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Biochemistry:
Isotopes: different # of neutrons
Ionic bond: electrons are transferred
Anion- gains electrons
Cation-loses electrons
Covalent bond: share electrons
nonpolar covalent: electrons shared equally, between 2 like atoms
polar covalent: electrons not shared equally, between 2 unlike atoms
Characteristic of Water:
High specific heat,
high heat of vaporization,
high adhesion properties(clinging),
strong cohesion(stick together)
PH: 0-6 acidic, 8-14 basic; 1 PH difference=10X more powerful.
Buffer: bicarbonate ion (resist pH change)
-------------------------------------------
Carbohydrate: release 4 calories per gram
Monosaccharide: C6H12O6
Disaccharide: C12H22011
Glucose + Glucose=Maltose
Glucose + Galactose=Lactose
Glucose + Fructose=Sucrose
Polysaccharide: polymer of carbohydrates
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Structure:
primary: sequence of amino acid
secondary: hydrogen binding
tertiary: the way it functions
quaternary: more than 1 polypeptide chain (hemoglobin)
The Cell:
Large ribosomes
Respiration is mostly aerobic
10 to 100 micrometer
Cell membrane
Endosymbiosis: pro took permanent residence inside other larger prokaryotics (1.5B)
Humans have more than 200 different types of eukaryotic cells
Organelles:
Nucleus:
DNA wrapped in histones into chromatin network.
Surrounded by selectively permeable double membrane.
Nucleolus:
Ribosomes are synthesized here
Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Rough ER: site of protein synthesis
Smooth ER:
Steroid hormones and lips
Connects ER to Golgi Apparatus
Detox cell, carb metabolism.
Golgi Apparatus: modify, store, package substances in the Rough ER
Lysosome: hydrolytic enzymes, apoptosis(cell death)
Mitochondrion:
Site of cellular respiration (2500 in active cell)
Outer double membrane, inner membrane (cristae)
Contain own DNA, self replicate.
Vacuole: store substances for the cell
Some have contractile vacuoles that pump out excess water)
Plastids:
Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis in grana which is in stroma.
Can self replicate
Leucoplasts: colorless, store starch, found in roots
Chromoplast: store carotenoid pigments, attract insects.
Cytoskeleton:
Microtubules:
Cilia(short) and flagella(long)
Known as (9+2) 9 pairs of 2 singlets
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Microfilaments: protein actin that help support the shape of the cell.
Cleavage furrows, pseudopods, myosin filaments (skeletal
muscles)
Centrioles: 9 triplets, two centrioles make up 1 centrosome
Cell Wall: plants and algae(cellulose), fungus(chitin)
Plants have middle lamella that prevents cells from separating.
Cytoplasm & Cytosol:
Cytosol refers to the semiliquid portion of the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm cycle is called cyclosis.
Cell/Plasma Memebrane.
Fluid mosaic, phospholid bilayer, cholesterol are embedded to make it
more stable, carbohydrates attached for cell to cell recognition.
60% of cell membrane is protein. ATP synthetase act as enzyme.
Transportation:
Hypertonic sol: more water inside cell, water moves out (plasmolysis)
Hypotonic sol: less water inside cell, water moves in (turgid)
Simple diff, facilitated diff requires NO ATP.
Active Transport requires ATP
Exocytosis-release of molecules
Pinocytosis- cell drinking
Phagocytosis- cell eating
Receptor-mediated endocytosis- take large amounts of specific
substance.
Electroscopes:
Phase contrast- living unstained cells
Electron microscope: beam of electron, 100,000X
Transmission electron microscope: interior of cells (vacuum column)
Cell Division:
Mitosis: 2n -> 2n and 2n
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Light Independent Reactions: occurs in the stroma DOES NOT PRODUCE ATP
Carbon fixation C02 + H = sugar(CH20) called G3P or PGAL
Structure of a Leaf:
Other Plants:
C-4 Plants:
Minimize water loss and maximize water production.
Pumps carbon dioxide deep into the leaf
Hatch-Slack pathway / Kranz anatomy.
CAM Plants:
Keeps stomates closed during the day, open at night
Cell Respiration:
Anaerobic Respiration:
Alcohol fermentation:
Pyruvic acid -> ethol alcohol + CO2
Lactic Acid Fermentation:
Strenuous exercise.
Aerobic Respiration:
Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm
Glucose -> 2 pyruvate
substrate lvl phosphorylation- enzyme transfer P group to ADP
1 Glucose + 2ATP -> 2 Pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 NADH (2 ATP Net Gain)
The Kreb Cycle: occurs in the matrix
Pyruvic acid combines with coenzyme A -> acetyl coA
1 cycle produces: 1 ATP, FADH2, 3 NADH.
ATP is produced by sub lvl phos.
Electron Transport Chain:
Pumps protons across the cristae membrane to create protein gradient.
Carries electrons by NADH and FADH from glycolysis + kreb cycle to oxygen
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Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor / pulls electrons along the ETC.
.5 O2 + H2 -> H20 (waste product)
Oxidative Phosphorylation and Chemiosmosis.
Uses potential energy stored in the gradient to phosphorylate ADP
H protons move through synthetase channels
NAD: 3 ATP, FAD: 2 ATP
Glucose -> NAD and FAD -> Electron Transport Chain -> ATP
Glycolysis (cytoplasm) - 2ATP
Kreb Cycle (matrix) – 2 ATP
ETC (cristae) – 32 ATP
Classical Genetics:
Law of Dominance: hybrids will show dominate traits
Law of Segregation: two traits carried by each parent seperates Tt -> T and t
Law of Independent Assortment: one trait isn’t inherited along with another trait.
Incomplete Dominance: blending Red X White= 4 Pink
Codominance: both show, AB blood type
Multiple Alleles: more than two forms, (AA, Ai, BB, Bi, ii, AB)
Polygenic Inheritance: bell shaped curve of gene distribution.
Sex Linked Genes: carried on the X chromosome.
Phenotype will only show if she has both or a dominate sex gene (-X,-X) or (-X,X)
If males have it, they will express it, (only 1 X chromosomes)
Karyotype: picture of all chromosomes. Humans have 46, (44 autosomal, 2 sex)
Pedigree: family tree. (Males: squares, Females: circles)
Mutations: abnormality in geome.
Nondisjunction: chromosomes fail to separate.
Abnormal # of chromosomes: aneuploidy
3 chromosome: trisomy
>3 chromosome: polyploidy.
Monohybrid Cross:
Phenotype: 3T, 1t
Genotype: 1HD, 2Hybrid D, 1 Hr
Dihybrid Cross:
Phenotype:
Genotype: 9,3,3,1
Molecular Genetics:
Griffith(1927)- discovered ability of bacteria change genetic makeup by taking foreign
DNA
Avery, MacLeod, McCarty(1944)-provided direct experimental evidence DNA was
genetic material.
Hershey and Chase(1952)- proved DNA was molecule of inherence.
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Structure of DNA
Double helix, two strands running opposite each other.
5 carbon sugar(deoxy), phosphate group, mitrogenous base.
Has A-T, G-C
Structure of RNA
Single strand, polymer of repeated nucleotides.
5 carbon sugar(ribose), phosphate group, nitrogenous base.
Has A-U, G-C
MessengerRNA- carries message from DNA to cytoplasm codon
TransferRNA-carries amino acids to mRNA -> polypeptide. anticodon
RibosomalRNA- makes ribosome.
DNA Replication:
Replication takes place in S phase
DNA polymerase catalyzes replication of new DNA
Telomeres are at the ends of the chromosomes to protect lose of genes.
Transcription:
DNA makes RNA
RNA Processing:
Removes intron from initial transcript to form final transcript.
Translocation: occurs in ribosomes
mRNA is converted into an amino acid sequence.
Gene Regulation:
Inducible operon- turned off unless turned on
Repressible operon- turned on unless turned off.
Point mutation: change in a letter
Insertion: add a letter, deletion: remove a letter,
Human Genome:
3 Billion base pairs, 30,000 genes.
97% of DNA is junk.
Recombinant DNA: combines DNA from two sources into one.
Restriction Enzymes: cut DNA at specific recognition sequences or sites.
Gel Electrophoresis: DNA are shot through, the smallest go through first.
Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA can be rapidly copied or amplified.
Evolution:
A population is the smallest group that can evolve.
Fossil Record: existence of secies that have become extinct or have evolved into others.
Comparative Anatomy: similar anatomical structures are related to each other
Homologous structures: have same origin
Analogous structures: same function but not same structure.
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Evolution and Drug resistance: only resistant individual survive to reproduce, next
generation will be resistant
Natural Selection:
Stabilizing selection: eliminates the # of extremes, favors intermediate
Disruptive Selection: increase in # of extremes
Directional Selection: one phenotype replaces another
Variation in a Population:
Mutation: change in genetic material
Genetic drift: change in the gene pool due to chance.
Bottleneck effect: alleles may be under or overrepresented compared to orginal.
Founder Effect: rare alleles are overrepresented.
Gene Flow: movement of alleles into or out of a population.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: stable nonevolving population
Large population, isolated, no mutation, random mating, no natural selection.
P: dominant, Q: recessive. p + q = 1, p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Isolation and New Species Formation:
Geographical- species are separated physically
Polyploidy- mutation during meiosis can only bred with other polyploidies.
Habitat Isolation: live in the same area but rarely encounters.
Behavioral isolation: isolated because of behavior (mating call)
Temporal isolation: time, different time of mating
Reproductive Isolation: unable to mate with each other
Patterns of Evolution:
Divergent: population splits
Convergent: two species share same environment
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Taxomomy:
Germ Layer:
Ectoderm: skin and nervous system
Endoderm: gut and digestive system
Mesoderm: blood, muscles, bones
Coelom: fluid filled body cavity, provides space for organ systems.
Acoelomates: only digestive cavity
Pseudocoelom: have fluid filled tube but not completely lined by mesoderm.
Coelomate: all three, plus a completely lined coelom,
Cephalization:
Annelids through chordates.
Sensory apparatus in the head, digestive, excretory, and reproductive
structures located in posterior end.
Animal Phylas:
Porifera (sponges):
Nonmoving, only have two layers: ecto, endo, and mesoglea.
Have specialized cells but no true tissues or organs.
Reproduce asexually (fragmentation) or sexually (hermaphordites)
Cnidarians (hydra and jellyfish)
Radial symmetry, polyp (vase) or medusa (upside down bowl shape)
Extracellular digestion, contain cnidocytes and nematocyst.
Platyhelmnthes (flatworms/tapeworms)
Simpliest bilaterial symmetry. ecto, endo, mesoderm.
Only one opening for food, got nutrient/waste from diffusion.
Nematodes (roundworms)
Unsegmented worms with bilateral symmetry.
Annelids (segmented worms)
Bilateral, digestive tract, used nephridia for excretion of nitrogen waste
Closed circulatory system, blood contains hemoglobin, hermaphrodites.
Mollusks
Soft body, hard calcium shell, bilateral symmetry, open circulatory system,
gills and nephridia (excrete niotrogen waste).
Arthropods
Jointed appendages, segmented into head thorax and abdomen,
chitin exoskeleton, open circulatory system, hemocoels, uses Malpighian
tubules to remove nitrogen waste, uric acid. Air ducts in body bring in oxygen.
Echinoderms
Slow moving, bilateral > radial, reproduce sexually, or asexually(fragmentation)
Have both calcium endoskeleton and exoskeleton.
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Plants:
Bryophytes: lack vascular tissue, absorb water by diffusion, very short.
Gymnosperm: cone bearing, think cuticle to reduce water loss.
Angiosperm: flowering plants
Monocot: 1 leaf, scattered vascular bundle, parallel leaf, 3 flowers, fibrous root
Dicot: 2 leaf, ringed vascular bundle, netlike leaf, 4 or 5 floral parts, taproot.
becomes the triploid (3n) aka food. Ovule becomes seed, ovary becomes fruit.
The Seed:
Hypocotyls: lower part of stem and roots
Epicotyls becomes the upper part of the stem
Radical: first organ to emerge from the seed.
Alternation of generations:
Gametophyte (n) mitosis-> 2n zygote. Each zygote develop into a
Sporophyte (2n) that produces monoploid spores (n) by meiosis.
Ferns: seedless vascular plants that have independent sporophyte and gametophye
generations.
Seed plants: advanced vascular plants (gymnosperm & angiosperm). Gametophyte
generation exists inside sporophyte generation, dependent on
sporophyte
Hormones:
Auxins: simulates elongation and growth by softening the cell wall.
Cytokinins: simulates cell division, delay cell death.
Gibberellins: promotes stem and leaf elongation
Abscisic Acid (ABA): inhibits growth
Ethylene: promotes ripening.
Tropism: towards or away from a stimuli.
Positive (towards) Negitive (away) phototropism (light)
Positive (towards) Negitive (away) geotropism (ground)
Animal Physiology:
Ligaments- bone to bone
Tendon- muscle to bone.
Ectoderm- cold blooded
Endoderm- warm blooded
Excretion:
Ammonia: highly toxic, excreted by water living organisms
Urea: not as toxic as ammonia, excreted by earthworms and humans (liver)
Uric Acid: not soluble, insects, reptiles, birds.
. Earthworms: have long straight tube, food stored in crop, gizzard grind up food.
Typhlosole increases surface area.
Respiration exchanges through moist skin. Heart has 5 arches
Uses nephridia to remove urea.
They are hermaphrodites, both (fe)male organs.
Grasshopper:
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