Chapter 9:

9.1 - Definition of Local operations: use only the data at one input location to determine the value at a corresponding output location - Definition of Neighborhood operations: use data from both an input location plus nearby locations to determine the output value - Definition of Global operations: use data values from the entire input layer to determine each output value 9.2 - Definition of Selection operations: identifies features that meet one to several conditions or criteria + Attributes or geometry of features are checked against criteria => those satisfy the criteria are selected. + Be written to a new output data layer or manipulated in some manner 9.3 - Set algebra: uses the operations less than (<), greater than (>), equal to (=), and not equal to (<>) ( can be applied either alone or in combination to select features from a set) - Boolean Algebra: uses the conditions OR, AND, and NOT to select features (most often use to combine set algebra conditions and create compound spatial selection) 9.7 Some key points: - Definition of classification: a spatial data operation that is often used in conjunction with selection - Types of classification: + A binary classification: the simplest form of classification (places objects into 2 classes: 1 and 0, true and false, A and B and assigns a value for data set) + Equal-interval classification: subtracts the lowest values of classification variable from the highest value and defines equal-width boundaries to fit the desired number of class into range. + Equal-area classification: places an equal proportion of the study area into each of a specified number of classes. 9.8 Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP): - Definition: when there are no objectively recognizable boundaries, polygons may be reclassified and grouped in many ways. (Polygon variables: houses, populations, age will depend on the size, shape and location of the aggregated polygons) - Effects: + Zoning effect: aggregate statistics may change by the shape of the units + Site effect (Area effect): aggregate statistics may change with the area of the units

9.9 Dissolve: - Definition: primarily use to combine similar features within a data layer. - Dissolve is usually used for: + applying based on specific dissolve attribute associated with each feature + applying an area-based selection in spatial analysis + removing unneeded information 9.10 Proximity functions or operations: - among the most powerful and common spatial analysis tools - modify existing features or create new features that depend in some way on distance 9.11 Buffering: commonly used proximity function ( spatial analyses are concerned with distance constraints) A buffer: a region that is less than or equal to a specified distance from one or more features. 9.14 Features are combined vertically, in synthesis of spatial and non-spatial characteristics 9.16 The minimun dimension (point, line or polygon) is chosen because to do otherwise courts ambiguity If two lower dimension features are coincident with higher dimension features, it is unclear how the attributes should be recorded in the resultant features. 9.18 The silver problem usually arises when the linear features attempt to represent the same boundary. 9.20 Network models are connected linear graphs through which resources flow, or to which movement may be constrained. Both source and demand features connected to these networks Networks are different from many othet spatial models in tracking time-varying

Chapter 10
10.1: Map algebra: the cell-by-cell combination of raster data layers. 10.2:

Compatible cell sizes are often required in raster operations because otherwise the input is often ambiguous. If one input is substantially larger or mismatched to another, it may be uncertain which input cell value to choose. 10.3 Null values are assigned when either of the inputs is null 10.6 Nested function: when a function is used as the argument of another function Eg: taking logarithm of all cells in a layer with negative input => have to accept the null value. 10.10 In most systems, a NULL value is returned to logical operations AND, OR and NOTs when applied to NULL values on either side of the operation 10.14 The kernel: an array of cells and values that are applied in a moving window to an input raster The kernel array elements are coefficients in a multiplied sum across the kernel cells Kernels may have any size and shape but are usually square and with an odd-number of cells, rows and columns 10.16 The kernel is used in calculating slope and aspect, especially the change in z with a change in y of dz/dy

Chapter 11
11.1 Digital elevation models: (DEM) 11.2 Digital elevation data creates by a variety of methods. - Leveling or ground surveys are use to measure relative height differences across profiles - using optical and electronic instruments to measure distances and vertical and horizontal angles - Photo-based methods rely on parallax - The relative displacement of objects depend on their distance from an observation point 11.3 - Definition of slope: the change in elevation with a change in horizontal position

- Definition of aspect: an important terrain variable that is commonly derived from digital elevation data, the direction water will flow, the amount of sunlight a site may receive and determine what portion of the landscape is visible from any viewing point. 11.9 - Contour: connected lines of uniform elevation that run at right angles to the local slope - Contour lines are typically created at fixed height intervals, for example every 30m from a base height. 11.11 - Plan curvature: the profile shape in the local direction of level, at right angle to the steepest direction. - Profile curvature: an index of the surface shape in the steepest downhill direction 11.13 Identify: - Solar zenith angle: measured from the vertical down to the suns location - Solar azimuth angle: measured from north clockwise to the suns position - Solar incidence angle 11.14 A solar incidence angles, illustrated as fi, below, is determined by the terrain factors of local slope and aspect at the point of interest and the sun location 11.15 - Viewshed for a point is the collection of areas visible from that point - when is used: high voltage power lines, cell towers, communication antennas, large industrial complexes elevations will hide points if the elevations are higher than the line of sight between the viewing point and target point. - How to calculate: based on cell-to-cell intervisibility. A line of sight is drawn between the view cell and a potentially visible target cell

Chapter 12
12.1 Performing a spatial interpolation: the prediction of variables at unmeasured locations based on a sampling of the same variables at known locations - used to estimate air and water temperature, soil moisture, elevation, ocean productivities 12.2

4 different sampling patterns - A systematic sampling pattern: the simplest, are spaced uniformly at fixed x and y intervals. - Random sampling: entails selecting point locations based on random numbers - Cluster sampling: a technique that groups samples - Adaptive sampling: characterized by higher sampling densities where the feature of interest is more variable 12.7 A primary difference between a spline interpolation method and a trend surface interpolation - A spline interpolation method: uses to interpolate along a smooth curve, are constructed from a set of joined polynomial functions - A trend surface interpolation: estimate the coefficients for an equation globally all data are used to estimate the coefficients for a prediction equation and apply across the entire sample region 12.8 - A kriged interpolation: estimates of global and local variation, specifically spatial autocorrelation, to estimate coefficients for prediction equations. 12.9 Variogam: It represents on the x and y axes Important regions/ points on the plot 12.11 Convex hull: the smallest polygon created by edges (lines) that completely enclose a set of points and for which al exterior angles between edges are greater than or equal to 180 degrees How to calculate: measure from one edge side to another through the region outside a polygon 12.13 A kernel density map: uses a set of sample locations to estimate a continuous density surface How values are based on samples: - collect samples and concomitant coordinate locations - choose a kernel density function - choose a bandwidth, h, apply the kernel density distribution and sum across each sample area to achieve our composite estimate of density. 12.14

One function is used to generate a density surface

Bandwidth, K(xi,yi) is the individual density distribution applied at each sample point i

12.15 A bandwidth in a kernel mapping approach Equation of a generic spatial optimum