Children born into poverty are as likely to graduate high school as their richer peers: those who do graduate

e have, on average, an 8th grade skill level (TFA, 2012d). A schools neighborhoods income is significantly associated with academic performance (Florence et al, 2008). Children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to have poor diets and poor academic performance (Florence, Asbridge, & Veugelers, 2008). A poor diet can be defined as an excess intake of dietary fat and refined sugars, and inadequate intake of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Over time, the cyclical and compounded effects of socioeconomic factors and diet quality on academic performance may contribute to future increases in socioeconomic disparities in health (Florence et al, 2008, p. 214). Bussing strategies common in the 1970s-1980s, which resulted in modest desegregation of this nations schools, have been largely replaced by a focus on neighborhood schools, wherein children attend schools close to their home. This has resulted in a resegregation along racial and socioeconomic lines (Orfield & Eaton, 1996 as cited in Schutz, 2006; Frankenberg & Lee, 2002, as cited in Condron, 2009). This residential/class segregation arguably is more influential than racial segregation (Kahlenberg, 2003, as cited in Condron, 2009). When many people imagine starving children, mental images of children of color in foreign countries with protruding rib cages often come to mind. This conceptualization ignores the fact that malnutrition and undernourishment are forms of starvation. Over 8 million households with children (21% of the total) reported an inability to afford nutritionally adequate food in 2008 (Nord, Andrews, and Carlson, 2009, as cited in Howard, 2011). Approximately 12 million children were food insecure in this country in

1999 (USDA, as cited in Brown, 2002). This number has most likely risen in the last 13 years. Although discussions about the achievement gap in American schools tend to focus on racial differences, there must be a greater focus on class issues. We address that which we value: not talking about class- pretending it isnt there- doesnt remove its damaging effects from schools, communities, and the lives of students. 20% of poor students and 7% of working-class students face food insecurity in their households, compared with just 2% of middle/upper-class students (Condron, 2009). Food insecurity- a limited or uncertain availability of, or inability to acquire, adequate amounts of safe, nutritious, and culturally appropriate food produced in an environmentally sustainable way, due to financial resource constraint (Levkoe, 2005, as cited in Hayes, 2010; Jyoti et al, 2005)- is related to childhood onset obesity, which is associated with elevated blood pressure; low self-esteem; hyperactivity; higher rates of anxiety disorders and depression; type 2 diabetes, high cholesterol, heart disease and stroke, and certain types of cancer (Hollar et al, 2010; NTFPTO, 2000, as cited in Watts, 2009; Howard, 2011). Food insufficiency, a closely related concept, is associated with lower math and reading scores, grade repetition, tardiness/absenteeism, anxiety, aggression, psychosocial dysfunctions, and increased psychologist visits (Kleinman, Murphy, Little, Pagano, Wehler, Regal, et al, 1998; Murphy, Wehler, Pagano, Little, Kleinman, & Jellinek, 1998; Alaimo, Olson, & Frongillo, 2002, as cited in Jyoti et al, 2005). All of these issues further exacerbate the educational/achievement gap. Teach for America

Teach for America (TFA) was founded in 1990 by Wendy Kopp, a Princeton University undergraduate, with the goal of addressing the educational achievement gap and providing all children in America with a great education. The achievement gap can be defined as "the persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between affluent, White, or Asian students and students of poverty, color, minority students, and second language learners" (Roloff, 2009, p. 48). In its first year, 500 corps members joined TFA. Corps members are placed in low-income urban and rural communities and sign up to teach for two years. (For the purposes of this research, I will be focusing on urban schools.) In the 2012-2013 school year, TFA will place over 10,000 teachers in classrooms, impacting 750,000 students. Since 1990, approximately 54,000 teachers have provided education to over four million students (Teach for America, 2012c). TFA is currently in 46 communities in 34 states and Washington, D.C. (Teach for America, 2012a). I am choosing to focus my research on Teach for America as an organization and its teachers specifically because of the impact this organization has: Teach for America is a media darling and powerful voice in the educational, economic, and political worlds. A 2011 study found that TFA produces more founders and leaders of educational organizations than any other organization/program. There are now over 33,000 alumni working in many professional fields, including education, politics, law, and business (Teach for America, 2012b). Alumni include senators, principals, superintendents, deans, and political advisors. I am not arguing for TFA's expansion or dissolution: TFA is a powerful and growing presence in American education, so I am interested in understanding how this organization can be as effective and just as possible. Closing the

achievement gap and addressing the connected food, economic, and social justice issues is long-term work. Consistent and enduring commitment and investment is necessary: any changes have to be through TFA as an organization because individual teachers typically leave after two years (or less). TFA, as a national organization, is a vehicle for spreading blueprints, strategic outlines, example curricula, and contacts; and is a preexisting network that can be used to spread best practices and connect/expand change efforts to help communities scale them up. Linking effective teaching strategies, essential social services, and political pressure to transform the educational culture in this country requires operating at a scale that goes beyond individual classrooms and communities. There are many successful programs operating outside of public schools that address food and social justice issues. These programs are invaluable, and should absolutely be supported, but public schools are still the largest and most democratically accessed institutions in the country. They serve nearly 90 percent of American children (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, as cited in Warren, 2005). The school setting has a proven track record of successful interventions and offers access to almost all children and adolescents (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996, as cited in Auld et al, 1998). Kretchmar (2011), a TFA alumnus himself, said that he "found many isolated examples of educators engaged [in] inspiring work but couldn't find any larger networks in which I could associate" (p. 2). When corps members search for change efforts and a community to connect with but cannot find them, TFA has failed its teachers and their students. Social Justice in Schools

TFA recruits talented graduates from the nations best schools: in 2010, 12 percent of Ivy League students applied to the program (Teach for America, 2010). At 55 colleges and universities, TFA is the top employer of graduating seniors (Teach for America, 2012a). Certainly, its a good thing that TFA attracts and hires intelligent, young, hard workers with proven leadership abilities and organizational skills. However, most TFA corps members dont come from the same backgrounds as the students they teach. The majority of new TFA corps members are Caucasian, middle-class, female, and monolingual English speakers (Lipka, 2007, as cited in Tao, 2009), yet approximately 90% of kids who fill TFA classrooms are African-American or Hispanic children in lowincome communities (TFA, Diversity, 2009, as cited in Tao, 2009). How much do the majority of corps members have in common with their students? They dont know what its like to grow up poor, as a racial/ethnic minority, in a food desert. There are myriad factors that students bring into the classroom with them every day, and a good teacher is aware of- and works with- as many of them as possible. Teachers dont necessarily need to come from the same racial/ethnic/class background as their students (though theres certainly value in that), but they do need to be able to understand their students experiences. Schools, especially elementary schools, are powerful socialization forces. What children learn in school, and how they learn it, shapes them throughout their childhood and into adulthood. Effective curriculum development isnt a rigid, top-down mandate, but one teacher applying a social justice framework in their classroom- the lone voice in the wilderness- isnt sustainable, or at the scale needed to bring about systemic change. With TFAs short time commitment, there often isnt time for incoming teachers to

analyze their classroom, students, and community: most teachers are likely focused on simply trying to keep their head above water, especially their first year. TFA as an organization can help develop and maintain community partnerships and curriculum/intervention programs beyond individual teachers two-year time commitments. A common overarching organization can help connect successful local efforts into a larger, interdependent network of programs working in concert. Giving corps members a one-size-fits-all, national curriculum plan wont work: a loose, flexible framework is needed. TFA can train its teachers to apply rough guidelines, think critically, and learn to adapt to their individual students and situations. Summer Institute The majority of TFA corps members training comes during a five-week Summer Institute held in nine regional locations in the U.S. This doesnt adequately prepare corps members for the places they will be teaching. Philadelphias Institute brings together teachers from Baltimore; Washington, D.C.; Delaware; Detroit; greater Philadelphia; and Massachusetts. Phoenixs Institute hosts Colorado, Hawaii, Indianapolis, New Mexico, Phoenix, and South Dakota corps members (Teach for America, 2012e). These regions are incredibly diverse: grouping hundreds of corps members in cities and/or neighborhoods they wont be teaching in doesnt give them the exposure or personal reflection and training all corps members need. The scale of Summer Institute is too large to do much good. During Institute, incoming corps members teach for just two hours per day, and spend the rest of the day attending workshops and curriculum sessions and observing. Teachers work in groups with other corps members to role-play, rehearse new lesson

plans, and reflect on feedback theyve received. Peer support and reflection are vital, but this insular partnership feels a little like the blind leading the blind. Asking new corps members to provide valuable insight and feedback to other new corps members is denying these teachers the experience and perspective of veteran educators. These learning groups are organized by subject and grade area, not by region, neighborhood, or school. These types of connections are more salient than subject or grade. The weekends are free for the corps members to do what they want, including explore the city. The weekdays are long and grueling, so many corps members probably rest and relax. Those who do go out in the city are likely sightseeing and doing other touristy things. At the risk of taking away corps members precious little free time, it would be quite meaningful for them to visit the low-income neighborhoods where they or their peers will be teaching. Teachers should get exposed to these environments as early in the TFA process as possible. Prior to teaching, corps members must take and pass a content-knowledge test and/or take college courses related to the subject area they will be teaching. TFA seems to believe that anyone who meets a certain intellectual standard is capable of teaching: there is no test of content delivery; social, economic, or political understanding/analysis; or an interview that focuses on corps members intentions to enhance social justice. Beyond Institute Beth, a corps member Kretchmar interviewed for his study, stated that a "We're all in this together, but I can do it better than you, attitude was pervasive" throughout TFA (Kretchmar, 2011, p. 168). This competitive nature makes sense, considering how academically successful applicants are. However, this attitude does a disservice to corps

members when they are thrown into an unfamiliar and potentially overwhelming environment and are in need of support and collaboration. Focusing on individual successes in the classroom removes an essential opportunity to learn and work together. Barbara Miner (2010) writes, It is universally acknowledged that one of the biggest problems in low-performing schools is the revolving door of inadequately prepared teachers. TFAs short time commitment is strategically designed to attract people who otherwise would not teach. Is it a good thing to attract people who arent interested in pursuing education as a career? A longitudinal study of Houston schools found that rates of attrition for TFA corps members was approximately twice that of nonTFA teachers. Long-term (5 years or more), TFA recruits have extremely high attrition rates after, especially in their original placement districts: rates are 80% or higher after 4 years (Heilig & Jez, 2010, as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). The amount of information thrust upon corps members and the tremendous gains TFA expects its teachers to achieve may be overwhelming and contribute to burnout, creating a kind of catch-22: due to the short time commitment, teachers dont have enough time to digest information and hone their craft, creating stressed-out teachers who cannot last in the education system for more than a year or two. This model may not be sustainable. Labaree (2010) calls TFA a "place to do good and do well" (as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). TFA was ranked among the top ten places to launch a career, due to its partnerships with employers like Goldman Sachs, JP Morgan, Morgan Stanley, Credit Suisse, and Google. TFA also has formal partnerships with other non-profit, education, policy, medicine, and private sector firms, and over 150 graduate schools. Goodman (2000) identifies self-interest as one of three dimensions of a framework for engaging

privileged groups around issues of social justice (as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). Certainly, corps members should benefit from giving two years of service to under-privileged neighborhoods and children. However, corps members may benefit more than their students, who see yet another teacher come and go. Schools serving predominantly poor and minority students tend to employ teachers with lower levels of education and certification and fewer years of experience (Condron, 2009). Low-income schools don't get the most experienced, best trained, or most committed teachers: is this because they don't deserve them? The richest school districts wouldnt allow inexperienced, short-term teachers to come and go at such a pace. Haycock (1998) believes that "If we but took the simple step of assuring that poor and minority children had teachers of the same quality as other children, about half of the achievement gap would disappear" (as cited in Roloff, 2009). Research has found that white, middle-class teachers want and expect students who are not white and middle-class to "act and [behave] like white middle-class students unconsciously, and in some cases consciously" (D'Angelo & Douglas, 2008' Grant, 1999; Jones, 1997; Kumashiro, 2002; Sleeter, 1993, as cited in Wilt, 2007, p. 18). This expectation hurts students and teachers alike: students are pressured to abandon their own culture and adopt one that oppresses them, and teachers fail to learn about their students realities. "TFA tries to push teachers to think those things [drug addiction, poverty, relatives in jail, single-parent households, low-income homes] don't matter- I think what they're trying to say is you shouldn't let those things affect how you teach" (Kretchmar, 2011, p. 168). This is a patently unrealistic and undesirable assumption and goal. Teaching should be based in the realities of the students who make up the class.

While critics have dubbed TFA Teach for Awhile or Teach for a Resume (Miner, 2010), participation in TFA has been shown to impact members values and subsequent career choices: serving as a corps member increases the likelihood that individuals will pursue a career in education. TFA participants are 48% more likely to believe that the achievement gap between low-income and higher-income students can be solved (Teach for America, 2011). If TFA alumni are more likely to enter the education sector and believe they can help reduce the disparities in our school system, equipping corps members with training and support around social justice issues- especially food justice- makes sense. Corps Members Experiences For this research, I interviewed three Teach for America participants: two are starting their second year of teaching, and one completed their first year before leaving TFA. Melissa: kindergarten teacher, Chicago Melissa works as a kindergarten teacher in Chicago, and has completed her first year of TFA. She is aware that she works in a food desert, but says that TFA didnt inform her of this, explain what this means, or provide her with the resources she felt she needed. TFA didnt connect Melissa with community members or programs, including a produce truck in the neighborhood and a program that gives children free fruits and vegetables: Melissa found out about these resources on her own at the end of school year. As Melissa put it, Im a teacher, but Im also a community member: she wanted the ability to give her students information and point them in the direction of other programs that could help provide them with more nutritious food.

During Summer Institute, teachers who were hired at a specific school were given 15 minutes to read three articles about their neighborhood and school. Corps members who didnt have a placement yet were put in a larger group to learn about the city where they would teach. Other TFA members- not community members or veteran teachers from the neighborhood- led these discussion sessions. Reading articles isnt sufficient information and doesnt replace being immersed in a community for many years. Reading articles about an entire city probably paints a very different picture than focusing on specific schools or communities. TFA does itself and its teachers a disservice by insulating itself from the knowledge of community members. Melissa acknowledged that the short, two-year commitment required of corps members gets people who wouldnt typically teach into classrooms. Whether this is a good thing or not, a longer time commitment would almost certainly affect TFAs enrollment rates. Melissa said, Its a tragedy that we are adding to the turnover rate in schools already struggling with high poverty and turnover rates and recognizes that this turnover does a disservice to the students, but also said that she wouldve hesitated at a three-year commitment and wouldnt have signed up for four or five years. Is it a good thing to give disadvantaged students teachers who are only teaching because it doesnt feel like too big of a sacrifice? Melissa also complained that TFA leaves its teachers to create their own support systems: TFA sometimes places corps members in learning groups, but these groups are organized by grade level or subject, not location. Melissa says, You dont necessarily know who else teaches in your community unless you find them. Melissa wanted to be taught the issues that affect her community, connected with other teachers and resources

in the neighborhood, and to meet with them in the community to collaborate. Melissa wanted to be given lesson plans for discussing nutrition in the classroom and with parents. This information would be helpful, but teachers should be given only broad curriculum guidelines, not rigid requirements. Corps members should be empowered to think on their feet, improvise, and adapt constantly: their observations and dialogues with community residents should inform their curriculum design. Abbey: pre-K teacher, Chicago Abbey was a pre-kindergarten teacher in Chicago. Abbey wasnt placed a school at the time of Summer Institute, but said she had a tight-knit support system with the other early childhood development corps members because the group was so small. Abbey said the relationship between TFA teachers and other teachers/community members was not very positive. Without minimizing the competitive and rigorous application process or the quality of TFA teachers, many corps members join TFA to boost their resume or to get into law school or an MBA program. When teachers come into schools to further their own academic/professional goals, and not because of a dedication to social justice/equality, kids- and their parents- can sense that. Abbey believed many TFA members came into their schools with an Im coming to save your children mentality. This sentiment is in line with the research: Popkewitz (1998) and Darling-Hammond (1994) discuss the missionary approach of TFA, in which primarily white, middle class corps members are sent in to 'save' low-income, low-performing students (as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). Abbey said the concept of food deserts was not brought up during her training. TFA really just cares about standardized tests Mental health, physical health, those

are all back-burner issues. Certainly this is not a critique of TFA alone: all teachers have to focus on state- and federally-mandated standards, which often leads to simply teaching to the test. Abbey noted that, Im not a social worker, but as a teacher I basically am. Working with young children and in a low-income community does require teachers to take a more holistic look at their students and their own responsibilities, yet teachers arent given the training or support to serve as pseudo-social workers. After working at three different schools in her first year, Abbey left TFA. Corps members dont get to choose the school they attend to obtain their certification. Abbey felt her classes turned into group therapy with a bunch of white girls sitting around complaining about the Hispanic and black women they work with. In their venting, Abbey felt her classmates made broad-sweeping, uncritical cultural stereotypes about those they worked with and taught. Popkewitz's (1998) ethnographic study found that corps members saw the communities they worked in as culturally deficient and viewed students of color as the 'other' (Kretchmar, 2011, p. 53), which Popkewitz defined as "the one who lacked the motivational attributes, behavioral characteristics, and self-esteem to achieve" (as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). Some corps members blamed their students, the students families, and the community for the poor academic performance of the children. Not only is this incorrect and unhelpful, but also ignores many critical racial, economic, and social factors. Cody: Pre-K teacher, Washington, D.C. Cody is starting his second year as a pre-kindergarten teacher in Washington, D.C. Codys interview focused more on Summer Institute than on his experiences during the

school year. He felt overwhelmed by the Institute schedule because so much information was crammed into such a short period of time: he felt that most of the information presented to corps members was not retained. Attending information sessions, writing lesson plans, and teaching left little time to practice/refine skills. Cody felt that many corps members adopted a survive Institute mentality and didnt focus on retaining pedagogical skills. Corps members only teach for one hour per day for four or five weeks. Cody didnt feel that TFA staff provided incoming corps members with enough guidance on how to achieve the successful classrooms used as examples during Institute. Corps members were not given time to observe or work with experienced teachers before entering their classrooms in the fall. TFA propagates a master narrative of success in the public and political arenas. Its recruits are the 'best and the brightest and achieve significant successes in narrowing the achievement gap. Being positive and publicizing success is good, but this could lead to major problems: corps members could have lose faith in themselves and feel like failures if their children don't meet state/federal benchmarks or live up to the models TFA puts forward. Alternatively, corps members could blame their students if they don't meet benchmarks. Cody said he entered TFA and Institute with the understanding that he would not automatically be an effective teacher, and that there was even a possibility that he would be an ineffective teacher. He believes coming in with this humility led him to better handle frustrations and setbacks that occurred during his Institute and teaching experiences. Some corps members come in with humility: and understanding that they

might fail, and that they dont have all the answers. Some teachers come in ready to learn from the communities they teach in. Others dont. This understanding is too important to assume or hope that individual corps members enter with it. Establishing and Utilizing Community Connections Children cannot learn well if they lack access to adequate housing, nutrition, and safe and secure environments. Schools cant teach children effectively if teachers lack an understanding of their students cultures and realities, and if they lack meaningful relationships with their students families and the larger community. Vanessa, a TFA alumnus, said "I've had kids without a place to sleep. How can we do everything we can for that kid without fighting for bigger issues? Without acknowledging that we can't do it all?" (Kretchmar, 2011, p. 205). Community partnerships lift the sole burden off the teachers back and provide a greater wealth of resources and ideas. As Warren (2005) perfectly states, What sense does it make to try to reform urban schools while the communities around them stagnate or collapse? Conversely, can community-building and development efforts succeed in revitalizing inner-city neighborhoods if the public schools within them continue to fail their students? The fates of urban schools and communities are linked, yet reformers and community-builders act as if they are not (p. 133). An awareness of and sympathy for the realities of life in low-income, urban communities is not enough. Teachers have a responsibility to advocate for their students and work to educate and empower them. Teachers must examine the whole context where learning takes place: the larger systems that come into play in daily life, the institutions and

culture that make up the education system in America, and both historical and contemporary relationships that perpetuate inequalities. If we stop separating our educators and schools from the broader culture, we can create a community that includes adults and children and crosses racial, ethnic, geographic, and economic divisions. Too often, educators working in low-income communities see families only as problems to be fixed. Teachers who hold deficit views of low-income parents of color (Rioux & Berla, 1993) pity them as victims or disdain them and see them as part of the problem. Parents should be respected as partners in the provision of community services, not just as recipients. Local leaders, both formal and informal, are familiar with the complexity of community relationships between organizations, social service agencies, churches, schools, and other neighborhood groups. Their expertise should be tapped into and connected with the resources TFA and its teachers can provide. Teachers have limited resources- including time and money- making community partnerships all the more important. Matthews (2006), argues that reforms have to start in and with the community (as cited in Schutz, 2006). That being said, TFA can go a long way in training corps members not to lead the charge, but to become collaborators, allies, and resources. Teachers should be a part of the community they teach in. Schools with high parental involvement experience greater support and respect from the community (Brewster & Fager, 1997, as cited in Powell, 2009). Partnerships and constant communication between teachers and parents will provide children with social closure, a setting in which all the adults that children know also know each other and coordinate their actions children can be raised with a unified set of expectations and behaviors and their development can

be addressed holistically (Coleman, 1998, p. 137). Consistent messages and modeling are essential, especially for young children. TFA must train their corps members to be community teachers, defined by Murrell (2011) as a teacher who is aware of and actively researches the knowledge and traditions of his/her students and integrates it into their learning (as cited in Ukpokodu, 2011). Teachers do not have to be trained as community organizers. Instead, they should be trained to recognize opportunities to link their work with the efforts of community organizers and community organizations. People with more privilege and social capital tend to dominate setting where they collaborate with less powerful individuals (Anderson, 1998; Brantlinger, Majd-Jabbari, & Guskin, 1996; Law, 1993, as cited in Schutz, 2006). Therefore, explicit training and conscious effort on the part of teachers are necessary to avoid this dynamic. "Most teachers (especially white teachers) unwittingly allow dominant cultural values to be perpetuated to their students via their pedagogical practices in the classroom" (Kumashiro, 2002; Sleeter, 1993, as cited in Wilt, 2007 p. 26). An awareness of this fact is a necessary first step in trying to guard against its continued existence. Localized, grassroots movements can make significant impacts around food justice issues, but federal legislation is needed. Individual teachers starting school gardens or bringing in vegetables is not enough: as food insecurity is a systemic problem, a systemic, scalable solution is needed. TFA can help disseminate a standardized message and curriculum through its networks. Establishing an explicit focus on food and social justice will reach thousands of new teachers each year, in addition to spreading to TFAs large alumni network.

Building a Better Institute: Teaching and Learning for Social Justice Critical theorists, including McLaren (1989), assert that the current dominant schooling structures are designed to maintain the status quo (as cited in Kwock Hu, 2009). As society and the education system stands, the students and communities TFA serve are marginalized. As teachers committed to social change, TFA corps members have a responsibility to their students to work to change the status quo. Teachers cannot be expected to enter their schools with the behaviors, knowledge, and skills to work effectively. TFA has to train, support, and provide resources. Cultural competence enables an individual to work effectively in cross-cultural situations (Teasley, Baffour, & Tyson, 2005, as cited in Tao, 2009). This cultural competence must be taught and consistently reinforced and fine-tuned. The Institute training, including its diversity component, should be more locallybased, and bring in more perspectives. Veteran teachers from low-income, neighborhood schools; community leaders; nutritionists; parents; and students should all be part of the dialogue, not just TFA facilitators. Community empowerment has long been a focus of history and sociology schools, but not in schools of education. Teacher training focuses more on pedagogy and childhood development than on nutrition, food deserts, or community organizing. McAdams & Brandt (2010) have found that TFA applicants are attitudinally disposed to service and are more civically inclined than average citizen (as cited in Kretchmar, 2011). However, compared to non-matriculates and corps members who did not complete their two-year commitments, TFA alums are less involved in civic engagement/service outside the organization (Kretchmar, 2011). TFA could turn this into

a strength: if TFA alumni focus their subsequent civic engagement within TFA, they can build a reliable, long-term force for good. Summer Institute Social Justice Curriculum TFA Critique Incoming corps members should read at least a few studies/articles that are critical of TFA: an awareness of the critiques and some negative consequences may help teachers avoid falling into some of these traps when they enter the classroom. Veteran teachersboth TFA and non-TFA- and community leaders should lead discussions about the realities of teaching in low-income, urban food deserts. Real-world lessons and the chance to ask questions of experienced leaders are invaluable opportunities. Nutrition Education and Food Justice in Schools The U.S. Department of Education doesn't provide standards, guidelines, or funding for nutrition education (Watts, 2009). This sends the message that nutrition is less important than math, reading, writing, and science. Because its not part of the core curriculum, teachers wont receive training on curriculum or lesson plan development or be tested on their knowledge of it. How our children learn- the environment in which they encounter information- is as important as what they learn. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, only 37% of teachers receive nutrition training in school (Watts, 2009). Britten & Lai (1998) found that teacher training that provides nutrition knowledge and instructional self-efficacy increases the amount of time teachers spend on nutrition (as cited in Watts, 2009). This only makes sense: teachers will spend more time on subject matter they feel competent to teach. TFA should have in-service nutrition trainings led by nutritionists and other health experts.

Community Resources Learning pedagogy and classroom management strategies are essential skills for TFAs new teachers. However, corps members will not be teaching in a vacuum. Teachers must be aware of the social services, both from the government and civil society, that they can connect students and students families with. Even simply providing a list or online database of programs, organizations, and contacts for corps members would be a giant step forward. Local Orientation Regional institutes may be the most practical way to train thousands of new teachers in a matter of weeks. However, a more localized/neighborhood-level orientation should occur also, even if its only for a weekend. These orientations could be ongoing during the school year as well. A subsequent Summer Institute before corps members begin their second year in the classroom should be even more locally-based, and should provide corps members with a vital opportunity to reflect on their teaching experiences, discuss important learning moments, and plan further change efforts for their second year. Intercultural Communication TFA corps members should be very comfortable with intercultural communication. One of the requirements of a just society is that every party impacted by a decision has a voice in the decision-making process (Greene, 1998, as cited in Wilt, 2007). This requires consistent and effective communication across and within many diverse groups with different knowledge, experiences, and priorities. Whether they realize it or not, they interact with myriad different cultures: other corps members, TFA

staff, the principal and other teachers at their school, students, parents, and other community members. A deep understanding of others cultures- including their biases, assumptions, and default communication patterns- and an ability to communicate in many different ways, will greatly help teachers. Bennetts Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication and LeBarons Bridging Cultural Conflicts are two excellent examples of intercultural communication texts that TFA could provide corps members. Pedagogies for Social Justice Habermans (1991) pedagogy of poverty uses students cultural knowledge as a conduit to facilitate the teaching-learning process (as cited in Ukpokodu, 2011, p. 48). Kumashiro's (2002) anti-oppression education is another theoretical framework that would provide new teachers in minority communities with valuable information and frameworks. The funds of knowledge approach utilized by Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti (2005) has teachers conduct ethnographic observations/interviews in students homes and form curriculum units that tap into community knowledge (as cited in Schutz, 2006). This knowledge cant simply be transferred from one teacher to another in the form of lesson plans: teachers must have their own, direct experiences in and with the community. Great caution must be exercise with this approach, however: without adequate support and training from TFA, these home visits could easily turn into nothing more than voyeurism and be treated like a trip to the zoo or museum. Banks & Banks equity pedagogy has teachers modify their methods in ways that will facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and gender groups" (as cited in Wilt, 2007, p. 124): this puts the burden on teachers, not

on students, to adapt. This pedagogy applies knowledge about students and the community that the teacher has acquired to subject material and teaching methods in ways that connects with community life and builds upon students experiences and culture (Kwock Hu, 2009). Continuing Support If TFAs certification/grad classes merely serve as gripe sessions and group therapy, corps members arent using them to their full potential. TFA and the partnering college/university should organize class meetings around a particular topic (tracking, discipline, assessment, community partnerships, etc.) and have everyone read background articles and be prepared to discuss how these topics are showing up in their classrooms, schools, and neighborhoods. Teachers are people immersed in society whose views of the world are influenced and constructed by external social forces. Teachers' social justice views ultimately get transmitted to their students by way of teaching practices" (Wilt, 2007, p. 1). Ongoing discussions about corps members own privileges, biases, and assumptions should be held in certification/grad school classrooms, as well as in corps members schools and communities.

Further Research During the course of this paper, I didnt focus on food justice as specifically as I would have liked. Subsequent research will narrow my focus around this subject and will also include more research on programs in (and possibly outside of) schools that are successfully addressing food access issues. While I am still very interested in TFA, I also

want to explore other attempts to address the many racial, ethnic, academic, class, and social disparities.

Works Cited Auld, G.W., Romaniello, C., Heimendinger, J., Hambidge, C., & Hambidge, M. (1998, September/October). Outcomes from a school-based nutrition education program using resource teachers and cross-disciplinary models. Journal of Nutrition Education, 30(5), 268-280. Bigelow, B., Christensen, L., Karp, S., Miner, B., & Peterson, B. (Eds.). (1994). Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice. Milwaukee: Rethinking Schools Limited. Brown, K.H. (2002). Urban agriculture and community food security in the United States: Farming from the city center to the urban fringe. Condron, D.J. (2009, October). Social class, school and on-school environments, and black/white inequalities in childrens learning. American Sociological Review, 74, 683-708. Florence, M.D., Asbridge, M., & Veugelers, P.J. (2008, April) Diet quality and academic performance. Journal of School Health, 78(4), 209-214. Hayes, J. (2010). Community gardens in Chicago neighborhoods: The role of community gardens in the local food system, food accessibility and environmental justice (Masters thesis). Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois. Hollar, D., Lombardo, M., Lopez-Mitnik, G., Hollar, T., Almon, M., Agatston, A.S., et al. (2010). Effective multi-level, multi-sector, school-based obesity prevention programming improves weight, blood pressure, and academic performance, especially among low-income, minority children. Howard, L.L. (2011) Transitions between food insecurity and food security predict childrens social skill development during elementary school. British Journal of Nutrition, 105, 1852-1860. Janus, M. & Duku, E. The school entry gap: Socioeconomic, family, and health factors associated with childrens school readiness to learn. Early Education and Development, 18(3), 375-403. Jyoti, D.F., Frongillo, E.A., Jones, S.J. (2005, December). Food insecurity affects school childrens academic performance, weight gain, and social skills. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(12), 2831-2838. Kretchmar, K. (2011). Teach for America and the Movement to end educational inequality: Critical life histories of Teach for America corps members (Doctorial dissertation), University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin. Kwock Hu, L.A. (2009). A cast study of one Teach for America corps members use of equity pedagogy (Doctoral dissertation), University of Southern California, PLACE. Miner, B. (2010, Spring). Looking past the spin: Teach for America. Rethinking Schools, 24(3). Retrieved July 9, 2012, from http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/ 24_03/24_03_TFA.shtml. Powell, N. (2009). Supporting family involvement in an urban elementary school (doctoral dissertation). Walden University, PLACE. Roloff, V.S. (2009). Closing the achievement gap in a high-performing elementary school: A case study (doctoral dissertation). University of Southern California, PLACE.

Schutz, A. (2006, Winter). Home is a prison in the global city: The tragic failure of school-based community engagement strategies. Review of Educational Research, Winter, 76(4), 691-743. Tao, S.A. (2009). Teach for St. Louis: Cross-cultural challenges and successes of new teachers (Doctoral dissertation), Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Teach for America (2010). Teach for America fields largest teacher corps in its 20-year history. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/ newsroom/documents/20100524_Teach.For.America.Fields.Largest.Teacher. Corps.In.Its.20.Year.History.htm. Teach for America. (2012a). Teach for America to bring a record 10,000 teachers to nations highest-need classrooms in 2012. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/sites/default/files/061912_Press.Release_2012.C orps_.Announcement.pdf. Teach for America (2012b). Fueling long-term impact. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/our-mission/fueling-long-term-impact Teach for America (2012c). Classroom leaders. Retrieved July 25, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/why-teach-for-america/building-amovement/classroom-leaders. Teach for America (Producer/Writer). (2012d). A new mandate for public schools. (Available from http://www.teachforamerica.org/our-mission/a-solvableproblem). Teach for America (2012e). 2012 Institute Schedule. Retrieved August 2, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/why-teach-for-america/training-andsupport/summer-training-institute/2012-institute-schedule. Teach for America (2011). Harvard study: Teach for America has significant impact on participants values and career paths. Retrieved July 30, 2012, from http://www.teachforamerica.org/press-room/press-releases/2011/harvard-studyteach-america-has-significant-impact-participants. Ukpokodu, O.N. (2011, Spring). How do I teach mathematics in a culturally responsive way? Identifying empowering teaching practices. Multicultural Education, 18(3), 47-56. Warren, M. R. (2005). Communities and schools: A new view of urban education reform. Harvard Educational Review, 75(2), 133-173. Watts, S.O. (2009). Am assessment of teacher-led nutrition education in New York State elementary schools, grades k-5 (Doctoral thesis), New York University, New York, New York. Wilt, B.J. (2007). Preservice teachers to inservice teachers: Teaching for social justice: A thesis in curriculum and instruction (Doctoral thesis), Pennsylvania State University, PLACE. Yamashita, L. (2008). Learning to eat appreciatively and thoughtfully (EAT): Connecting with food through school gardens (Honors thesis). Retrieved July 8, 2012 from http://etd.ohiolink.edu/send-pdf.cgi/Yamashita%20Lina%20A.pdf?oberlin 1242295804.

Reflection This class was an invaluable opportunity for me to delve deeper into an area I plan to continue working in for my change project. This class was an example of everything aligning at the right time: I visited a friend in Chicago during the break before this quarter started. She is currently in TFA, as are many of her friends. Hearing them complain about the lack of training and support around social and food justice issues got me more interested in the systemic nature of this problem. Further research got me more upset about the inequalities, and more excited about the possibility of my involvement in an effort to make a change for the better. This seminar gave me an excellent opportunity to find a general area of interest to work on for the next three quarters in Applications. When I signed up for this class, I had no idea what I wanted to research or what my Change Project might look like. However, in my excitement, I really struggles with limiting myself and placing some (artificial) boundaries on my research. Deciding what was and wasnt relevant was difficult, as was getting myself to stop looking for new articles to read. This desire to keep going deeper and learning more made it hard for me to start this assignment, setting me up for a pretty difficult last two weeks of the quarter! I really appreciate this class and am both humbled and inspired by the incredible talent, intelligence, and passion that I heard in the classroom every time we met. Watching everyone narrow in on their areas of interest has been really exciting: since we took all the same classes for the first three quarters, I tended to only hear about everyone elses passions in whispers or being hinted at in the margins of our coursework. Im

really excited to continue my own work and watch everyone elses work evolve over the next nine months!