptic potentials o presynap terminals contain high Ca conc triggers release of more neurotrans produces larger EPSPs Presynaptic Inhibition occurs when release of excitatory neurotrans by one neuron is inhibited by the activity of another neuron via a axoaxonic synapse result = less neurotrans released + bound, smaller EPSPs formed. = functional synaptic pruning Neuronal Integration = parts fused into smoothly operating whole Neuronal pools: functional groups of neurons that integrate info received and forward processed info o One incoming presynaptic fiber branches profusely then synapses with sev diff neurons in the pool Types of Circuits o Patterns of synaptic connections in neuronal pools = circuits o Diverging circuits = one incoming fiber triggers responses in increasing # of neurons farther and farther along circuit = amplifying circuits Common in sensory + motor systems o Converging circuits = pool receives inputs from several presynap neurons= funneling/concentrating effect Results in strong stimulation or inhibition common in sensory + motor systems o Reverberating/oscillating circuits incoming signal travels through a chain of neurons again and again giving continuous output signal until one neuron in circuit fails to fire Involved in rhythmic activities o Parallel after discharge circuits incoming fiber stim several neurons arranged in parallel arrays that eventually stim a common output cell - impulses reach the output cell at diff times Patterns of Neural Processing Serial processing whole syste works in predicable all or nothing manner: one neuron stim next -> stim next -> eventually causing a specific anticipated response o Reflexes rapid automatic responses to stimuli in which a partic stim always causes the same response Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs Parallel processing inputs segregated into many pathways, and info delivered by each pathway is dealt with simultaneously by diff parts of the neural circuitry o Not repetitious b/c circuits do diff things with the info, and each channel is decoded in relation to all the others to produce a total picture o Extremely impt for higher level mental processing puts parts together to understand the whole CH. 12: THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM = brain + spinal cord KNOW FIG 12.8 Regions + Organization = cerebral hemispheres, diencephelon, brain stem (medulla, pons, midbrain), cerebellum

Basic pattern of CNS central cavity surrounded by a gray matter care, external to which is whote matter (myelinated fiber tracts) o Both cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum have outer layer of bark of gray matter consisting of neuron cell bodies = cortex Ventricles Ventricles = continuous with one another and with the central canal of the spinal cord = hollow chambers filled with CSF and lined by ependymal cells (Fig 12.5) o Lateral ventricles, third ventricle, fourth ventricle Cerebral Hemispheres = form superior part of brain = 83% of total brain mass each cerebral hemisphere has 3 basic regions: superficial cortex of gray matter, internal white matter, and basal nuclei (islands of gray matter situated deep within the gray matter) Gyri = elevated ridges of tissue (gyrus) Sulci = shallow grooves (sulcus) o Several divide each hemispheres into 5 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula o Central sulcus, pre/postcentral gyrus, parieto-occipital gyrus, lateral sulcus Fissures = deeper grooves, separate large regions of the brain o Median longitudinal fissure- separates the cerebral hemispheres o Transverse cerebral fissure separates cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum below Cerebral Cortex where conscious mind is found - enables us to be aware of ourselves, communicate, remember, understand, initiate voluntary movements composed of gray matter (neuron cell bodies, glia, blood vessels), but no fiber tracts Brodmann areas = structural map of cortical areas specific motor + sensory functions localized in discrete cortical areas called domains. Cerebral cortex contains 3 functional areas: motor areas, sensory areas, association areas; all neurons are interneurons Each hemisphere concerned with sensory + motor functions of the opposite side of the body Two hemispheres not equal in function there is a lateralization (specialization) of cortical functions. Motor areas Control voluntary movement, lie in posterior part of frontal loves = primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Brocas area, frontal eye field 1. Primary somatic motor cortex located in precentral gyrus of frontal lobe of each hemisphere a. Pyridimidal cells (large neurons) allow us to consciously control the precise/skilled volun movements of skel mus i. Their long axons (pyramidal/corticospinal tracts) form voluntary motor tracts b. Motor innervation is contralateral left pri motor gyrus controls muscles on right side, vice versa 2. Premotor cortex just anterior to precentral gyrus in frontal lobe a. Controls learned motor skills of repetitious/patterned manner; involved in planning movements b. Coordinates the movement of several muscle groups 3. Brocas Area lies anterior to the interior region of the premotor area a. Only present in left hemisphere b. Is a special motor speech area that directs muscles involved in speech production 4. Frontal eye field partially in/anterior to premotor cortex, superior to Brocas area a. Controls voluntary movement of the eyes Sensory Areas = conscious awareness of sensation occur in parietal, insular, temporal and occipital lobes 1. Primary Somatosensory cortex in postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe, just posterior to pri motor cortex a. Neurons here receive info from the general sensory receptors in the skin and from proprioceptors in the skel muscles, joints, tendons i. Neurons identify the body region being stimulated = spatial discrimination b. Right side receives input from left side of body c. Amt of sensory cortex devoted to a particular body region is related to that regions sensitivity not to the size 2. Somatosensory Association Cortex just posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex, has many connections with it a. Integrates sensory inputs (temp, pressure..) relayed to it by the pri somatosensory cortex to produce an understanding of the object being felt 3. Visual Areas a. Primary visual cortex on extreme posterior tip of occipital lobe i. Largest of all cortical sensory areas, receives visual info that originates on retina b. Visual association area surrounds primary visual cortex, covers much of occipital lobe i. Communicates with the primary visual cortex; uses past visual experience to interpret visual stimuli 4. Auditory Areas

a. Each primary auditory cortex receives impulses from sound exiting inner ear receptors, then it interprets their pitch, loudness, and location. b. Auditory association area permits the perception of sound stimulus + memories of sounds 5. Olfactory cortex a. Afferent fibers from smell receptors in superior nasal cavities send impulses along olfactory tracts that are relayed to the olfactory cortices = conscious awareness of different odors b. Part of primitive rhinencephelon includes all parts of cerebrum that receive olfactory signals 6. Gustatory cortex a. Region involved in taste stimuli 7. Visceral sensory area = conscious perception of visceral sensations (i.e. upset stomach, full bladder) 8. Vestibular (equilibrium) cortex position of head in space Multimodal Association Areas- receive inputs from mult senses and send outputs to multiple areas Sensory receptors primary sensory cortex sensory association cortex multimodal association cortex o Allows to give meaning to info received, store it in memory, tie to previous experience, decide what action to take These decisions relayed to premotor cortex motor cortex Lateralization of Cortical Functioning Division of labor, each hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by other = lateralization One cerebral hemisphere or the other dominates in one task, cerebral dominance = hemisphere that is dominant o Left = language, math, logic o Right = visual spatial skills, emotion, art + music skills Cerebral White Matter responsible for communication between cerebral areas btwn cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers Deep to cortical gray matter; Consists largely of myelinated fibers bundled into large tracts classified according to the direction they run: o Commissures connect corresponding gray areas of the 2 hemispheres Largest = corpus collosum o Association fibers connect different parts of the same hemisphere o Projection fibers tie the cortex to the rest of the nervous system + bodys receptors/effectors Basal Nuclei group of subcortical nuclei deep within cerebral white matter impt in starting, stopping, monitoring intensity of movement intiated by the cortex Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus constitute most of the mass Putamen+ globus pallidus form lentiform nucleus o Lentiform nucleus + caudate nuclei = corpus striatum Nuclei of corpus striatum receive input from entire cerebral cortex outputs project to premotor + prefrontal cortices so influence muscle movements Diencephelon forms central core of forebrain consists of 3 structures thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus 1. Thalamus consists of a lg # of nuclei, each has a functional specificity and projects fibers to and receives fibers from a specific region of the cerebral cortex a. Afferent impulses from all senses + parts of body converge on the thalamus w/at least one of its nuclei b. Information is sorted out/edited then relayed to sensory cortex/association areas c. Mediates sensation, motor activites, cortical arousal, learning, memory 2. Hypothalamus below thalamus extends from optic chiasm to posterior part of mammillary bodies a. Btwn the optic chiasm and the mammillary bodies is the infundibulum = stalk to hypothalamic tissue that connects the pituitary gland to the base of the hypothalamus b. Is main visceral control center vitally impt to overall body homeostasis i. Autonomic control center, center for emotional response, body temp regulation, regulation of food intake, regulation of water balance/thirst, regulation of sleep-wake cycles, control of endocrine system function 3. Epithalamus most dorsal portion of diencephelon a. Extending from posterior border is pineal gland secretes melatonin (sleep-inducing) b. Therefore, helps regulate sleep-wake cycle Brain Stem = midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata (from superior to inferior) is deep gray matter surrounded by white matter fiber tracts; Brain stem has nuclei of gray matter embedded in white matter produce rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors necessary for survival 1. Midbrain a. on ventral aspect, 2 bulging cerebral peduncles from vertical pillars that seem to hold up cerebrum i. Contain lg pyramidal motor tracts descending toward spinal cord b. Running through mdbrain = cerebral aquaduct connects 3rd + 4th ventricles c. Nuclei scattered throughout largest = corpus quadtigemma (4 protrusions)

i. Superior 2 = superior colliculi visual reflex centers that coordinate head + eye movement ii. Inferior colluculi part of auditory relay from receptors to sensory cortex d. Substantia nigra high content of melanin, a precursor of dopamine e. Red nucleus relay nuclei that effect limb flexion 2. Pons bulging brain stem region a. Composed of conduction tracts run in 2 directions i. Deep projection fibers run longitudinally, complete the pathway btwn higher brain centers + spinal cord ii. More superficial vental fibers issue from pontine nuclei relays for conversations btwn motor cortex + cerebellum 3. Medulla oblongata most inferior autonomic reflex center involved in maintaining body homeostasis a. Cardiovascular system, repiratory centers, vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, sneezing b. Contains crossover point called the dessucation of pyramids c. Contain olives nucley that relay sensory info on the state of the strech of muscles + joints to the cerebellum Cerebellum dorsal to pons + medulla, under occipital lobes Process info from cerebral motor cortex, brain stem nuclei, sensory receptors Provides precise timing + appropriate patterns of skel muscle contraction for smooth, coordinated movements + agility Occurs subconsciously Anatomy Thin layer of outer cortex of gray matter, internal white matter, small deep paired masses of gray matter (dentate nuclei) o Purkinje cells only cortical neurons that send axons through the white matter to synapse w/ the central nucleus of the cerebellum Anterior + posterior lobes = coordinate body movements o Medial portions influence motor activites of the trunk + girdle muscles o Intermediate parts distal pts of limbs + skilled movements Cerebellar Peduncles 3 paired fiber tracts that connect the cerebellum to the brain stem o All fibers entering/leaving cerebellum are ipsilateral from/to the same side of the body Cerebellar Processing o Continually compares higher brains intention with the bodys performance + sends out msgs to initiate the appropriate corrective measures 1. motor areas of the cerebral cortex notify the cerebellum of their intent to initiate voluntary muscle contractions 2. at same time, cerebellum receives info from proprioceptors throughout the body + visual/equilib pathways i. this info enables cerebellum to evaluate body position and momentum 3. Calculates best way to coordinate force, direction, extent of muscle contraction to prevent overshoot, maintain posture, ensure smooth + coordinated movements 4. Dispatches to cerebral motor cortex its blueprint for coordinating movement Cognitive Functions of cerebellum o Recognizes + predicts sequences of events so that it may adjust for mult forces exerted on a lumb during complex movements involving several joints Functional Brain Systems = networks of neurons that work together but span rel large distances in the brain so they cannot be localized to specific brain regions 1. The Limbic System - Our emotions/affective feelings a. Odors trigger emot rxns + memories b. Amyglada + anterior part of cingulate gyrus especially impt in emotions i. Amyglada recognizes angry/fearful facial expressions, assesses danger, elicits fear response ii. Cingulate gyrus plays role in expressing emotions through gestures + resolving mental conflicts c. Most limbic system output is relayed through the hypothal d. Because the limbic sysem interacts with the prefrontal lobes, relationship betwn feelings and our thoughts 2. Reticular formation a. Extends through the central core of the medulla, pons and midbrain b. Composed of loosely composed neurons in what is otherwise white matter i. Project to the hypothal, thal, cerebellum, spinal cord = governing arousal of brain as a whole c. Reticular activating system (RAS) sends continuous stream of impulses to cerebral cortex to keep cortex alert + sonscious + enhances its excitability i. Filters weak, repetitive, familiar signals out (i.e. clothes) Brain Wave Patterns Alpha waves = regular, rhythmic, low-amp; indicate brain is idling, calm, relaxed state of wakefulness

Beta waves = rhythmic, but not as regular as alpha and have higher freq. Occur when mentally alert/concentrating. Theta waves = more irregular. Common in children, but abnormal in awake adults Delta waves = high amp waves during deep sleep. In awake adults, indicate brain damage. Language Brocas + Wernickes areas together with basal nuclei form a single system that analyzes incoming and produces outgoing word sounds + grammatical structures Lesions to Brocas area = understand language but have difficulty speaking Lesions to Wernickes area = able to speak, but produce nonsense + dfficulty understanding Memory Stages of Memory Short term memory/working memory preliminary step, limited to 7-8 chunks of info o Temporary holding bin for data that we may/may not want to retain Long-term memory limitless capacity Transfer of info from STM to LTM affected by many factors: o Emotional state learn best when aroused, motivated, aroused Norepinephrine, involved in memory processing, released when emotionally charged o Rehearsal repetition enhances memory o Association tying new info to old info already in LTM helps remember facts o Automatic memory Categories of Memory o Declarative (fact) memory learning explicit information o Procedural (skills) memory ie. Piano playing o Motor memory i.e. riding a bike o Emotional memory i.e. heart pounding when hear rattlesnake Protection of the Brain = skull, mininges, CSF Meninges = 3 consecutive tissue membranes that lie just external to CNS Cover + protect CNS, protect blood vessels, contain CSF, form partitions in the skull 1. Dura Mater a. Strongest, 2 layered sheet of fibrous conn tissue i. More superficial layer = periosteal layer attached to inner surface of skull (periosteum) ii. Deeper meningeal layer forms ext covering of brain contines as dural sheath of spinal cord 2. Arachnoid Mater = middle, forms loose brain covering a. Separated from dura mater bt a narrow cavity = subdural space b. Subarachnoid space beneath the arachnoid membrane i. Filled with CSF 3. Pia Mater = delicate conn tissue richly invested with tiny blood vessels a. Clings tightly to the brain Cerebrospinal Fluid found in/around brain + spinal cord, forms liquid cushion that gives buoyancy to CNS structures Protects brain + spinal cord, helps nourish brain Contains Na, Cl, H impt in control of blood flow + breathing Choroid plexuses hang from roof of each ventricle form CSF o Enclosed by pia mater then epedymal cells The Spinal Cord Gross Anatomy + protection Spinal cord provides 2 way conduction pathway to/from brain; major reflex enter Protected by bone, meninges, CSF. o Single layer spinal dura mater 0 not attached to bony walls of vertebral column o Between vertebrae and dural sheath is epidural space, filled with padding of fat + network of veins o CSF fills subarachnoid space btwn arachnoid + pia mater meninges o Spinal cord secured to dura mater by denticulate ligaments Spinal cord has enlargements at cervical + lumbar regions serve upper + lower limbs Cross-Sectional Anatomy - two grooves mark surface: anterior median fissure + posterior median fissure - gray matter of cord located in core, white matter outside Gray Matter + Spinal Roots mirror image gray masses connected by cross bar of gray matter = gray commissure encloses gray canal two posterior projections of gray matter: dorsal (posterior) horns + two anterior: ventral (anterior) horns neurons whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord gray matter are multipolar o dorsal horns consist entirely of interneurons o ventral horns have some interneurons, but mainly cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

 the amt of ventral gray matter present at given level reflects amt of skel muscle innervated o lateral horns = autonomic motor neurons that serve visceral organs afferent fibers carrying impulses from peripheral sensory receptors form dorsal roots o cell bodies of these neurons found in dorsal root ganglion ventral roots = somatic motor neuron axons sent out o together, dorsal + ventral roots fuse laterally to form spinal nerves White Matter composed of myelinated + unmyelinated nerve fibers that run in 3 directions 1. ascending = up to higher centers (sensory inputs) 2. descending = down to the cord from the brain or within cord to lower levels (motor outputs) 3. transversely = across from one side of cord to other (commissural fibers) white matter on each side of cord divided into 3 white columns/funiculi o each contains several fiber tracts, made up of axons with similar destinations + functions all major spinal tracts part of multinueron pathways that connect brain to the body periphery o most pathways cross from one side of CNS to other (dessucate) o consist of a chain of 2-3 neurons that contribute to successive tracts of the pathway Ascending Pathways to the Brain - conduct sensory impulses upward, through chains of 2-3 neurons to various areas of the brain first order neuron cell bodies result in ganglion; conduct impulses from cutaneous receptors + proprioceptors to the spinal cord or brain stem where they synapse with 2nd order neurons second order neurons cell bodies resude in dorsal horn of spinal cord/medullary nuclei; transmit impulses to thalamus or cerebellum where they synapse third order neurons cell bodies reside in thalamus; conduct impulses to somatosensory cortex of cerebrum Main Ascending Pathways nonspecific + specific ascending pathways transmit impulses to the sensory cortex o provide discriminative touch + conscious proprioception spinocerebellar tracts tracks to cerebellum does no contribute to sensory proprioception 1. Nonspecific ascending pathways - Transmit pain, temperature, coarse touch impulses= aware of, but have difficulty localizing precisely a. Lateral spinothalamic pain + temp b. Anterior spinothalamic crude touch + pressure 2. Specific ascending (lemniscal) pathways a. Mediate precise, straight-through transmission can be localized precisely b. Discriminative touch + vibration c. Cuneatus transmits afferent impulses from upper limbs, upper trunk, neck d. Gracilis carries impulses from lower limbs + inferior body trunk 3. Spinocerebellar pathways a. Anterior + posterior spinocerebellar: convey info about muscle/tendon stretch to the cerebellum, which uses this info to coordinate skeletal muscle activity Descending Pathways + Tracts - deliver efferent impulses from the brain to the spinal cord; divided into 2 groups direct pathways + indirect pathways 1. Direct (pyramidal) system send impulses through the brain stem via the large pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts a. Composed of lateral + anterior corticospinal tracts b. Direct b/c axons descend without synapsing from the pyramidal neurons to the spinal cord c. Regulates fast and fine/skilled movement 2. Indirect (extrapyramidal) System includes brain stem motor nuclei and all motor pathways except pyramidal pathways a. Involved in regulating: axial muscles that maintain balance + posture, muscles controlling coarse limb movements, head/neck/eye movements = unconscious motor commansds; less precise = more time i. Tectospinal tract midbrain + head + eye muscles ii. Rubrospinal tract through red nuclei = fine motor control of distal limbs iii. Vestibulospinal tract through vestibular nuclei = upright posture iv. Reticulospinal through reticular formation = posture + reflex activity CH. 13: The Peripheral Nervous System + Reflex Activity Somatosensory system = part of the sensory system serving the body wall + limbs receives inputs from exteroreceptors, propriceptors, and interoceptors then transmits info about sev different sensory modalities Sensory receptors = activation results in graded potentials that trigger nerve impulses along the afferent PNS fibers to the CNS Classification by stimulus type 1. Mechanoreceptors generate nerve impulses when they are deformed by a mech force such as touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch

2. thermoreceptors sensitive to temp changes 3. photoreceptors respond to light energy 4. chemoreceptors respond to chemicals in solution 5. nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain Classification by Location 1. exteroceptors stimuli arising outside body 2. interoceptors stimuli inside the body 3. proprioceptors internal receptors that advise brain of body movements Sensory receptors Unencapsulated 1. Free nerve endings of sensory neurons = temp, pH, pressure, hot/cold in body tissues 2. Merkel discs = light pressure (slowly adapting) basal layer of epidermis 3. Hair follicle receptors= detect bending of hair in/surrounding hair follicles Encapsulated 1. Meissners corpuscles = discriminative touch in dermal papillae of skin 2. Pacinian corpuscles = pressure/vibration deep in dermis 3. Ruffini endings = deep + continuous pressure deep in dermis 4. Muscle spindles = muscle stretch, length in skeletal muscles 5. Golgi tendon organs = tendon stretch, tension in tendons The Eye Eyelids/palpebrae sepatated by the palpebral fissure Medial + lateral canthi = medial + lateral corners of eye o Medial canthus has a fleshy elevation = lacrimal caruncle contains sebaceous + sweat glands and produces whitish oily secretion Eyelids supported internally by tarsal plates also anchor the orbiculus oculi + levator palpebrae = muscles that run with the eyelid o Orbiculus oculi orbits the eye, when it contracts,the eye closes Tarsal glands embedded in tarsal plates produce oily secretion that lubricates + prevents eyelids from sticking together Conjunctiva = transparent mucous membrane that produces lubricating mucous to keep eye from drying out Lines eyelids as the palpebral conjuctiva and over the surface of the eyeball = bulbar conjunctiva Conjunctival sac space occurs between eyeball + eyelids when eye is closed Lacrimal Apparatus lacrimal gland + the ducts that drain excess lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity Lacrimal gland lies in the orbit; continually releases lacrimal secretion/tears into superiod conjunctival sac o Blinking spreads down + across eye to the medial commissure where they enter the lacrimal canaliculi via two tiny openings = lacrimal puncta; then tears go to lacrimal sac then into lacrimal duct which empties into the nasal cavity Extrinsic eye muscles Movement of eyeball controlled by six extrinsic eye muscles originate in bony orbit and insert into outer surface of the eyeball Rectus muscles (superior, inferior, lateral, medial) names = movements they promote Oblique muscles move eye vertically when already turned medially (superior + inferior) Layers Forming Wall of Eyeball 1. Fibrous layer outermost coat, composed of dense avascular connective tissue a. Two regions: sclera + cornea i. Sclera posterior portion white + opaque 1. protects + shapes eyeball, provides anchoring for extrinsic eye muscles ii. Cornea bulges anteriorly from its junction with the sclera 1. lets light enter eye, major part of light-bending apparatus 2. covered by epitheial sheets on both faces 3. well supplied w/ nerve endings, most of which are pain receptors 2. Vascular layer middle coat of eyevall 3 regions : choroid, ciliary body, iris a. Choroid = highly vascular dark brown membrane; its blood vessels provide nutrition to all eye layers i. Its brown layers help absorb light, preventing it from scattering/reflecting b. anteriorly, becomes the ciliary body thickened ring of tissue that encircles the lens i. consists mostly of ciliary muscles that are impt in controlling lens shape ii. near the lens, becomes folds = ciliary processes contain capillaries that secrete fluid iii. ciliary zonule/suspensory ligament extends from ciliary processes to lens encircles/helps hold the lens in its upright position c. iris visible colored part of the eye lies btwn cornea and the lens i. its round central opening = pupil allows light to enter eye ii. its muscle fibers vary pupil size 1. in close vision + bright light, sphincter pupillae contact, pupil constricts

2. in distant vision + dim light, dilator pupillae contract, pupil dilates 3. Inner layer (Retina) two layered a. Outer layer = pigmented layer absorb light + prevent it from scattering in the eye b. Inner = neural layer only neural layer plays direct role in vision i. contains millions of light receptors that transduce light energy ii. Neural layer composed of three main types of neurons: photoreceptors, bipolar, ganglion cells 1. signals from light spread from photoreceptors to bipolar neurons then to ganglion cells where action potentials are generated a. ganglion cell axons leave eye as optic nerve iii. optic disc where the optic nerve leaves the eye 1. also called blind spot because lacks photoreceptors iv. photoreceptors are two types: rods and cones 1. rods are dim light + peripheral vision receptors more sensitive (but not sharp/color) 2. cones operate in bright light + high-acuity color vision v. lateral to blind spot = macula lutea with pit in its center called fovea centralis 1. fovea contains only cones, so anything need to view critically focused on the foveae Internal Chambers + Fluids posterior cavity filled w/clear gel called vitreous humor: transmits light, supports posterior surface of lens, contributes to intraocular pressure anterior cavity partially divided by the iris into the anterior chamber (btwn cornea + iris) and posterior chamber (btwn iris + lens) o entire anterior cavity filled with aqueous humor drains into the venous blood via the canal of Schlemm supplies nutrients + oxygen to lens/cornea Lens biconvex, transparent flexible structure that can change shape to allow precise focusing of light on the retina avascular, held in place by ciliary zonule Lenses if lens surface is convex, the light rays are bent so they converge (come together) at a single point = focal point concave lenses diverge the light (bend it outward) extend the focal distance Focusing Light on Retina Moves through cornea aqueous humor lens vitreous humor through entire thickeness of neural layer of retina to excite the photoreceptors accommodation = process that increases the refractory power of the lens provides shorter focal length needed to focus the image of a close object on the retina o tension released in ciliary zonule so elastic lens bulges (allowing to see closer), reduces size of pupil (prevents divergent light rays from entering eye) Phototransduction process by which light energy is converted to graded receptor potential rods + cones have different thresholds for activation o rods- very sensitive, contain single kind of visual pigment o cones need bright light for activation (low sensitivity), 1-3 diff pigments = vivid colors light absorbing molecule called retinal combines with opsins to form 4 types of visual pigments Stimulation of the Photoreceptors 1. Excitation of rods visual pigment = rhodopsin; forms and accumulates in the dark breakdown in presence of light and triggers transduction process that involves rapid cascade of intermediate steps 2. Excitation of cones = less sensitive so takes brighter lights to activate; visual pigments are combination of retinal + opsins Signal transmission in the retina In the dark: 1) photoreceptor depolarized 2.) Ca channels open 3.) neurotrans released 4.) IPSP in bipolar cell 5.) no neurotrans released 6.) no EPSP in ganglion cell 7.) no action potentials In the light: 1.) photoreceptor hyperpolarized 2.) Ca channels closed 3.) no neurotrans released 4.) no IPSP, bipolar cell depolarizes 5.) neurotrans released 6.) EPSP in ganglion cell action potentials Adaptation Light adaptation occurs when move from darkness into bright light o Both rods + cones strongly stimulated, lg amts of visual pigments broken down almost instanteously o Rod system essentially turns off, while cones + other retinal neurons adapt so retinal sensitv decreases o Thus, retinal sensitivity is lost, but visual acquity is gained o Pupils constrict Dark adaptation occurs when go from well-lit area to dark one o Initally just see blackness b/c: cones stop functioning in ow intensity light, rod pigments have been bleached out by the bright light, rods still turned off

o But once in dark, rhodopshin accumulates, retinal sensitivity increases o Pupuls dilate, allowing more light to enter Sense of Smell Localization + structure of olfactory receptors Olfaction detects chemicals in solution Organ of smell is a yellow tinged patch of pseudostratified epithelium = olfactory epithelium located in roof of nasal cavity o Contains millions of olfactory receptor cells, surrounded + supported by supporting cells which make up the bulk; at the base of the epithelium are short basal cells Olfactory receptor cells are unusual bipolar neurons that has thin apical dendrite that terminates in a knob from which several long cilia radiate = olfactory cilia (increase receptive surface area) o Covered by mucous that is a solvent that captures + dissolves airborne odorants Neurons undergo noticeable turnover replaced by differentiation of the basal cells in the olfactory epithelium Physiology of Smell Activation of the Olfactory Receptors To smell, must be volatile (in gaseous state) and must dissolve in the fluid coating the olfactory epithelium o Stimulate the olfactory receptors be binding to protein receptors in the olfactory cilium membrane and opening cation channels o Leads to receptor potential and ultimately to an AP that is conducted to the first relay station in the olfactory bulb Olfactory Pathway Axons of the olfactory receptor cells constitute the olfactory nerces that synapse in the overlying olfactory bulbs, the distal ends of the olfactory tracts Olfactory nerves synapse with mitral cells which are 2nd order neurons in glomeruli o Each glomerulus represents a file that receives only one type of odor signal o Mitral cells refine the signals, amplify it, then relay it o Olfactory bulbs also house granule cells (GABA releasing cells that inhibit mitral cells so only highly excitatory impulses transmitted) When mitral cells are activated, impulses flow from the olfactory bulbs via the olfactory tracts to two main destinations o First pathway travels down to the piriform lobe of the olfactory cortex + part of the fronal lobe where smells interpreted + identified o Second pathway flows to hypothalamus + amyglada elicits emotional responses Taste Taste buds most taste buds found on papillae peglike projections of the tongue mucosa o located mainly on tops of fungiform papillae and in epithelium of side walls of foliate papille and vallate papillae each taste bud consists of gustatory/taste cells and basal cells o long microvilli called gustatory haits project from the tips of gustatory cells and extend through a taste pore to the surface = receptor membranes of the gustatory cells o basal cells act as stem cells divide into new gustatory cells Basic taste sensations sweet, sour, salty, bitter o sweet = sugars, alcohols o sour = acids o salty = metal ions o bitter = alkaloids Physiology of Taste for chem. to be tasted it must dissolve in saliva, diffuse into taste pore, contact the gustatory hairs gustatory cells contain synaptic vesicles and binding of a food chem. induces a graded depolar that causes realse of neurotrans o binding of neurotrans to associated sensory dendrites triggers generator potentials that elicit AP in these fibers Ear External (outer) Ear External acoustic meatus auditory canal, short, curved tube that extends from the auricle (ear), elastic cartilage, remainder of canal is carved into the temporal bone. Ceruminous glands modified apocrine sweat glands that secrete cerumen/earwax Tympanic membrane / ear drum boundary between outer and inner ear, where sound waves hit, transfers sound energy to the tiny ones of the middle ear and sets them into vibration.

Middle ear Tympanic cavity includes oval (vestibular) window and round (chochlear) window, Note: oval window is vibrated by stapes perilymph vibrates. Vibrations of the perilymph are dampened by the round window. Internal (inner) Ear Lbyrinth bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth. Bony labyrinth vestibule, cochlea and semicircular canals, filled with perilymph (similar to CSF) Membranous labyrinth continuous series of membranous sacs and ducts within the bony lbyrinth, contains endolymph (chemicall similar to K+ rich intracellular fluid). Perilymph and endolymph conduct sound vibrations involved in hearing Hair cells sensory receptor located in membranous labyrinth, displacement of the microvilli (stereocillia) change in hair membrane polarization and more/less neurotransmitter to be release from hair cell, affects the afferent nerve potential signal transduction down cochlear nerve to CNS The Vesibule saccule and utricle house equilibrium receptor regions maculae, respond to pull of gravity and report changes of head position. Hair cells are embedded in gelatinous mass containing otoliths (crystals), gravity acts on otoliths which cause hair cell microvilli displacement hair cell depolarization signal transduction to CNS (vestibular choclear nerve). Semicircular Canals ampulla houses an equilibrium receptor region calles a crista ampullaris, respond to angular movements of the head. The Choclea snail looking, hair cells are embedded in an acellular gelatinous tetoral membrane, movement of basilar membrane moved body of hair cell and embedded microvilli are displaced. Effect of sound waves on chochlear structures external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane moves, autitory ossicles vibrate, stapes pushes on oval window, waves are caused in fluid perilymph, travel from perilymph,stimulate vestibule stimulate endolymph, move basilar membrane, down into scala tympani, make way out round window vibrates, sound dies Amplitude vs frequency of sound waves Greater amplitude the more the basilar membrane is moved the more hair cells are moved, high volume (lots of APs are sent down cochlear nerve). Low decibles only outer hair cells move Higher decibles inner hair cells in cochlea move too (outers first, inners less frequently) Location of basilar membrane movement with in the choclea is dependent on the frequency of the sound wave Low frequency = Low pitch High frequency = Higher pitch Basilar membrane vibration ability of basilar membrane to vibrate is modified (tuned) by varying length of the fibers with in the membrane Low frequency near helicotrema High frequency near oval window. Auditory Pathway to CNS Frequency high frequency stimulates nerved in cochlea stimulate cochlear nerve/vestibular cochlear nerve, into the cochlear nucleus, inferior colliculus, thalamus, auditory cortex, auditory association area Dynamic equilibrium equilibrium with movement. Ampulla enlarged area atbase of each semicircular canal Crista ampullaris specialized epithelium with sensory receptors/hair cells Cupula gel like mass in which stericillia are embedded, hair cells respond to changes/movement of endolymph in semicircular canals inactive when perilymph isnt moving Anterior = yes movement Posterior = side to side Lateral = no movement Sterocillia/kinocilium movement and signal transduction. The CNS interprets the ampulla movement and will compensate in movement of eyes and skeletal muscles. Static equilibrium senses gravity linear acceleration Maculae located in utricle and saccule of vestibule bvc Transmission Lines: Nerves and Their Structure Structure epineurium outermost connective tissue sheath Perineurium connective tissue surrounding fascicles

Peripheral Nerve Regeneration if cell soma remains intact damaged axon can be repaired. A. wallerian degeneration axon and myelin sheath distal to injury site degenerated. B. macrophage remove debris C. surviving Schwann cells proliferate and align to make regenerated tube D. CAMS on regeneration tube stimulate axon regenration. Regenration of myelin sheath Cranial Nerves Old Opinionated Octavious Tromped Triumphantly About the Fancy Vestibule Giving Valiant Accounts Himself Old = Olfactory CN 1 sensory afferent fibers from nasal epithelium for smell Opinionated = Optic CN 2 sensory afferent fibers from reina of eye for vision Octavious = Oculomotor CN 3 motor efferent to eye muscles eye movement and parasympathetic efferent to pupil and lens muscles. Tromped = trochlear CN 4 motor efferent fibers to eye muscles, eye movement Triumphantly = trigeminal CN 5 3 branches, ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular. Sensory afferent fibers from nose, face, eyelids, mouth and jaw. Motor efferent fibers for eating to jaw and soft palate, throat and middle ear muscles. About = abducens CN 6 motor efferent fibers to eye, eye movement The Fancy Facial CN 7 sensory afferent fibers from tongue, motor efferent fibers to facial muslces for facial expression, parasympathetic efferent fibers to glands in head. Vestibule vestibulocochlear CN 8 sensory afferent fibers from vestibular apparatus for balance and from cochlea for hearing Giving glossopharyngeal CN 9 sensory afferent from mouth, neck, carotid sinus, carotid body. Motor efferent to throat for voluntary swallowing parasympathetic efferent to oral glands. Valiant vagus CN 10 only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head and neck to the abdominal / pelvic cavity. Sensory afferent fibers from areas throughout the body (from digestive tract to abdominal organs). Motor efferent fibers to mouth, voicebox (laryngeal muscles). Parasympathetic efferent fibers to thoracic and abdominal viscera and heart. Accounts accessory CN 11 motor efferent fibers to muscles of neck and upper back Himself hypoglossal CN 12 motor efferent fibers to tongue and throat muscles. Some (1) Say (2) Marry (3) Money (4) But(5) My(6) Brother Says Bad Business (to) Marry Money S = Sensory B = Both M = motor Spinal Nerves dorsal and ventral rami lie within vertebrae. Both rami contain sensory afferent fibers and motor efferent fibers. Dorsal ramus = motor/sensory (to spine) Ventral ramus = motor/sensory (away from spine) Cutaneous sensory distribution of Spinal Nerves Note: that givenspinal nerves innervate given areas of skin approximately lateral to where they exit the spinal cord (i.e sensory info from skin of right arm would enter ventral ramus at C5 and sensory info from skin of posterior lumbar area would enter dorsal ramus at L1 and L2). Ventral fibers that do not become intercostal nerves (at ribs) form nerve plexi Nerve Plexus - plexi categorized by their distribution into cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacaral plexus and coccygeal plexus Cervical Plexus innervates skin: neck, posterior head, ears, shoulder, clavical region and skeletal muscles: neck, clavical region, diaphragm. Phrenic Nerve (to diaphragm) chief muscle causing breathing movements Brachial Plexus - innervation for shoulder and upper limbs 3 cords branch to form 5 major nerves in brachial plexus Musculocutaneous nerve goes to biceps, radial, medial, ulnar nerve axilary nerve shoulder/deltoid. Axillary lateral shoulder skin, deltoid and teres minor muscle. Radial nerve posteriolaeral skin of entire limb posterior muscles of arm, forearm and hand extensors of arm and forearm, extensors of digits, abductor of thumb Musculocutaneous nerve anteriolateral skin of forearm, flexor muscles in anterior arm. Ulnar nerve medial skin of hand (ant/post) flexor muscles of ant. Forearm and small digital muscles. Median nerve lateral hand skin, flexor muscles of anterior forearm, muscles of lateral palm and digital flexors.

Lumbar Plexus innervation for pelvic girdle and lower limb Femoral nerve skin of ant and lateral thigh and medial leg and foot flexes thigh and extends leg. Femoral cutaneous (lateral) skin lateral thigh and periotineum Obturator nerve skin of superior and medial thigh adduction and lateral rotation of muscles Iliohypogastric skin lower abdomen, back and hip, abdominal muscles (obliques and transverse) Ilioinguinal skin of external genetalia and proximal and medial, thigh, inferior abdomen muscles Genitofemoral skin of scrotum and labia majora and anterior thigh, cremaster muscles in males. Sacral plexus Sciatic/ischiadic nerve 2 nerves in the same perineunum. Tibial and fibular. Tibial - skin of posterior leg surface and sole of foot extends thigh and flexes the leg, adducts thigh plantar flexes foot and flexes toes. Fibular/peroneal skin of lateral knee and second toe, anterior leg and dorsal foot. Extends thigh and flexes leg, dorsiflexes foot/plantar flexes foot, flexes and everts foot and extends toes. Spinal reflexes note that higher brain centers are not involved in response to stimulus. However the brain receives information about stimulus. Stretch reflex patellar reflex knee jerk. Muscles spindle located within skeletal muscle stretches sends AP up the afferent fiber to the spinal cord. In spinal cord afferent neuron synapses with efferent motor neuron and muscle contracts.(tests if corticospinal tracts are functioning properly, babinski;s sign = damage to primary motor cortex or corticospinal tract). Reciprocal inhibition Branches of the afferent fibers also synapse with interneurons that inhibit motor neurons controlling antagonistic muscles (parallel processing). Muscle relaxation and lengthening - Golgi Tendon Reflex - Prevents excessive tension on muscle. Relaxation and lengthening in response to tension. Afferent sensory neuron detects stretch and excessive pressure, will stimulate inhibitory association neuron, inhibits a motor neuron firing relax the muscle Reciprocal activation simultaneously, motor neurons in spinal cord circuits supplying the contracting muscle are inhibited and antagonist muscles are activated Withdrawl reflex/Flexor reflex initiated by a painful stimulus, causes automatic withdrawl. stimulus creates AP along afferent neuron synapse on 2 neurons (diverge to brain and stimulatory association neuron). Protective/important for survival these reflexes override spinal pathways and prevent any other reflexes from using them at the same time. Crossed extensor reflex accompanies the flexor reflex in weight bearing limbs and is important in maintaining balance. Incoming afferent fibers synapse with interneurons that control the flexor withdrawl response on same side of the body and with other interneurons that control the extensor muscles on the opposite side. Ex: cut foot on glass = rapid lifting by ipsilateral response, contralateral response activates the extensor muscle of the opposite leg to support the weight suddenly shifted to it. Association neuron stimulates a motor neuron skeletal muscle flexes fast withdraws from stimulus CH. 14: THE AUTOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Autonomic Nervous System always synapse before effector = ganglion (outside CNS) preganglionic neuron : cell body in gray matter of CNS axon myelinated + terminates in autonomic ganglion o releases ACH + always excitatory (nicotinic increase in Na perm EPSP act potential) postganglionic neuron: cell body is autonomic ganglion, axon not myelinated + terminates at effector (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, etc) all unconscious, cerebral cortex not involved Neurotransmitter effects (Fig 14.2) Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System (14.3) Sympathetheic Thoracolumbar Division preganlionic neurons leave spinal cords via ventral roots @ T1-L2 Parasympathetic Craniosacral Division II, VII, IX, X Sympathetic / Thoracolumbar Autonomic = fight or flight response CNS effects controlled largely by hypothalamus (ie dilate eyes, increase HR, increase resp rate) Outside CNS, nerves pass through: sympathetic chain ganglion or collateral ganglia Sympathetic Ganglion Chain = spinal nerve route (14.66)

Preganglionic neurons (efferent) travel through ventral root, spinal nerve + white ramus to symp ganglia chain synapse Axons of preganglionic neurons travel through gray ramus (unmyelinated) back into spinal nerve then out to effector organ o In (white) out (gray) down spinal cord (out dorsal or ventral ramus) Sympathetic Nerve Route thoracic (lungs + heart) Preganglionic neurons travel through ventral root spinal nerve white ramus symp ganglion chain synapse postganglionic travel through symp nerve to effector organs Splanchnic nerve route abdominal viscera (dont synapse in ganglion b/c would = long unmyelinated) (14.6) Preganglionic neurons travel through ventral root, spinal nerve, white ramus, symp chain ganglia splanchnic nerve to collateral ganglia synapse axons of post ganglionic to effector organs Three major collateral ganglia (14.5) o Ciliac = liver, gall, stomach, spleen, pancreas o Superior mesenteric = small intestine + upper lg intestine o Inferior mesenteric = sex organs, kidney, bladder, lower lg intestine No Ganglionic Synapse Innervation of Adrenal Gland (therefore acts fast) Preganglionic neurons ventral root spinal nerve white ramus sym. Chain ganglia (no synapse) splanchnic nerve collateral ganglia (w/out synapse) adrenal No postsynaptic neuron, so no unmyelinated = v. fast Sympathetic Thoracolumbar Neurotrans Neurotrans released into synaptic cleft o Effect of neurotrans dependent on type of receptor the effector organ has on its membrane o Either Ach binds to nicotinic + muscarinic receptors in cell membrane (preganglionic) Nicotinic opens ion channels found on cell bodies of all postganglionic neurons + adrenal medulla Cells: open Na channels increase Na perm EPSP act potential Muscarinic stim G-proteins; receptor-effector tissues may habe stimulatory G-proteins which will stim cell activity (sweat glands) or inhibit G-proteins which inhibits cell activity (bl vessels in skel mus dilate Or Epinephrine binds to adrenergic receptors always postganglionic @ effectors o Alpha receptors a1 + a2 ; most cells have a1 (stim); a2 are rare (inhib) o Beta receptors b1 = increase cAMP excitatory = beating heart (14.3) B2 = decrease cAMO inhibitory Parasympathetic Craniosacral Divison = cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X (Mary, brother, bad, business) Parasymp ganglion near effector organ postganglionic diverge Parasymp/Craniosacral Division (14.4) Rest + repose response when activated = opposite symp CNS effects controlled largely by hypothalamus Peripheral effects = GI tract, kidney, blood flow to skin Parasymp Neurotransmitters Only ACh, binds to cholinergic receptors 2 types o Nicotinic on cell bodies of all postganglionic neurons only - open Na chain Na perm increases EPSP AP o Muscarinic effector organs only Visceral Reflexes (14.7) Have same elements as somatic Always postsynap pathways Afferent fibers in spinal + autonomic nerves always synapse in ganglion Autonomic reflexes- cerebral, hypothalamic, brainstem neurons will influence autonomic reflexes Most organs dually innervated by sympathetic + parasymp neurons Effects of each divisions oppose each other