SEMINAR REPORT 2009 2010 SEMINAR ON CHAMPAGNE

SUBMITTED TO, DEPARTMENT OF ALCOHOL TECHNOLOGY VASANTDADA SUGAR INSTITUTE MANJARI (BK), TAL HAVELI, DIST PUNE, PIN 412 307. SUBMITTED BY, GARAD AISHWARYA GANPATI ROLL NO AT 9001. GUIDE BY Mr. R. V. BURASE Miss M. N. PANGARE (ALCOHOL TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT)

CONTENT

HISTORY RAW MATERIAL CLIMATIC CONDITION PRODUCTION QUALITY TASTING LABEL HEALTH BENEFITS REFERENCES

HISTORY OF CHAMPAGNE PRODUCTION

Champagne is a sparkling wine produced by inducing the in-bottle secondary fermentation of the wine to effect carbonation. It is produced exclusively within the Champagne region of France, from which it takes its name. Effervescence has been observed in wine throughout history and has been Noted by ancient Greek and Roman writers but the cause of this mysterious to the moon as well as both good and evil spirit. The tendency of still wine From the champagne region to lightly sparkle was noted in middle ages but this was considered a wine fault and was disdained in early champagne winemaking A Monk called Dom Perignon was the first to understand the process of champagne fermentation and to elaborate the process .he managed to mix red and white grapes from different villages and therefore perfected the way wine makers at that time used to produce sparkling wine now days champagne is a festive wine. Latter when deliberate sparkling wine production increased in the early 1700s, cellar workers would have to wear heavy iron mask that resembled a baseball catchers mask to prevent injury from spontaneous bursting bottles. The disturbances caused by one bottles disintegration could cause a chain reaction, with it being routine for cellars to loose 20-90 % of their bottles to instability .The mysterious circumstances surrounding. Then unknown process of fermentation and carbonic gas caused some critics to call the sparkling creation the devils Wine.

Champagne is a sparkling wine. Sparkling wine is wine with sufficient level of carbon dioxide in it making it fizzy. Carbon dioxide may result from natural fermentation either in bottle as, as with method champenoise, in large tank designed to withstand and the pressure involved or as a result of carbon dioxide injection. Sparkling wine is usually rose or white but there are many examples of red sparkling wines 1) Italian Brachetto 2) Australian sparkling Shiraz Sweetness of sparkling wine ranges from very dry brut style to sweeter doux varieties. The term in French Mousseux or Cremate are use to refer to sparkling wine not made in the Champagne region The Champagne region spread in the North East of France; around the cities of Remis and Epernay there are basically three different areas in the Champagne wine region 1) Montagne de Remis 2) Cote des Blance 3) Marne Valley

CLASSIFICATION OF CHAMPAGNE
There are basically two different kinds of Champagne 1) Vintage The bottle of Champagne wears a vintage year on label. However they are not made every year but only when the wine is good enough. They are best Champagne specially Tete de Cuvee or Premium vintage such as the most famous Dom Perignon. 2) Non-vintage they make more than 80% of all Champagne bottles. Wine makers mix different harvest from different places. They mature in cellar for 2-3 years before going into the market. Most of the Champagne produced today is "Non-vintage", meaning that it is a blended product of grapes from multiple vintages. Most of the base will be from a single year vintage with producers blending anywhere from 1015% (even as high as 40%) of wine from older vintages If the conditions of a particular vintage are favorable, some producers will make a "Vintage" wine that must be composed of at least 85% of the grapes from vintage year. Under Champagne wine regulations, houses that make both vintage and non-vintage wines are allowed to use no more than 80% of the total vintage's harvest for the production of vintage Champagne. This allows at least 20% of the harvest from each vintage to be reserved for use in non-vintage Champagne. This ensures a consistent style that consumers can expect from non-vintage Champagne that doesn't alter too radically depending on the quality of the vintage. In less than ideal vintages,

some producers will produce a wine from only that single vintage and still label it as non-vintage rather than as "vintage" since the wine will be of lesser quality and the producers have little desire to reserve the wine for future blending.

RAW MATERIAL I)
Grapes wine makers use three types of grapes to produce Champagne

1) Chardonnay It is the typical grape used in great Burgundy, white wines Chardonnay provides freshness and elegance. These grapes are white/ greenish in color Cote des Blance: south of Epernay city, where the best Chardonnay grows. 2) Pinot Noir It is a red grape traditionally used in Burgundy to make their famous red wines, Pinot Noir gives body and structure Montagne de Remis: south of Remis city, where the best Pinot Noir grows.

3) Pinot Meunier It is a red grape mostly used in Champagne. Pinot Meunier gives
less delicate wines and is mostly used to make second grade Champagne. These grapes bring fruitiness and aromas .The relatively cheap Pinot Meunier is mainly used in Champagne. Vallee de la Marne: west of Epernay city where the best Pinot

Meunier grows.

II)

Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae brings out conversion of grape juice into alcohol. Rapid production of ethyl alcohol by Saccharomyces Cerevisiae quickly limit in grape juice of most bacteria and other yeast in grape juice. And it also generates conditions that essentially give them exclusive access to grape nutrients. During secondary fermentation yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae is used

III)

Liquid de triage cane sugar melted in still Champagne wine

IV)

Liquid de expedition is added This consist of cane sugar, still wine, brandy

1) Sugar amount of sugar depends on the type of champagne. 2) Driest champagne / brut 0.5 % sugar 3) Extra sec 1% 4) Sec 3% 5) Demi sec 5% it is the sweetest type of champagne.

V) SO2 - 10 30 mg / liter of SO2 should be maintained SO2 performs function in

preservation of a grape juice or wine. Prevent oxidation of wine by binding with aldehydes and ketons; react with phenol to prevent their further oxidation such as wine pinking.

SOIL AND CLIMATE

The majority of planted vines and all classified vine yards of champagne lie on the deep chalky soil of the slope of the hills these provides both good humidity and excellent drainage and their pH values are responsible for the high acidity level of grapes. The slope also offers the essential requirement sufficient warmth. Champagne region can hardly guarantee a sufficient of warmth and light for the grapes.

The chalky soil is ideal for champagne wine. It absorbs water during winter and gives it back to the vines roots during summer. The other way around it absorbs heat during summer to give it back during winter.

PRODUCTION
There are three methods of production of champagne 1) Traditional method 2) Transfer system 3) Bulk process

1) TRADITIONAL METHOD

10 steps

Harvesting

Pressuring Yeast

1st fermentation

Blending

Bottling Yeast

2nd fermentation

Ageing

Riddling

Disgorging

Dosage

Sugar + wine

1) HARVESTING
Where financial return permits, harvesting of both white and red grapes occurs manually. Manual harvesting permits both pre and post fruit selection to exclude moldy grapes. This is especially critical when red grapes are used as pigment can cause diffuse into the juice. Laccases also can cause serious oxidative browning. Manual picking also minimize fruit rupture, the release of juice. Subsequent oxidation of the juice and the extraction of pigment and tannins.

10

However because of slowness of manual harvesting, the fruit may not be picked at its optimal quality if rainy conditions develop. Inability to harvest quickly can lead to considerable loss in quality under poor harvesting conditions. Harvesting of the fruit commonly occurs earlier than is usual for table wine production. Early picking yields grapes higher in total acidity and lower in pH. Acidity and pH are important in providing the freshness desired in most traditionally produced sparkling wines. Early picking also assure lower brix level, yielding wines of lower alcohol content. As alcohol content of between 9 10.5 % is desired for base wine. In addition, slightly immature fruit have less varietal characters, favored in the production of most sparkling wines .

2) PRESSING
In traditionally produce sparkling wines the grapes are pressed whole , without prior steaming or crushing . This minimizes the extraction of pigment from red grapes as well as the release of solids, grape polyphenols oxidize, and potassium from the fruit. Because the latter remains with the pomace, the juice is less oxidizes, and the need for sulfur dioxide addition is reduced. Pressing intact

11

grapes is considered to promote early malolactic fermentation and favor the onset of the second, in bottle, yeast fermentation furthermore, pressing limits the extraction of varietal aroma compounds that could mask the subtle aged fermentation bouquet so desired in champagne. Finally the technique yields juice with the highest acidity and lowest potassium level. Pressing whole grapes takes considerably longer than conventional pressing. It often takes 2 hours for first pressing in larger diameter vertically presses historically preferred in champagne. This inadvertently exposes the juice to oxidation. The limited oxygen exposure gives the wine a degree of insensitivity to oxidative browning by promoting the early removal of the most easily oxidized phenols from the juice. About 66 liters of juice are extracted per 100 kg of grapes in champagne; SO2 is commonly added to the juice as it comes from the press. Level of 40 60 mg / liter are typical in champagne. Juice not already cool is routinely cooled to about 10 degree C and left to clarify for 12 to 15 hours before fermentation.

3) PRIMARY FERMENTATION
Juice fermentation is typical of most modern white wine vinification. It usually occurs about 15 degrees C lower temperature is considered to give a grassy odor, and higher temperature yields wine lacking in finesse. Inoculation with selected yeast strain is almost universal. It helps avoid production of perceptible amount of SO2, acetaldehyde. Acetic acid or other undesirable volatiles by indigenous yeasts. 12

If the juice is too low in pH (<3) malolactic deacidification is commonly encouraged. Some producers also believe that malolactic fermentation donates a subtle bouquet that they desire. It also reduces excessive acidity, permitting a greater proportion of the wine to be left dry. As the bacterial sediment produce is difficult to remove by riddling. It is important that malolactic fermentation is favored by minimal SO2 addition and maturation at or above 18 degree C. Before preparing the blend the individual base wines are separately clarified and stabilized by cultivars, site and vintate. Maturation may last from a few months to several years. Aging typically occurs in stainless steel but occasionally takes place in large or small oak cooperages. Certain producers in champagne mature some of the base wine on lees under light CO2 pressure (100 150 kpa) in 1.5 liter bottles

4) PREPARATION OF CUVEE
The blending of wine should be produce from different sites, verities and vintages is one of the hallmark of the traditional method. Because single wines seldom possess all the features producers. Desired sample of different base wines are blended to obtain a small number of basic blends. Blending is based solely on sensory evaluation of the formula for cuvee is developed. Besides improving the quality of the sparkling wine, blending helps minimize yearly variations in supply

13

and quality. This is essential in producing the consistency required for brand name wines. Because blending disrupts tartrate stability, the cuvee is typically cold stabilized to reestablish tartrate equilibrium. The cuvee is loose filtered. Cold to remove the tartrate crystal that may form. Tight filtration is less desirable as it may remove molecules important to the formation of a stable and fine effervescence. The cuvee whether white, red, rose should produce from grape that are chosen and processed for the express purpose of making sparkling wine. Cuvee wine should be fermented to about 0.5 % alcohol by volume and maintained free of preservatives that can interfere with secondary fermentation. Such wines should also be dry, with good acid balance and finished with a complete clarification, detartration and primary filtration

5) TIRAGE
Triage involves adding a concentrated sucrose solution, containing other nutrients, to the cuvee .the solution is added just prior to yeast inoculation. the triage may be made up in water or the cuvee itself. When wine is not the solvent, citric acid may be added at about 1 1.5 % to activate the sucrose hydrolysis into glucose and fructose. Sufficient triage solution is added to supply about 24 gm sucrose per liter, on fermentation this produces pressure considered appropriate for most sparkling wines namely, 600 kpa because pressure exerted by CO2 varies with temperature and other factors. The concentration of CO2 is occasionally express in terms of grams of gas contained. Most sparkling wines contain about 15 Gms of CO2 If the cuvee contains residual fermentable sugar s, the amount must be subtracted from the quantity of sucrose added with the triage. About 4.2 Gms of sugar is required to generate 2 Gms of CO2 during fermentation alcohol content rises by 1 %

14

Thiamine and diammonium hydrogen phosphate often are added with the triage to supply 0.5 and 100 mg / liter respectively. Thiamine appears to counteract the alcohol induced inhibition of sugar uptake by yeast cells. Nitrogen addition is unnecessary to yeast activity if the concentration of the assimiable nitrogen in the cuvee is above 15 mg / liter nevertheless, it may help to suppress the production of hydrogen sulfide. Occasionally, trace amount of copper salt are also added to further reduce hydrogen sulfide production. Some producers incorporate bentonite, gelatin, or isinglass to aid yeast flocculation at the end of fermentation. However evidence suggesting the negative effect of several fining agents on effervescence indicates that their use may be ill advised.

6) YEAST AND CULTURE ACCLIMATION

Because of unfavorable conditions in the cuvee, the inoculum is acclimated before addition. Otherwise most of the yeast cells die and a prolonged latency results before fermentation commences. Acclimation usually starts with inoculation of a glucose solution at about 20 25 degree C the culture is aerated to assure adequate production of unsaturated fatty acids and sterols required for cell division and proper membrane function once growing actively, the culture might be added to cuvee wine to produce a 60: 40 mixture. Over the next few days, cuvee wine is added to 80 90 % cuvee mixture. Simultaneously culture is cooled to the desired fermentation temperature. The cuvee is inoculated with the acclimated culture to reach concentration of about 3 to 4 * 106 cells / ml lower level increases the risk of failed or incomplete fermentation.

6) SECONDARY FERMENTATION
Once the cuvee has been mixed with triage and yeast inoculum, the wine is bottled. Formerly, the bottle was sealed with a cork stopper, held by a reusable metal

15

clamp called agrafe. Currently crown caps are used, as they are as effective but less expensive and more easily removed than cork stopper Occasionally 375 ml, 1500 ml larger volume bottles are used, but 750 ml bottle is standard. Except where a brand distinctive shape or color is used, the bottle typically has pronounced sloping shoulders and a green tint. The glass is thicker than usual to usual to withstand the high pressure that developed during second fermentation. Special care is taken during annealing of the glass to minimize the possibility of bottle explosion. The wine is kept at a stable temperature, preferably between 10 15 degree C for the second fermentation. Cooler temperature may result in premature termination of fermentation, while warmer temperature may result in both a rapid rise in alcohol content and a drop in redox potential. The former may prematurely terminate fermentation and latter increase hydrogen sulfide production. A stable temperature also helps to maintain yeast viability under difficult fermentation condition. At 11 degree C a common fermentation temperature in champagne, the second fermentation may last about 50 days. During the early stages of fermentation, the yeast population goes through about 3 4 cell division, reaching a final concentration of about 1 to 1.5 * 107 cells / ml. the rate of fermentation is largely dependent on the temperature, pH, SO2 content of cuvee after fermentation, the bottles may be transferred to a new site for maturation. Storage specially occurs at about 10 0 C

8) RIDDLING:
The dangerous task of shaking the yeast sediment from the sides of the bottles down in the bottleneck is called remuage in France and riddling in America. This also called as clearing process. The bottle start out in the horizontal position, by the end of the ageing period, the bottles are vertical with the neck pointed downwards the floor so that the sediments has collected on the inside face of the cork.

16

For safety during riddling, a mask that fully covers the face and throat is an absolute necessity. Failure to wear such a device after appropriate instruction and warning should result in dismissal of a riddler. Along with the mask, the riddler should wear the collar, long sleeves and long pants. Thick soled, non-slip footwear should be worn as well. Historically, riddling was done by hand and typically took 3-8 weeks. It involves positioning of the bottles neck down in a rack. Manual riddling is rapidly disappearing because of its cost, duration and space demands. Automate mechanical riddling is less expensive, takes about only one week to 10 days, and requires much less space. When fermentation and storage occurs in the same container as riddling, less bottle handling is required. Various system for automated riddling are commercial available

Disgorging: Automatically riddling 9) DISGORGING

After riddling the bottles may be left neck down for several weeks in preparation for sediment removal. For disgorging, the bottles are cooled to about 70C and the necks immersed in an ice/ CaCl2 or ice/ glycol solution to freeze the sediment. Cooling increase the solubility of carbon dioxide and reduces the likelihood of gushing on opening. Freezing the yeast plug at the neck facilitates removal of the sediment. Freezing commonly occurs while the bottles are being transported to the disgorging machine.

Manual

riddling

17

Disgorging machine rapidly removes the cap and permit injection of the frozen yeast plug. The mouth of the bottle is rapidly recovered in sequence by several devices. These adjust fluid to the desired volume by either adding removing wine. Adjustment is often necessary, as the amount of wine lost during disgorging can vary considerably.

DOSAGE

The most sparkling wine has dosage liqueur added before corking. The dosage typically consists of a concentrated sucrose solution dissolved in high quality aged white wine. Occasionally brandy is incorporated. a small quantity of SO2 or ascorbic acid may be added to prevent subsequent in-bottle fermentation and limit oxidation the volume of dosage added depends on the sweetness desired and sucrose concentration of dosage. Few sparkling wine receive no dosage, these are generally referred to as nature. They are rare as the cuvee seldom has sufficient balance to be harmonious when bone dry. Brut wines are adjusted with dosage to possess a final sugar content of up to 1.5%, extra sec wines generally contains between 1.2 and 2% sugar, sec wine commonly possess between 2-4% sugar, demi sec wine obtain between 3-5% sugar and doux styles possess more than 5% residual sugar. The range of sugar found in each category may differ.

10) CORKING:
Once volume adjustment and dosage are complete the bottles are sealed with special cork 31mm in diameter and 48mm long. They commonly composed of

18

agglomerate cork to which two disc of natural cork have been glued. Once the cork is inserted and just before addition of the wire hood, the upper 10mm of the cork is compressed in the standard round shape. Once the wire hood has been fastened, the bottle is agitated to disperse the dosage throughout the wine. After cleaning, the bottle is decorated with its capsule and various labels. Special glues are commonly used to retard loosening of the label in water. The bottles are subsequently stored for about 3 months to allow cork to set in the neck. Before setting, cork extraction is particularly difficult.

11) WAREHOUSE
Sparkling wine should have priority for the most consistently cool warehouse space. The cool temperature and lack of movement helps to minimize pressure stress on the cork. Other storage and inventory practices are the same for the sparkling wines as for table wine.

2) TRANSFER METHOD
The transfer method was developed in the 1940 as a means of avoiding both the expense of manual riddling and the low quality of wine initially produced by the bulk method. With advancement in automated riddling and development in the yeast encapsulation most of the advantages of the transfer method have been neglected, furthermore advance in bulk method have eliminated. The source of the poor quality that initially plagued the technique, because the transfer system is capital intensive but does not have the prestige and pricing advantage of the 19

traditional method, its continuous existences is in doubt. The remaining advantages of the transfer method may consist only of blending out bottles to bottles differences that arises in the traditional method. Preparation of the wine up to riddling is essentially identical to that describe for the traditional method because the wines are not riddled, fining agent need not be added to aid yeast sedimentation typically bottles are stored neck down in cartons for ageing. After the ageing the wine is chilled to below 100 C before discharge into a transfer machine and passage to pressurized receiving tank. The wine is usually sweetened and sulfated at this stage, subsequently the wine is clarified by filtration and decolorize if necessary. The wine is typically sterile filtered just before bottling.

WINE,

SYRUP,

YEAST, ADDITIVES

FILTER WINE BLENDING TANK BOTTLE TRANSFER MACHINE RECEIVING TANK BOTTLING TANK

3) BULK METHOD
BOTTLE

Current forms of bulk method are variations on the technique initially developed by charmat about 1970. The producer works well with sweet sparkling wines stressing varietal characters. The most well known example are those produced from Muscat grapes would mask the subtle bouquet generated at considerable cost by the traditional method. Occasionally the bulk method is used where the traditional aged bouquet is desired. In this situation the wine is stored on the yeast for up to 9 months however as expensive pressure tanks are tied up for months, many of the economic advantages of the system are lost. One of the feature generally thought to

20

characterize bulk processed sparkling wine is its poorer effervescence. However as an accurate means of assessing this property has only recently become available. Objective proof of this assertion is presently lacking. Fermentation of the juice for base wine production may go to dryness or be terminated prematurely. Frequently, the primary fermentation is terminated at about 6 % alcohol to retain either by exposure to cold, followed by yeast removal, or by yeast removal directly. Yeast removal is achieved by a combination of centrifugation and filtration or by a series of filtration. Once the cuvee has been formulated, the wines are combining with yeast additives and sugar if necessary Second fermentation takes place in reinforced stainless steel tanks, similar to those employed in the transfer process. Typically, removal of the lees occurs at the end of the fermentation, where desired for bouquet development, lees are intermittently stirred during the contact period. Left undistributed, a thick layer of yeast cell would form, producing a low redox potential that could generate reduced sulfur taints. Stirring also helps to release amino acids fro yeast cells that may be involved in the evolution of a toasty aspect in the bouquet. However, stirring also release fat

Particles fro yeast cell that are not easily removed by filtration and may interfere with the effervescence production. At the end of fermentation, or lees contact, the wine is cold stabilized to precipitate tartrates. Yeast removal may be achieved by a combination of centrifugation and filtration, or by a series of filtration. It is imperative that the operation as in the transfer method be conducted at an isobarometric pressure. Otherwise carbon dioxide may be last or gained if the pressurizing gas is carbon dioxide. Sugar and sulfur dioxide content are adjusted just before sterile filtration and bottling.

21

Occasionally still wine may be added to the sparkling wine before final filtration and bottling. This technique may be used to produce wine of reduced carbon dioxide pressure, such as cold duck.

WINE, SYRUP, YEAST, ADDITIVES FILTER FERMENTING TANK BOTTLING TANK

BOTTLE

QUALITY OF CHAMPAGNE
The theoretical quality of champagne is determined by following four main factors 1) Fundamental quality of the vineyard 2) The quality of the year of harvesting 3) The availability of a sufficient supply of reserve wines

4) The quality of the producer, his team and the means he utilizes. TESTING CHAMPAGNE
There are several different kinds of champagne according to your taste: 1) Doux (means sweet) 4 % and more sugar 2) Demi sec (fairly sweet) 2.5 5 % sugar 3) Sec (sweet / dry) 1.75 2.5 % sugar 4) Extra sec (medium dry) 1.5 2 % sugar 5) Brut (dry) 0.5 1.5 % sugar, the most common champagne these days. 6) Extra brut (very dry) 0 0.5 % sugar

22

Champagne is traditionally served in a typical glass called flute or in a tulip, a long stem with a tall glass. This kind of glass prevents the aroma to unfold. The height of the glass is necessary for the bubble to rise to the surface and keep a constant temperature. it is not recommended to pour champagne to the top of the glass but only up to 2/3 of the glass . Champagne is always cold served and chilled but not too cold otherwise the wine is not able to release its aroma. A non-vintage champagne should be drunk at 8 0 C a vintage champagne at 10 0 C.

INFORMATION ON LABEL OF CHAMPAGNE

1) Champagne house - MOET et chandon 2) Place Epernay 3) Year established fondeen 1743 4) Appellation champagne 5) Cuvee cuvee Dom Perignon 6) Alcoholic strength 12.5 % 7) Nominal volume 750 ml 8) Type of dosage - brut 9) Registered no. And type of bottler Elabore par 10) Firm place Moet et Chandon 23

11) Country Epernay / France 12) Registered trademark and design Muselet Eeparnix 13) Vintage Millesim 1990

Champagne Price List Category Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Champagne Description Chandon Blanc De Noirs Chandon Extra Dry Riche Chandon Rose Cliquot Yellow Lavel Dom Perignon Moet Imperial Moet Nectar Imperial Moet Nectar Imperial Rose Moet Rose Imperial Size 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML 750ML Price $17.99 $19.99 $17.99 $59.99 $189.00 $45.99 $53.99 $71.99 $66.99

SOME CHAMPAGNE HOUSE IN INDIA

1) Sula winery Nasik Maharashtra 2) Indage champagne Narayan gaon Maharashtra 3) Sankalp wineries

CHAMPAGNE AND HEALTH

On 18 April 2007, the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry published the results of a recent joint study by the University of Reading and University of Cagliari that showed moderate consumptions of Champagne may help the brain cope with the trauma of

24

stroke, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's disease. The research noted that the high amount of the antioxidant polyphenols in sparkling wine can help prevent deterioration of brain cells due to oxidative stress. During the study scientist exposed two groups of mice with Blanc de Blanc (100% Chardonnay composition) and Blanc de noir (Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier based) and a control group with no exposure to Champagne. All groups were then subjected to high levels of neurotoxicity similar to what the human brain experiences during inflammatory conditions. The study found that the groups pretreated with exposure to Champagne had a higher level of cell restoration compared to the group that wasn't. The study's co-authors noted that it was too early to conclusively say that drinking Champagne is beneficial to brain health but that the study does point researchers to more exploration in this area. It is a common perception that people become intoxicated more quickly on Champagne. It has been shown that alcohol is more rapidly absorbed when mixed with carbonated water, and this may explain this anecdotal assertion

REFERENCES

Wine science principle and application

- By Ron S. Jackson

The chemistry and biology of wine making - By Ion Hornsey

Wine - By Andre Domine

25

Commertial wine making - By Richard P Vine

Wine production Keith Grainger and Hazel Tattersall

Biotechnology volume five - G. Reed

26