EXPERIMENT NO-1 OBJECT:-To measure the VSWR, reflection coefficient, and return loss in transmission line.

THEORY:- When a transmission line (cable) is terminated by an impedance that does not match the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, not all of the power is absorbed by the termination. Part of the power is reflected back down the transmission line. The forward (or incident) signal mixes with the reverse (or reflected) signal to cause a voltage standing wave pattern on the transmission line. The ratio of the maximum to minimum voltage is known as VSWR, or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. A VSWR of 1:1 means that there is no power being reflected back to the source. This is an ideal situation that rarely, if ever, is seen. In the real world, a VSWR of 1.2:1 (or simply 1.2) is considered excellent in most cases. In an EMC lab where many of the tests are very broadband in nature, a VSWR of 2.0 or higher is not uncommon. At a VSWR of 2.0, approximately 10% of the power is reflected back to the source. Not only does a high VSWR mean that power is being wasted, the reflected power can cause problems such as heating cables or causing amplifiers to fold-back. There are ways to improve the VSWR of a systemOne way is to use impedance matching devices where a change in impedance occurs. There are various ways of measuring and/or calculating VSWR. In the old days of open transmission lines, the voltage could be measured along the length of the line until the maximum and minimum values were found (which were wavelength apart) hence the reference to Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. Thus, VSWR would be calculated by the following formula:

Where Emax = maximum measured voltage Emin = minimum measured voltage Ei = incident wave amplitude, volts Er = reflected wave amplitude, volts With the use of coax cables, measuring voltage along the cable is impractical. Dual-directional couplers can be used to measure the forward and reverse power, and these values can then be used to compute VSWR.

Where Prev = reverse power Pfwd = forward power VSWR can also be represented other ways, such as Return Loss and Reflection Coefficient. Reflection Coefficient is common, can be calculated several ways, and ultimately used to calculate VSWR. Here are some formulae for determining Reflection Coefficient ( ):

Where Er = reflected voltage, Ei = incident voltage Where Pref = reverse power, Pfwd = forward power

Once the reflection coefficient has been calculated, it can be used to determine VSWR by the following formula:

EXPERIMENT NO-2 OBJECT:-To measure the propagation constant and phase constant of transmission line. THEORY:-The propagation constant of an electromagnetic wave is a measure of the change
undergone by the amplitude of the wave as it propagates in a given direction. The quantity being measured can be the voltage or current in a circuit or a field vector such as electric field strength or flux density. The propagation constant itself measures change per metre but is otherwise dimensionless. The propagation constant is expressed logarithmically, almost universally to the base e, rather than the more usual base 10 used in telecommunications in other situations. The quantity measured, such as voltage, is expressed as a sinusoidal phasor. The phase of the sinusoid varies with distance which results in the propagation constant being a complex number, the imaginary part being caused by the phase change. The term propagation constant is somewhat of a misnomer as it usually varies strongly with . It is probably the most widely used term but there are a large variety of alternative names used by various authors for this quantity. These include, transmission parameter, transmission function, propagation parameter, propagation coefficient and transmission constant. In plural, it is usually implied that and are being referenced separately but collectively as in transmission parameters, propagation parameters, propagation coefficients, transmission constants and secondary coefficients. This last occurs in transmission line theory, the term secondary being used to contrast to the primary line coefficients. The primary coefficients being the physical properties of the line; R,C,L and G, from which the secondary coefficients may be derived using the telegrapher's equation. Note that, at least in the field of transmission lines, the term transmission coefficient has a different meaning despite the similarity of name. Here it is the corollary of reflection coefficient. The propagation constant, symbol , for a given system is defined by the ratio of the amplitude at the source of the wave to the amplitude at some distance x, such that,

Since the propagation constant is a complex quantity we can write:

Where, , the real part, is called the attenuation constant , the imaginary part, is called the phase constant Attenuation constant In telecommunications, the term attenuation constant, also called attenuation parameter or coefficient, is the attenuation of an electromagnetic wave propagating through a medium per unit distance from the source. It is the real part of the propagation constant and is measured in nepers per metre. A neper is approximately 8.7dB. Attenuation constant can be defined by the amplitude ratio; | |

The propagation constant per unit length is defined as the natural logarithmic of ratio of the sending end current or voltage to the receiving end current or voltage. Phase constant In electromagnetic theory, the phase constant, also called phase change constant, parameter or coefficient is the imaginary component of the propagation constant for a plane wave. It represents the change in phase per metre along the path travelled by the wave at any instant and is equal to real part of the angular wavenumber of the wave. It is represented by the symbol and is measured in units of radians per metre. For a transmission line, the Heaviside condition of the telegrapher's equation tells us that the wavenumber must be proportional to frequency for the transmission of the wave to be undistorted in the time domain. This includes, but is not limited to, the ideal case of a lossless line. The reason for this condition can be seen by considering that a useful signal is composed of many different wavelengths in the frequency domain. For there to be no distortion of the waveform, all these waves must travel at the same

velocity so that they arrive at the far end of the line at the same time as a group. Since wave phase velocity is given by;

it is proved that is required to be proportional to . In terms of primary coefficients of the line, this yields from thetelegrapher's equation for a distortionless line the condition; However, practical lines can only be expected to approximately meet this condition over a limited frequency band.

EXPERIMENT NO-4 OBJECT:- To measure the characteristic impedance of transmission line. THEORY:-As a constant load, the transmission line's response to applied voltage is resistive
rather than reactive, despite being comprised purely of inductance and capacitance (assuming superconducting wires with zero resistance). We can say this because there is no difference from the battery's perspective between a resistor eternally dissipating energy and an infinite transmission line eternally absorbing energy. The impedance (resistance) of this line in ohms is called the characteristic impedance, and it is fixed by the geometry of the two conductors. For a parallel-wire line with air insulation, the characteristic impedance may be calculated as such: Characteristic impedance is also known as natural impedance, and it refers to the equivalent resistance of a transmission line if it were infinitely long, owing to distributed capacitance and inductance as the voltage and current waves propagate along its length at a propagation velocity equal to some large fraction of light speed. It can be seen in either of the first two equations that a transmission line's characteristic impedance (Z0) increases as the conductor spacing increases. If the conductors are moved away from each other, the distributed capacitance will decrease (greater spacing between capacitor plates), and the distributed inductance will increase (less cancellation of the two opposing magnetic fields). Less parallel capacitance and more series inductance results in a smaller current drawn by the line for any given amount of applied voltage, which by definition is a greater impedance. Conversely, bringing the two conductors closer together increases the parallel capacitance and decreases the series inductance. Both changes result in a larger current drawn for a given applied voltage, equating to a lesser impedance. Barring any dissipative effects such as dielectric leakage and conductor resistance, the characteristic impedance of a transmission line is equal to the square root of the ratio of the line's inductance per unit length divided by the line's capacitance per unit length:

Where, Z0=charecterstic impedance of line L= inductance per unit lenth of line C= capantance per unit lenth of line It is a uniform microstrip line with length of 0.5 mm, width of 0.075 mm, thickness of 0.002 mm. The substrate thickness is 0.1 mm and the permittivity is 12.9.

EXPERIMENT- 7 OBJECT:-Simulation of Low Pass Filter. THEORY:A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of)signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter. A band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and a high-pass. Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as a hiss filter used in audio),anti-aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analog-to-digital conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of images, and so on.

Fig. A simple low-pass RC filter

Low-pass filters provide a smoother form of a signal, removing the short-term fluctuations, and leaving the longer-term trend. An optical filter could correctly be called low-pass, but conventionally is described as "long pass" (low frequency is long wavelength), to avoid confusion. In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies contained in the input signal are attenuated but the filter has little attenuation below its cutoff frequency which is determined by its RC time constant.

Electronic low-pass filters are used to drive subwoofers and other types of loudspeakers, to block high pitches that they can't efficiently broad cast An ideal low-pass filter completely eliminates all frequencies above the cutoff frequency while passing those below unchanged: An ideal low-pass filter can be realized mathematically(theoretically) by multiplying a signal by the rectangular function in the frequency domain or, equivalently, convolution with its impulse response, a sinc function, in the time domain

Fig.The sinc function, the impulse response of an ideal low-pass filter

EXPERIMENT-8 OBJECT:-Simulation of high Pass Filter. THEORY:A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes high-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces theamplitude of) signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for eachfrequency varies from filter to filter. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system. It issometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut filter.High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC fromcircuitry sensitive to non-zero average voltages or RF devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a lowpassfilter to make a bandpass filter The simple first-order electronic high-pass filter shown in Figure 1 isimplemented by placing an input voltage across the series combinationof a capacitor and a resistor and using the voltage across the resistor asan output. The product of the resistance and capacitance (RC) is thetime constant ()

1: A passive, analog, first-order high-pass filter, realized by an RC circuit High-pass and low-pass filters are also used in digital image processingto perform image modifications, enhancements, noise reduction, etc., High-pass filters have many applications. They are used as part of an audio crossover to direct high frequencies to atweeter while attenuating bass signals which could interfere with, or

damage, the speaker. When such a filter is builtinto a loudspeaker cabinet it is normally a passive filter that also includes a low-pass filter for the woofer and sooften employs both a capacitor and inductor (although very simple high-pass filters for tweeters can consist of a series capacitor and nothing else). An alternative, which provides good quality sound without inductors (which arepr one to parasitic coupling, are expensive, and may have significant internal resistance) is to employ bi-amplification with active RC filters or active digital filters with separate power amplifiers for each loudspeaker. Such low-current and low-voltage line level crossovers are called active crossovers