Prepared b Apo ee Research under the direction of the NRTE i! Task Porce on Sustainable Transportation.

The views expressed herein are ihpse of the authors and editors, and do not necessarily represent those 11Round Table or its members.

issue and providing

a neutral

meeting

ground

where they can work to resolve

issues and overcome-barriers analyzing environmental in Canada;

to sustainable

development; changes that will enh ante

and economic and

facts to identify

sustainability

using the products conclusion

of research, analysis and national

consultation

to come to a

on the state of the debate on the environment

and the economy.

.the extent of consensus

and reasons for disagreement,

review the consequences

of

action or inaction, and recommend steps specific st&&ol&rs :ainability.

can t&e to promote

Table Ihe on he Economy

M embers
individuals environmental round priorities,
Chair

ofthe National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy

of a Chair and up to 24 distinguished as opinion Members society including business, Canadians. These a by the Prime Minister and First Nations. leaders representing and sectors of Canadian labour, academia,

The NRTEE is composed are appointed variety of regions

organizations,

of the NRTEE meet as a work of the agency, set

table four times a year to review and discuss the ongoing and initiate new activities.

Dr. Stuart Smith President Philip Utilities Management Corporation Jean Belanger Ottawa, Ontario Allan D. Bruce Administrator Operating Engineers (local 115) Joint Apprenticeship and Training Plan Patrick Carson Vice-President Environmental Affairs, Loblaw Companies Ltd. Elizabeth Jane Cracker Co-Owner, Plovers G. Martin Eakins Partner KPMG Peat Marwick Thorne Johanne Gelinas Commissioner Bureau daudiences publiques sur Ienvironnement Sam Hamad Associate Director Roche Ltd., Consulting Group Dr. Arthur J. Hanson President and CEO International Institute for Sustainable Development Michael Harcourt Senior Associate, Sustainable Development c/o Sustainable Development Research Institute Dr. Leslie Harris President Emeritus Memorial University Cindy Kenny-Gilday Yellowknife, NWT

Dr. Douglas Knott Professor Emeritus University of Saskatchewan Lise Lachapelle President and CEO Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Anne Letellier de St-Just Lawyer Elizabeth May Executive Director Sierra Club of Canada Dr. Harvey L. Mead President Union quebecoise pour la conservation Karen A. Morgan President Woodnorth Holdings H. Joseph ONeill Vice-President, Woodlands Repap New Brunswick Inc. Edythe A. (Dee) Parkinson President CS Resources Limited Carol Phillips Director, Education and International Canadian Automobile Workers

de la nature

Affairs

Angus Ross \ President SOREMA Management Inc. and Chief Agent, SOREMA Canadian Branch Lori Williams Lawyer Harper Grey Easton
Executive Director and Chief Executive Oficer

David McGuinty

Nat,oral kouod Table ihe on En\wsnmeni the and Economy

Suslamable Transporiol~an ,n Canado - Bockgrounder

Table of Cotitents
Preface Executive ............................................................. Summary ................................................... ..v ii ..i x i Introduction.........:...:.............................................x

The Unsustainability of Transportation in Canada

Unsustainable Unsustainable Transportation: Transportation: Trends and Causes Impacts ......................... .2 .4 6 .8 ......................... 11

.................................. .....................................

Health Outcomes Global Climate

from Air Pollution Change

.............................................. to Unsustainability

Relative Modal Contributions

Analysis and Policy/Program Development Tools

Visions of Sustainable Definitions Transportation Transportation for Sustainable Measures ................................... .............................. Transportation ................. .22 .25 28 .29 ..................... 30 34

of Sustainable Principles

Decision-Making Quantifiable Objectives Jurisdictional

Performance and Strategies

................................... Transportation

for Sustainable

Roles and Activities

......................................

Policy Options and Associated Jurisdiction and Timing Issues

Where is Sustainable Transportation on the Policy Development ................................ Transportation ........................ Agenda? ..... .44 .46 .53

WhatHasWorkedandWhatHasNot.. Policy Instruments for Sustainable

Appendices
Interviewees ..................................................... ..6 9 1 .77

Bibliography.......................................................7 Decision-Making Principles ..........................................

lace d
Transportation of Canada integrated has pervasive impacts, both positive and negative, on the economy and and on the quality of life of its citizens. Canada has a highly developed transportation networkfor the movement of people and goods. Its growth. They are necessary for

transportation

systems contribute

strongly

to economic

all sectors of societyto activities at any distance,

meet their needs and aspirations

for access to other people and

from next door to the other side of the world. evidence that the negative consequences of transportation

But there is increasing may be overwhelming society if we continue Governments infrastructure occurring

the benefits our current

we derive from it, and that there are serious risks to patterns of transportation expansion development and use.

face increasing

difficulties

in funding

of transportation Social polarization alternatives and those is

and systems to meet continuous

growth in demand.

between

those who have access to good transportation

who do not. There are major threats to human other environmental transportation, concerns from unrelenting and around is emerging, coupled

health and the global climate as well as growth in the use of fossil fuels for

both in Canada consensus

the world. based on an expanding with human settlement body of research, and for

An international that present communication mitigating reported municipal

trends in transportation, patterns,

are not sustainable

in the long term. Effective measures have been widely researched and

the harmful in the literature.

effects of transportation

Many federal agencies, as well as those at the provincial to include elements pertaining development. and the Economy (NRTEE), a Program to sustainable

and

levels, have begun

transportation

in their strategies

on sustainable

The National wishing

Round Table on the Environment contribution The purpose

to make a concrete Transportation;

to this debate, has undertaken of this program

on of

Sustainable Canada

is to assist the Government that can be coordinated in Canada

in developing

a strategy for sustainable emerging

transportation

with the strategies ,,,q :n+,r,n+:,,n,,.r

and actions

from other levels of government

sustainable sustainable is intended

transportation, transportation tostimulate

and combines

this with the results of interviews and non-government among Canadian

on It

with key government thought and discussion

organizations. during which

stakeholders

the subsequent phases of the NRTEE Program

on Sustainable

Transportation,

will include workshops and the drafting of a state of the debate report.

The report was prepared Task Force on Sustainable many individuals full responsibility issues in Canada.

by Apogee Research under the direction While many documents of this report,

of the NRTEE and accept

Transportation.

were reviewed the authors

were interviewed

in the preparation of the literature

for the interpretation The content

and of the overall state of the represent the position

of the, report does not necessarily interviewed.

of the NRTEE or the organizations

Johanne Chair

GClinas Transportation and the Economy

Task Force on Sustainable National Round

Tab!e on the Environment

National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy Task Force on Sustainable Transportation
Chair Johanne Gelinas Al Cormier

Executive Vice-President
Canadian Urban Transit Association (CUTA)

Commissioner
Bureau daudiences publiques sur Ienvironnement NRTEE Member

John Hartman Director, Transportation Transportation Forums Association of Canada

Edythe A. Parkinson President CS R&ources Ltd. NRTEE Member Wayne Kauk Manager, Sustainable Development Environmental Affairs

Transport Canada Lori Wiiams Lawyer Harper Grey Easton NRTEE Member Ken Ogilvie Director Pollution Probe

David Bell Assistant Deputy Minister Transport Canada

Viik Tom Director, Environmental Affairs

Transport Canada (AKPP)

Nomal Round Table the on Eov~ronmen, me Economy and

Sustmable Transporiat~on 8" conoda -Backgrounder

xecutive Summary
By almost every measure, unsustainable pollutants path: greenhouse transportation gas emissions in Canada appears to be headed of some air to on an and concentrations

are on the rise; the use of environment-friendly from trucking;

rail systems continues demand from

decline in the face of competition transportation transportation; services -

there is increasing

for air

the fastest growing

source of air pollution continues to fall.

and the use of public transit

There are many factors propelling ncluding population

Canadians

along the path to unsustainability settlement patterns, the explosion

of

growth, low density urban and the competitive

global communications ransport. But underlying

advantages

of energy intensive

modes of

these factors are deep roots in Canadian economic system and political health impacts

social values and structure. of unsustainable in Canada is

ifestyles, as well as in the countrys Canadians transportation. contributing

are already experiencing

the negative

Medical research shows that ground-level to increased incidence of respiratory

air pollution

illness, higher physician/emergency increased mortalitv.

room visits amone The potential concentrations warming

neonle with heart or lung disease. and nossiblv

risks from global climate change are even greater. Increasing gases from the burning of fossil fuels are causing climates. of oil use for

of greenhouse

of the ecosphere

and are destabiljzing

global and regional

In Canada, transportation

road vehicles are responsible

for more than 80 percent

and there is little sign of positive

change. Not only are there more cars up the in public

and trucks on the road, but consumer average fuel consumption transportation, both in absolute Achieving transit

trends to larger vehicles are pushing public investments

per vehicle. Despite continued ridership has been declining

in some of Canadas largest cities

volumes sustainable

and in modal share over the last 10 years. transportation requires that individuals and governments efforts are called for, as policies, and a

change the way they make decisions. well as full integration shift in emphasis transportation. performance of environmental

Increased

public education

objectives -

into transportation to minimize

from mobility An essential

to accessibility

the need for motor

element

in all of these changes is the use of quantifiable towards goals and targets. federal, provincial/territorial sustainable and

measures

to track progress -

All levels of government municipal -

international,

have an important

role to play in achieving change, particularly national

development. level, Canadian urban

While there are signs of positive

at the municipal

efforts have not coalesced into a well-formed

strategy for tackling

National Rcund Table the an Env,ronmen,ordEmany the

Up to now, policy responses regulations emissions, alternative

to sustainable

transportation

issues have focused on air

and policies in the technology mandate improvements fuels. agreement

sector -

for example, to control

in fuel quality and fuel efficiency, and promote

transportation

There is widespread must be supported modes of transport

that such regulatory/technology-based reductions

approaches

by major, long-term

in the use of high energy intensive or non-motorized modes. As \ packages of policies with the decisions. policy instruments regulations,

and shifts to lower energy consuming stronger

yet, few steps have been taken to implement potential to affect a broad range of consumer sustainable transportation

and business

Achieving

will require integrated command

that rely on a variety of approaches, economic planning, involving incentives, education

including

and control

and information,

transportation

and land-use approach

and technology

development.

Also essential

is a coordinated

all levels of government with jurisdictional among

and other stakeholders responsibilities,

to ensure that policy packages duplication, and

are consistent

avoid unnecessary

exploit synergies

policy instruments. and complexity of the change involved,.a sustainable

Given the magnitude transportation

system in Canada of immediate

will evolve only over several decades or more. actions can be taken.to improve or avoid further

However, a number deterioration providing

of the current education

situation,

including: of current transportation practices

on the unsustainability

and about actions that can be taken to support implementing attainment incorporating transportation implementing reforms zones) i

sustainability (e.g., air quality non-

in the most affected regions

targets for sustainability planning decisions standards

into investment,

land-use

and

more stringent

for emissions

control

and fuel efficiency and alternative fuel

raising fuel prices to encourage technologies, focusing mode shifting

fuel efficiency

improvements

and reduced

vehicle use aimed at reducing fossil fuel consumption

on research and development

from transportation The above findings activities are based on a preliminary review of current research and

in this sector, and are not intended

as a comprehensive

set of food for

recommendations thought among

for action. It is hoped, however, that they will provide stakeholders, in Canada. and stimulate

discussions on the future of sustainable

transporation

National Round Table he on Environment the ord Economy

Surtoinoble Tranrportatior tn Conoda- Bockgrounder

rtroduction
The objective the.issues relating of this report is to summarize to how transportation sustainable current understanding in Canada of can be economically, socially and of the study, performed Transportation, was to

environmentally

over the long term. The purpose

by Apogee Research for the NRTEE Task Force on Sustainable provide background information

in a concise format, which could be used as the on Sustainable Transportation. not

foundation

for later phases of the NRTEE Program

This review covers the goals, strategies just the Government important wherever Canada, country. Chapter 1 of this report summarizes of Canada.

and actions

of all levels of government, is to be achieved, reinforce it is

If sustainable

transportation positively

that the actions possible avoiding

of any one jurisdiction duplication

those of others, important in

or conflict. This is particularly of decision making

because of the fragmentation

for transportation

in this

some of the trends that have led researchers has become unsustainable. including It

and other commentators

to conclude

that transportation

reviews the most serious impacts health impacts contribution Chapter

of unsustainable

trends in transportation, 1 also addresses

and global climate change. Chapter of different modes to the unsustainability

the relative in Canada. development that

of transportation

2 outlines

elements

of analysis as well as policy and program It describes

have been reported used or considered summarizes Canada

in the literature.

some of the broad tools that have been transportation. and/or Chapter in issues. 3

in policy development

for sustainable

specific policy options

that have been studied associated

implemented and timing

and internationally,

and describes

jurisdictional

A H cronyms
ACEEE APEC AQMP CAAA CAFC CAFE CCME CGSB CMHC CMTC co co, COP3 ETBE GDP GHG GTA GVRD I&M ICLEI IEA IPCC ISTEA MCP MOEE MT0 NGL NIMBY NOx NRCan NRTEE OECD PNGV RMOC RRADs TAC TFFC TTC VKmT voc American Council for an Energy-Efficient Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Air Quality Management Clean Air Act Amendments Plan (U.S.) Economy

Corporate Average Fuel Consumption Corporate Average Fuel Efticienq ? Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Canadian Government Standards Board

Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation City of Montreal Transit Commission Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide Third Conference of Parties of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether Gross Domestic Product Greenhouse Gases

Greater Toronto Area Greater Vancouver Regional District Inspection International International and Maintenance Council for Local Environmental Energy Age&y Panel on Climate Change Act (U.S.) Initiatives

Intergovernmental Intermodal

Surface Transportation Program

Model Communities

Ontario Ministry of Environment Ontario Ministry of Transportation Natural Gas Liquid Not in my backyard Nitrogen Oxides Natural Resources Canada

and Energy

National Round Table on the Environment Organization for Economic Cooperation

and the Economy and Development

Program for a New Generation Regional Municipality Respiratory-Related Transportation

of Vehicles

of Ottawa-Carleton

Restricted Activity Days of Canada (Ontario)

Association

Tax For Fuel Conservation Toronto Transit Commission

Vehicle Kilometres Travelled Volatile Organic Compound

Unsustainable Transportation: Trends and Causes

Transportation Consider in Canada trends: source of greenhouse (NRCan) will rise 52 percent gas emissions between from gas and appears to be headed on an unsustainable path. the following

Transportation human emissions

is the fastest growing Resources

activity. Natural from Canadian

Canada

projects that greenhouse 1991 and in Canada (OECD).

transportation of greenhouse

2020. Per capita emissions the U.S. are approximately of the Organization

gases from transportation and Development and reductions

three times greater than the average in other countries Cooperation regulations

for Economic

Despite tighter vehicle emissions concentrations increased of ground between

in some air pollutants, areas of Canada the numbers of and in have

level ozone and particulates

in urban

1981 and 1990, largely because of increasesin to overwhelm advances

new vehicles, the average size of vehicles and the distance These factors have combined the development been associated Government example, Vancouver the number and use of cleaner fuels. Increased with ozone and particulates

they are driven each year.

in vehicle technologies negative health impacts studies.

in epidemiology

responses Regional

to date are not expected

to reduce total emissions. Management level emissions

For

the most ambitious District,

plan, the Air Quality

Plan of the Greater from all doubling of

will only stabilize ground

sources in 2020 at current

levels, in large part because of the expected

of vehicles in the region by that year. of elderly people, who are no longer able to drive They are often isolated

There is a growing population and dependent

and do not have direct access to good public transportation.

on others for access to any needs outside their homes. of rail systems for moving from trucking. Current goods in Canada are I

The relative decline and rationalization continues driving in the face of competition impacts of trucking

market conditions

this modal shift despite the fact that energy use and associated

environmental

are several times greater per tonne-kilometre

than those of rail. Air transportation transportation. financing indicators overwhelm is the fastest growing needed advances source of air pollution increases from in All in demand.

Both the public and private sectors face major challenges to meet relentless in aviation growth in air transportation fuel efficiency.

the infrastructure point to continuing any projected

at rates that will

Despite continuing continues

investments

in public transit,

the modal share of transit

to fall in Canada.

Governments transportation governments additions

face declining infrastructure. are divesting

financial themselves

resources

for maintaining

and expanding ports, the massive _

From airports

to highways to marine for funding demand if current

of responsibility

to infrastructure

that will be necessary

trends continue. Even if the financial transportation challenge of meeting demand for transportation infrastructure airport system to

could be met, one observer to meet some prediction and analyses boomerang problem,

suggests there is a boomerang

effect in expanding

systems. If we build a freeway system or an extended of future demand, hasten our progress in that direction. by the return impact.

then we should not be surprised of the

discover that these investments

Our plans

so that our efforts are rewarded

usually with some force and destructive us on such an unsustainable settlement advantages

What is propelling population transport, communications unsustainable. Underlying political

path? At first glance, it appears that patterns, the explosion of global of energy intensive modes of

growth, low density urban and the competitive including

cars, trucks and aircraft, have combined

to make transportation transportation system and

these factors, however, are the deep roots unsustainable For example: mobility, often in single-occupant

trends have in Canadian structure.

social values and lifestyles, as well as our economic

Unlimited

personal

vehicles, is viewed by many measures that impinge on

as a right. Calls to curtail travel are seen as draconian basic freedoms. Cars continue to be one of the most important any car at all as symbols remains a key component

status symbols for many Canadians. sports cars, luxury cars or, in the of lifestyle and wealth. of the Canadian dream. Fierce often argue

People see sport utility vehicles, high performance case of many teenagers, A home in the suburbs opposition homeowners. Ironically,

to high density

or infill development

often arises from nearby (NIMBY) reactions protection. and development planning following has been from

these not-in-my-backyard

against such development The current decision land-use provincial demand responsible Canadian shipped division

in the name of environmental powers fragments separates approve suburban

of political Municipalities legislation,

transportation development,

making, planning. planning

and in particular

much transportation governments

leaving provincial

to face increased of provinces.

for highways to service those suburbs. for railways while trucking consumers from Morocco demand

The federal government

is largely the responsibility

and get strawberries trucked

flown from Chile, tangerines trade in

and tomatoes

from Mexico. International

food products

is only one of many examples

of the markets ability to satisfy the

desires of consumers environmental, increasing Children,

with a growing

capacity and willingness consequences.

to pay, despite the is

social and economic

Trade liberalization

the international who in previous

flow of goods. decades would have walked, ridden between bicycles or taken

public transit recreation

to school, the hockey rink or the ballet class, are now driven because home, school and

of fear for their safety or the physical distances

facilities, and the lack of accessible alternatives. vacations using air transportation making enough to get to

Masses of people now take annual international A passenger about a year. The high costs of infrastructure of general tax revenues, such publicly , as tax grabs. Under current transportation. perspective. market conditions, funded destinations.

A family of four flying to Disney World uses over the same trip by car. fuel to drive a car for to Paris consumes

12 times more fuel than they would have consumed flying from Toronto

serving suburban

areas are frequently for the demand.

paid for out Access to

not by the people responsible

infrastructure

is seen as a right, while user fees are critic&d

users do not pay for the full social costs of is over-used from an efficiency

Therefore,

transportation

Unsustainable Transportation: Impacts

Transportation impacts has many negative insatiable impacts appetite that are not adequately for more mobility. accounted for in the market places seemingly are the following: health impacts from ground level air pollution. Key among these

Human

Crop and forest damage from air pollution. Climate change impacts of greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of

fossil fuels. Land use for transportation land for agricultural, Economic inefficiency, infrastructure, residential resulting in loss of natural habitat and

recreational,

and other public uses. competitiveness due to continued dependency. and from low

and loss of regional

density, single-use Social isolation

urban

sprawl, which is linked to automobile effects of transportation

from the barrier

infr.astructure,

everyday activities Other environmental of transportation Death and injury

for those who do not have direct access to cars. impacts related to the life cycle production, use and disposal

vehicles and infrastructure. from accidents.

Noional Round Table the on Enwonmen~and Economy the

Sustamoble Tmnsportclt,on ,n Canada- Backgrounder

Time lost, costs, inconvenience Increasing time and distances

and environmental required

impacts

of traffic congestion.

for commuting

and travel for

other purposes. Reductions in transit service and ridership. from roads and other infrastructure.

Water pollution

from runoff

Noise and vibration. There have been many estimates unsustainable developed, estimates product transportation. external of the external costs of the impacts of

While it is unlikely

that precise values can ever be The OECD 5 percent of gross domestic for Transportation conclusions:

costs have been clearly shown to be substantial. costs represent approximately

that external

in OECD countries. study of external costs and full cost pricing the following passenger in Canada was a report by the IBI Group for the Ontario Change Collaborative.2 This report presents

The most comprehensive transportation and Climate

Only buses come close to paying their full costs among transportation Both intercity transportation Passenger kilometre modes. car and airline travellers mode.

pay less than the full cost of their

rail is by far the most heavily subsidized basis, reflecting for intercity low ridership

mode on a per passenger-

relative to service levels provided. (excluding fuel taxes and licence fees)

Total subsidies

truck operations

at 2.19 cents per tonne-kilometre

are considerably

higher than they are for rail

freight, at 0.40 cents per tonne-kilometre. Urban transit and automobile modes each receive total public subsidies auto, at 10 cents per passenger-kilometre, External costs for the latter are from are

provinces

and municipalities

in the range of I2 cents per passenger-kilometre.

However, external approximately In Canada, impacts the impacts and carbon implications government practices

costs for urban

much higher than those of public transit.

1.4 cents per passenger-kilometre. focus of attention in sustainable transportation is on the concern are particulates

the primary

of ground dioxide.

level air pollution concentrations

and greenhouse of ground

gases. Of particular level ozone, airborne

of increasing

At the same time, much attention of the continuing in the major urban areas of Canada.

is being paid to the economic of human settlement The financial constraints

and social particularly land-use

low density

patterns,

on all levels of infrastructure. of more compact,

are forcing municipal though

and regional

decision

makers to reconsider

and to look for more cost-effective

ways to develop urban consideration

There is widespread,

by no means universal,

Nat,onol Round Table the on Enwromen~ o-d tne Ecoromy

Susimable Transpsmon,n Canado-Bockgrounder

mixed-use

development

as one way to address this issue. There has been less emphasis, between the unsustainability of of land use.

until relatively transportation

recently, on the connections and patterns

Health Outcomes from Air Pollution

In a recent assessment panels concluded Canada include hyperactivity, pulmonary respiratory of the health effects of air pollution effects of ground possible admissions inflammation, symptoms, hospital pulmonary increased individuals function in Canada, decrements, use and mortality? two expert airway that health level ozope at levels that occur in medication

physician/emergency At the Conference cosponsored Professor University pollutants particular, Burnett ambient admissions admissions

room visits among on Transportation,

with heart or lung disease, reduced increased Health, at the as the in

exercise capacity, increased by Pollution

and possibly

Air Quality, and Human

Probe and York University pointed

in April 1996, Dr. David Bates, ozone and particulates Road transportation, between hospital and

Emeritus presenting

of the Department

of Health Care and Epidemiology to tropospheric

of British Columbia, is a primary of infants

the most severe health challenges. source of these pollutants. in establishing

Dr. Bates cited the work of Dr. Rick of infections

of Health Canada

a close association

below one year of age with a diagnosis This conclusion in Ontario, and is corroborated

ozone levels in summer. in I68 hospitals delivered

was drawn from a study of hospital by studies in other regions enhances the response evidence . ...J (PM10 respectively.)

and countries. to a subsequently symptoms

There is also good evidence

that ozone exposure

allergen in asthmatics pollution hospital

.. . . There is independent admissions for pneumonia 2.5 microns, in 17-year

that both ozone and tine particulate in asthmatics, and PM2.5 refer to particle Independent longitudinal atmosphere particularly concluded

(PMlO), are associated

with increased

and increased

sizes of less than 10 micronsand

studies of data on large numbers between

of Americans

studies by the American and cardiopulmonary associated

Cancer Society and the Harvard

School of Public in the are

Health have shown a strong association with the burning

elevated levels of sulphates

deaths. Sulphates

and related fine particulates Land and Parks

of diesel fuels. of Environment, per cubic metre increase to occur:5 in the level of PMlO,

A report prepared the following

for the B.C. Ministry

that for each 10 micrograms health effects are estimated increase

0.8 percent 1.O percent 9.5 percent 4.1 percent 1.2 percent

in hospitalizations; room visits for respiratory illness; symptoms;

increase in emergency increase increase

in days of restricted in school absenteeism;

activity due to respiratory and

increase in reporting

of coughs.

Nmo-al Round bbleon the Enwronmen, the and Economy

To put the above impacts 50 micrograms recently indicated

in context, the B.C. Ministry Regional District

of Environment, an objective indications,

Land and of from not

Parks and the Greater Vancouver improved monitoring

have adopted

per cubic metre as a 24-hour

average. Preliminary medical

of tine particulates, areas. The provincial are evident

are that the objective

is regularly per

being met in many B.C. urban that health concerns air quality Protection cubic metre.6 A national Environmental Guidelines. objective,

officer has recently

at levels as low as 20 micrograms

objective

for PM10 is being developed Group on Air Quality

by the Canadian and of of a PM2.5

Act Working

Objectives

This group has also decided to propose since the finer particles particle category,

the development

are believed to be responsible the following

for the majority annual

health effects in the respirable Studies in the United of air pollution

States have estimated

health outcomes

from highway vehicles in 1991: 20,000-46,000 cases, of chronic respiratory illness.

Approximately Roughly

50-70 million

respiratory-related

restricted

activity days. with highway use.

An estimated Estimates

530 cases of cancer from air toxics associated

of cancer risk, however, are highly uncertain. headaches from carbon monoxide associated with motor

About 852 million vehicle use. An estimated attributed magnitude Furthermore, sulphate establishing

40,000 premature

deaths in the United a number (Note: these numbers

States of which 33,000 can be to the number war.) between is also room In of deaths are of the same order of

to particulate as the number

matter -

comparable

from motor vehicle accidents.7

of Americans

killed in the Vietnam

research at Health Canada ambient rates.

has shown a strong association Ongoing work in Canada and emergency

levels and hospitalization links between

rates in Ontario.

levels of several pollutants of proposed

visits and hospitalization Policy making order to estimate achievable approach unreduced estimated different precursors Regionally, corridor.

is easier when impacts the monetary

changes can be quantified. benefits Damage Function from a base case, of the Environment

value of health or other environmental as reduced Council damages

by government in which benefits emission

policies, analysts use the so-called are expressed

forecast scenario. for the Canadian for reducing of Ministers between health benefits, emissions 1997 and 2020, of two

A report prepared regulatory

that the total undiscounted scenarios

of smog and particulate to a high of $38.2 billion.8 would relate to reductions

would range from a low of $10.8 billion about 73 percent of total benefits Approximately 99 percent of these benefits

would be realized in the Windsor-Quebec

in particulates.

The Ontario annual organic emission

Ministry reduction

of Environment

and Energy (MOEE) is considering for nitrogen

an as

target of 45 percent

oxides (NOx ) and volatile into a National Air Issues Plan. to

compounds

(VOCs) in 2015 relative to 1990 levels. This target is proposed smog management as an extension that the anuual by meeting plan, which will be incorporated by the National of the 1990 NOx/VOC discounted The latter is being coordinated

part of a provincial Coordinating benefits

Smog Strategy for Canada. Committee The MOEE has estimated achievable $476 million.9

Management

present value of the health in estimating monetary

in Ontario

this target would range from $320 million the uncertainties categories are public goods with no market Regional Canada District, estimates

The MOEE acknowledges since the benefit with them.

values for health impacts prices associated A cost-benefit of Environment, premature

study for the Greater Vancouver Land and Parks, and Environment emergency personal health symptoms

the B.C. Ministry that 2,800 restricted Regional From 1985-2020, and result is activity would be

deaths, 33,000 hospital

room visits, I3 million

days and five million District.

such as chest discomfort and property.

averted by the Air Quality

Management

Plan for the Greater Vancouver create benefits of air pollution a sustainable

It will also reduce damage to crops, materials to implement, over this time period.0

.. . the plan will cost $3.8 billion in a net saving of $1.6 billion The last comment attention,

of $5.4 billion

on the health outcomes

from transportation demands

left to Dr. Bates. There is no task confronting than to ensure that we are building

us that more cogently

our full

society for the future; such a

society, at the very least, has to have air pollution its members.li

levels below those which injure

Global Climate Change

Global climate change is an issue with potentially species than air pollution. of 2,500 leading concluded the burning destabilizing scientists that increasing The Intergovernmental and climatologists concentrations climates. that the measures available for dealing with the in with a range of other global to improvements for dealing with form and can result in access to with even greater risk to the human Change, made up has from and Panel on Climate

from more than 100 countries, of the ecosphere

of greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere

of fossil fuels appear to be causing warming global and regional evidence

There is also growing

climate change issue are central to dealing simultaneously and local issues. For example, measures greenhouse in ground greenhouse economic improving automobiles. corresponding gas emissions gas emissions from transportation from transportation For example and reduced

that would result in major reductions would ,also contribute true. Measures

level air quality. The reverse is not necessarily and social benefits. infrastructure moving

have also been shown to provide to more compact and transit urban operations

the design of streetscapes

for pedestrian

lower cost urban

social isolation

for those without

At the same time, single-occupancy reductions

vehicle use is reduced,

in per capita use of fossil fuels.

However, unless there is major policy intervention, that massive changes in individual required expected to avoid this scenario. increases in concentrations ecosystems of greenhouse Continued (e.g., increases higher ambient natural from a doubling Collaborative.14 While transportation greatest concern sector accounts 98 percent 92 percent systems consume

transportation worldwide

energy use would also be are

could increase 40 to 100% by 2025 and as much as 400% by 2100.12 It should be noted and collective behaviour

gases in the stratosphere with

to affect unmanaged in health impacts temperatures), of carbon

(coral reefs, boreal forests), human ozone events associated effects suggest dramatic in the atmosphere. and Climate Change

health

from more frequent

effects of sea level rise and the potential

for more severe impacts One such

disasters.13 Other studies of specific regional dioxide (CO,) concentration Transportation for the Ontario

effort was conducted

a wide range of resources, Worldwide, of oil products,

the one of about from of substitution

is fossil fuels, and oil in particular. for more than 60 percent

the transportation has increased

which constitute to encourage assuming

of transportation

energy use. The latter percentage and renewable. energy use -

in 1960 in spite of efforts by many governments of growth in transportation or unanticipated at the global, domestic,

other fuels, both non-renewable Projections forces, whether increasing policy interventions

no major new market all point to

shifts in consumption or provincial

from changing 1.1).

levels in Canada sector (Exhibit

energy consumption

by the transportation

Projections @ygg g:.gfj --n_-. -= .- _, -

of Transportation Energy Consumption -s.#s~~=sg& ify~~i;~~~.i,-;: I~~~-~~.~-EU16~~~~~~ k@&;;~&sp ~&@~&~@~E~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ &~@#@z .&&*&&&
~l-:l.::--::.~_:i,Isso-zoao .a -..j >: 73 1. 1.8 : ;, y / ~~2~~@~~$ .:I. L::f

..~-~l~bala-::ii;,.:

-.r~~~~~~!:co~~~~~~s~:~!~~,\ I;-;

~~~-;&++~-;rr --;g,; :=+: y,: ::Y:* j&&~~~~;~ ;, .. i Ti j_ : 52 :; I -.: _; L . _ .- .i 2 [ .--~r~~~~~~~~mbi~~~~il yr: ;- ,~p$j)_~D_IQ >;;-.- ..,; :I <.: & ; -1: &g& ~.j~~~~~$~~~~ \y;;;-;;:. ..;. : _ ?sqo-z;ls -..f; ::- - :- 43 ; _ ; _A,. --: , _ ! z q&$&g&$~; -: ;:; -1.:.-. : :,:_ ;h;-lj90;&)g I : - . ._ 145- Sources: a Organization Development, c Natural modified for Economic Cooperation and Development, Motor Vehicle Pollution: Cooperation and (Paris, 1996), Table 2, p. 22; Reduction Strategies beyond 2010 (Paris, 1995); b Organization

for Economic

Environmental Criteria fir Sustainable Truns~ortation

Resources Canada, Canadas Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September 1993), to reflect revisions to forecast demand in NRCan, Update 1994 (Ottawa, October 1994), of Environment, Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for A Policy Instruments 1995, p. 21; April 1995); e Apogee Research, Change Collaborative,

Table 3.1, p. 9; d B.C. Ministry

British Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria, prepared for the Transportation Motors

Working Paper on Reducing CO, Emissions from the Transportation Sector in Ontario, paper and Climate of Canada, November f Bryan Smith, General Notes from the US. Car Talk Group, June 1995.

i)p#p*;ip. sI;;r;:ii-.-.

Natural Canada estimate

Resources

Canada, projects that overall transportation 52 percent between trends and assumptions

energy demand

in of

will increase by approximately is based on current

1991 and .2020. This

by NRCan about the impacts

such factors as economic fuels, public transit hoped-for become reduction

growth, transportation fuel efficiencies, shifts to alternative l5 In fact, transportation energy consumption and telecommuting. transit ridership continues to decline, or if the does not 1.2. in automobile use as a result of increased telecommuting

could be higher than forecast if urban a reality. The projections

are shown in more detail in Ehibit

Transportation
PJ 3000

Energy

Demand ( I99 7-2020)

-*I .$ Motet Gasoline Diesel 2500 / Aviation Fuels 1 Others 1.962

2,646

1991 2000 2010 2020

Source: Natural

Resources

Canada,

Canadas

Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, demand in NRCan,

September

1993), p. 25, modified 1994, Table 3.1, p. 9.

to reflect revisions

to forecast

Update 1994, October

~~~&~g&~~

Clearly, even if these forecasts indicate trends in transportation fossil fuels in transport automobile intrusion countries, century dependence, of automobiles guarded demand in Canada, will not be met in this country

accurately conditions

only the direction for sustainable century,

of current transportation

over the next quarter to increase.

simply because the use of of

will continue

Much of the debate about sustainable which includes climate change; consumption

transportation

centres on the problem reduced air quality;

loss of community, boredom

of large amounts

of space for roads and parking; iu the suburbs; peaking and, in some in the next

into neighbourhoods;

communities.

On a global scale, the imminent is also cause for concern.16

of global oil production

Relative Modal Contributions to Unsustainability

In 1994, transportation dioxide emissions from various transportation. In Canada, user of petroleum emissions contributor, of carbon in Canada was responsible in Exhibit for 3 1.4 percent 1.3. of oil use for of carbon of emissions from all sources of human activity. 17The percentages for more than 80 percent

modes, by fuel, are summarized road vehicles are responsible Air transportation, energy. clearly dominates

at 8 percent,

is the next largest and fastest growing use of energy and vehicles are the largest single movement of goods.

Road transportation

the transportation

dioxide in Canada.

Gasoline-powered

followed by diesel-powered

trucks and other vehicles such as buses. In the for intercity in recent years, while those of strongly.ts, 19As a result,

case of heavy trucks, the majority

of fuel is consumed

Sales of cars in Canada have been stable or declining not only are total motor vehicle registrations per vehicle is increasing because growing,

vans, sport utility vehicles and light trucks have been growing

but average fuel consumption

of the market trend to larger vehicles.

Trakportation

Energy
Fuel

Demand

( 7 99 7)
Mode

Gasoline.

Rail 5.0% iesel 0% Aviation Fuels Heating Fuel Oil Marine .o%

8.0%

8.0%

4.0%

T737 Petajoules
Canada, Canadas Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September

Source: Natural 1993), p. 22.

Resqurces

Energy demand increases in demand

is expected

to grow in all transportation about,increasing annual

modes. The projections and anticipated

of

NRCan are based on assumptions shown in Exhibit 1.4.

fuel efficiency

for each mode. Projected

growth rates to the year 2020 are

Annual Average Growth Rates for Transportation in Canada ( 7 99 7 -2020)

So&e: 1993),

Natural

Resources

Canada,

Canada? Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa,

September

p. 25.

These projections that energy demand government Canada

and the assumptions

behind

them were revised by NRCan

in will and/or

their 1994 Update. They will no doubt

change again in future. The general conclusions changes in societal behaviours of sustainable

is expected to grow for all modes, and that growth in aviation Again, by any definition

be the fastest, still hold, if there are no significant policy interventions. is headed in the wrong direction.

transportation,

Trends Away

from

High Energy
at the sustainability gas emissions,

Efficiency Modes
of different modes is to consider the per in carbon dioxide equivalents, or grams per tonnefrom one

A useful way of looking total life cycle of greenhouse unit of transport kilometre delivered for freight).

expressed

(either grams per passenger-kilometre 1.5 and 1.6 provide respectively.

Exhibits

such modal comparisons.

study, for passenger

and freight transportation

Greenhouse

Gas Emissions

by Mode Passenger Transport

Grams of CO, Equivalent

Source: David Martin

and Laurie Michaelis,

Research and Technology Strategy to Help Overcome Energy Authority, March 1992).

Environmental Problems in Relation to Transport (U.K. Atomic

Greenhouse

Gas Emissions

by-Mode

Freight

Transport

Grams of CO, Equivalent

Source: David Martin

and Laurie Michaelis,

Research and Technology Strategy to Help Overcome Energy Authority, March 1992).

Environmental Problems in Relation to Transport (U.K. Atomic

The figures shown are for U.K. vehicles. On average North American emit about 50 percent aircraft/car limitation account more carbon dioxide per passenger-kilometre. ratio of about three and a car/transit of these kinds of comparisons, the utility or benefit

automobiles

This results in an

ratio in the range of five. The mode.

of course, is that they do not take into or mandated overall energy in environmental

to the user of using the more energy intensive

Market forces, in the absence of full cost accounting consumption impacts. But such comparisons do facilitate

targets, will result in choices that may be suboptimal understanding transportation dilemma.

of where to look for

possible ways to address the sustainable

Urban Automobile
Despite continued has been declining Toronto, enough

Use versus Public Transit

in public transportation, although transit ridership and in volumes

public investments

in some of Canadas largest cifies both in absolute and Metro Toronto, public transit,

modal share over the last 10 years. 20 For example, at 43 persons/hectare, population density to support suburban

the core of the City of have high and has fallen. This fall is, at

at 35.7 persons/hectare, ridership

least in part, due to recessionary the spread of low density the continued population viable transit. Urban development density The population

job losses since 1988,.loss of growth momentum, communities. in the Greater Toronto insufficient 50 percent represents

The latter has been made possible by Area, where the for financially of the 4.5 million than in

of the road network of Metro Toronto

on average is about five persons/hectare,

people who live in the GTA. transit is several times more energy efficient per passenger-kildmetre Transit is also much less land-use intensive, and is more inclusive the automobile. that it provides progress opposite transit

access for those who do not drive cars. It follows that much more transportation areas. Current if the modal share of transit trends are in fact in the funding priority by public increased in urban

could be made toward sustainable direction, advocates. Area, transit despite continued

co&d be substantially

calls for increased

In the Greater Toronto trips was 14 percent population 41 percent in transit

modal share, including an increase 10 percent (Planning

GO Transit, for all daily share in the

in 1991, a decrease of 3 percent by about

from 1986. Automobile to 4.57 million. District

1991 in the GTA for all trips was 77 percent, in the GTA increased automobile use occurred

of 3 percent.21 In this period, In contrast; 1) in 1991 was decline

modal share of total trips to the core of Toronto and 45 percent

for public transit.

The same percentage on the Toronto

in the core as in the GTA.region. level of ridership 16 percent. Transit to be declined by about This trend is unlikely despite extensive ridership increased by District by

Between Commission

1988 and 1994, the absolute (TTC) network

reversed in the near future, given the fare increases TTC has had to impose to make up for lost revenue. investments in public transit continues in the period in British Columbia about 22 percent drivers increased 11 percent. to climb. Absolute

and rationalization Similarly;

of services the

in past decades, automobile

use in the Lower Fraser Valley

levels of transit

1985 to 1992. In the same period, however, trips by car modal share decreased Regional

by about 43 percent. As a result, transit decreased

Furthermore, to Transport

average trip speeds in the Greater Vancouver by about 8 percent.22 2021, a joint planning the number

(GRVD), in the same period, According Province expected emissions of British Columbia,

project of the GVRD and the by 202 1. Even with the Plan (AQMP), in the

of vehicles in the Lower Fraser Valley is Management

to double from the current are projected

fleet of one million

existing programs

and the full GVRD Air Quality to increase beyond

the year 2000.23 The measures

AQMP focus primarily on local air quality. British Columbia projects that carbon dioxide emissions from transportation will increase by 12 percent from 1990 tb 2000 and 21 percent from 1990 to 2010.

Na~,onal Round Table the on Env,ronmentondEconomy the

Susimable Tronspmoknm Canado - Backgrounder

Such are the powers of the market and the aspirations that they have, acting rationally transportation create expanding the benefits political disbenefits freedom urban and in their own interests, of the automobile, are embedded expanding

of citizens for mobility used the personal disposable income, to between activities. While

as well as increasing

sprawl, and to increase the distances

of road transport of continuously

in the public psyche and have driven much aware of the and low density land use.

action in past generations,

the public is only now becoming transportation

Fossil Energy intensity and Freight Transport and Marine

In Canada, or 479 million comparison, 100 million the rail mode carries the greatest share of freight tonnage tonnes trucking tonnes. in 1992), followed by marine, in Ontario tonnes)

Truck, Rail
(54.3 percent or

truck and air modes.24 By or 92 million or 250 thousand tonnes), tonnes). This marine

carries the greatest share of freight, at 40.1 percent and air (0.1 percent

This is followed by rail (37 percent

(23 percent or 57 million The most important mode. Between experienced Transport measures

trend in the past two decades has been the growth of the truck moved by truck increased Institute by 56 percent. of Guided

1980 and. 1990, tonnage

growth appears to have come at the expense of rail, since overall freight tonnage little.net reports change in this period. The Canadian 1.7. Ground the modal split between rail and truck for 1989, using three different

shown in Exhibit

of Rail and Truck Movement

of Goods

Source: Canadian shares -

Institute

of Guided

Ground

Transport, February

Estimation 1993, p. 3.

of Railway Freight Market

1989, report

for CN Rail Intermodal,

The energy consumption between long distances, consumption

per tonne-kilometre

of truck movement

of goods ranges

1.3 and 5.1 times greater than by rail .2s For movement of mixed freight over the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment estimates the energy of rail ranges between Trucking 150 and 310 BTU per ton-mile (220 and 450 BTU (1,120 and uses between 770 and 980 BTU per ton-mile

per tonne-kilometre).

1,430 BTU per tonne-kilometre)

for the same service.

The above numbers transport rail do not compete

suggest the possibility However,

of modal shifting Association

to rail to make freight truck and that rail and of truck i estimates

more sustainable.

for the majority Trucking

of goods movement,

directly. The Ontario at distances

truck actually compete The percentage cooperation flexibility

over 500 kilometres.26 and 95 percent small. Within dominates,

However, 90 percent

traffic moves less than 600 kilometres of freight movement relatively truck and rail is therefore among In the markets

moves less than 700 kilometres. between

for which there is direct competition intermodal shippers operations. value the response

this range there is increasing time, of roads

the two modes through where trucking of trucking,

and reliability

and are willing to pay premium including decisions of businesses,

rates relative to

rail for these attributes. responsive contributed contributed Canada i taxation to the market

The built infrastructure, in the urban

massive expansion

in recent decades, as well as the location Some research

has been strongly in past decades have at the expense of land have issue in

regions of the country. industry

suggests that relative subsidy levels for trucking and growth of the trucking of low gasoline history

to the competitiveness to urban

of rail, just as the long-term

prices and availability and complex

sprawl. However, this is a contentious There is no consensus to the strong market compared approaches

as it is in other countries. and subsidies

about the relative effects of forces that have accelerated impact of

growth in the trucking fuller cost accounting potential services.27 for encouraging

mode. There has been limited a larger portion of intercity industry

study of the long-term

on the modal split between of goods movement

truck and rail, or the to use intermodal of to look for include: work to encourage

Given the contribution transportation innovative increased in Canada,

trucking

to the unsustainability instruments, Questions

and governments including economic operations.

could work together

policies and programs, long-term

shifts to intermodal manufacturers,

to be explored

How could automobile together customers

their suppliers of just-in-time

and governments

to develop incentives plants?

for suppliers

to locate factories

closer to their

to reduce the tonne-kilometres

truck delivery of parts to

auto assembly

How could the advanced companies the number

logistics management per tonne

techniques,

used by major to reduce

to reduce end-to-end of vehicle movements planning

logistics costs, be used more generally of goods transported?

How could urban combined

and design, tax policy and technology to intermodal truck/rail

advances services?

be

to shift more goods movement corridor

The main transportation significant opportunities St. Lawrence examined

in Canada with trucking

where the marine

mode might have is the of these three mode should be

to compete

and rail for freight movement

Seaway. Since shipping

is the least fossil energy intensive away from the marine

freight modes, factors causing modal shifting

and actions, where cost effective, taken to enhance

its modal share.

Air Transportation
As noted above, air transportation for the foreseeable kilometre aircraft continue or tonne-kilometre is forecast to remain the fastest growing and as mode future. It is also the most energy intensive of freight. If current gas emissions combustion to rely on petroleum to greenhouse fuels, air transportation a significant mode per passengeris expected to become to the greenhouse fuel at high altitude gas at from

rates of growth continue, as road transportation. contributor of aviation

serious a contributor Air transportation effect. Nitrogen can contribute altitudes

could also become during

oxides produced to ozone formation.

Ozone is at its most effective as a greenhouse greenhouse effect resulting

of about 8,000 metres at the poles and 17,000 metres at the equator, in the jet aircraft fly. The indirect at high altitudes could be approximately equal to the effect of carbon

range where commercial NOx production dioxide emissions

from aviation. 28 To date, there has been little work done in Canada, or indeed globally, on the sustainability of air transportation.

Footnotes
J. Whitelegg, The Information Society and Sustainable Development, Journal of World Transport Policy & Practice, vol. 2 (1996), p. 4. IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation Transportation Pollution and Cost-Based Pricingstrategies November 1995). (Toronto:

and Climate Change Collaborative,

Probe, Transportation,

Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives,

paper prepared

for Health Canada, March 1996. Implications of Current Data bn Air Pollution, presentation Health, York University, at

David Bates, The Inconvenient the Conference April 25, 1996. Pollution Probe, Transportation,

on Transportation,

Air Quality and Human

Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and,Perspectives,

paper prepared B.C. Ministry

for Health Canada, March 1996, p. 7. of Environment, Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British

Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 11. D. McCubbin prepared and M. Delucchi, Health Effects of Motor Vehicle Air Pollution in the U.S., as Impacts of Transportation, paper Protection Agency, June 1996. Ministry 1995. of Environment and for

cited in Apogee Research, Indicators of the Environmental for the U.S. Environmental

Hagler Bailly, ENVIRON Energy, Environmental the Canadian Ontario

Intl., Environment

Canada, Ontario

and Health Benefits of Cleaner Vehicles and Fuels, report prepared of the Environment, October

Council of Ministers Environment

Ministry.of

and Energy, Towards a Smog Plan for Ontario, A (Toronto, June 1996).

Discussion Paper, and Supporting Document B.C. Ministry of Environment,

Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British

Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 12. David Bates, The @convenient the Conference April 25, 1996, p. 3. James P. Bruce, Drivers for Change, presentation Sustainable Ibid. Environment Collaborative, Canada, Smith and Lavender, and Sustainable August 1995. Canada, Canadas Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September to forecast demand in NRCan, Update 1994, . Futures, Climate Change and Climate Change Transportation, Vancouver, at the OECD conference, Towards Implications of Current Data on Air Pollution, presentation Health, York University, at

on Transportation,

Air Quality and Human

March 1996.

Impacts: An Ontario Perspective, paper prepared

for the Transportation

Natural Resources October

1993), p. 25, modified

to reflect revisions

1994, Table 3.1, p. 9.

Jeffrey Kenworthy, Vancouver, Environment Environment Transportation in Ontirio Industry October

Automobile 1995.

Dependence

in a Global Sample of Cities: Learningfrom Conference on Sustainable

the

Best and the Worst, presentation

at the National

Transportation,

Canada, Canada.

Canadas Greenhouse

Gas Emissions: Estimates for 1990, Report EPS by unpublished data for 1994 from

5/AP/4 (Ottawa, December

1992), Table S.2, updated

and Climate Change Collaborative, November 1995), p. 10.

A Strategy for Sustainable

Transportation

(Toronto,

Canada, Statistical Review of the Canadian Automotive Industry, 1996 Edition

(Ottawa, July 1996), Table 1.1. R.M. Soberman, Rethinking Urban Transportation: Studies, University Lessons from Toronto, luncheon of Minnesota, February 1995. Tomorrow address at

the Centre for Transportation University (Toronto,

of Toronto Joint Program June 1994). of Environment,

in Transportation,

The Transportation

Survey, 1991 & 1986 Travel Survey Summaries for the Greater Toronto Area

B.C. Ministry

Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British

Columbin, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 11. Ibid., p. 13. Transmode Consultants, Ontario Freight Movement Study, report prepared June 1995, p. 5. for the

Transportation

and Climate Change Collaborative, Assessment,

U.S. Office of Technology (July 1994), p. 249. Ontario December

Policy Options for Energy Conservation

Trucking Association, 1995, p. 5.

Submission of the Ontario Trucking Association of the-Canadian

to the Federal

Government

Task Force on the Commercialization

National Railway,

IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation Transportation Netherlands,

and Cost-Based Pricing Strategies (Toronto: November 1995). Government

and Climate Change Collaborative, Ministry of Housing Spatial Planning

and the Environment,

Policy of the Netherlands

on Air Pollution and Aviation (1995), pp. 28-30.

Ncl~onal Round Tableon Iha hronment and ihe Economy

Visions of Sustainable Transportation

Vision statements current contains underlying present assumptions
related

desired futures in lieu of the outcomes a vision typically

expected

from

trends or the status quo. Therefore,

to sustainable

talks about the future, but in the literature. issues

about where we will be if no action is taken. transportation Instead, (particularly are recorded social and economic

Many visions involved emissions significant off benefits around

However, few address the full range of environmental, in sustainable (particularly constraint transportation. (particularly road), a specific region since addressing transportation urban

most focus on a specific mode travel) or a specific set of air This is not necessarily a will often have spindeveloping gas emissions).

smog and greenhouse

one aspect of sustainability

on other aspects. are based on the consensus

Visions for sustainable

the world and in Canada that: has become environmentally, socially and economically

Transportation unsustainable. Deterioration social isolation, efficiency -

in the quality psychological will continue

of life under

including trends.

negative

health effects, increased economic

stress, increased current

energy costs, and reduced

The most serious impediments in urban automobile

to sustainable

transportation

are continued

growth I

use, intercity

truck transport

of goods and air transportation. to historical areas, increasing patterns of low

The growth in automobile density, single-use income Urban of consumers

use is highly correlated in major urban

development

disposable

and advances

in vehicle technologies.

form and transportation

systems have evolved under policies that do not consumers, to pay the full environmental, or land-use social, decisions. costs of their transportation

require market players, including health and safety and economic Change will be required immediately infrastructure It is uncertain acceptance to induce required whether

over the next 25 years or longer, even if steps are taken the massive changes in behaviour, for truly sustainable transportation. technology , and

there is any set of policies that could gain political transportation. the

at this time and that would result in truly sustainable in vision statements typically

The desired future portrayed components listed in Exhibit 2.1.

includes

Typicul Componenfs of Sustuinuble Trunsportufion Vision Sfutements

Changed public values based on understanding of sustainable development of the seriousness and transportation to achieving of inaction practices. sustainable

and the benefits Increased

commitment

of citizens and government

transportation. Transition shipping problems. Emphasis Increased needs. Increased as reduced use of more sustainable alternatives for moving goods in cities, as well on accessibility availability rather than mobility. alternatives, including walking and from dispersed, mixed-use single-use urban, suburban and rural development that reduce travel and and economic to

more compact,

and liveable neighbourhoods social, environmental

needs and solve multiple

of more sustainable

cycling, public transit

and use of information

technologies

to reduce travel

need to move goods over any distance. and intercity rail systems. infrastructure that is cost effective and

Viable urban Transportation affordable. Elimination Integrated Development needs without

Source: Transportation February 1996).

and other urban

of hidden transportation

subsidies. and land-use decision technology making. that increases motor access to basic transport.
(Ottawa,

and use of appropriate

the need for cars or other energy intensive

Association of Canada,

Urban Vision Sampler (pamphlet)

Two contrasting and the Canadian outcomes Vision for Urban Transportation widely endorsed the Canadian in Canada.

vision statements, Urban Institute,

from the Transportation vision

Association in Canada

of Canada system is A New

illustrate

the range of possible transportation statement of Canada of Canadian published in 1993 by the Urban

Perhaps the most influential in Canada of the Transportation

Transportation Council by organizations

Association

(TAC). It has been Municipalities, and Climate

such as the Federation the Ontario

Urban

Transit Association,

Transportation

Change Collaborative

and some of Canadas largest municipalities. transportation in the year 2023.

Exhibit 2.2 presents

the TAC generic vision for urban

A Generic Vision for Urbun Truns ortution in 2023 from

, the Transport&ion Associufiqn o P Cunudu

A long-term transit urban development and operating

plan has been approved. priority

It emphasizes corridors.

multiPublic

use town centres and high density, mixed use along connecting has funding in those corridors.

Short- and medium-term approved. They emphasize cycling and transit-friendly Transit, highways, coordinated arterials,

community/neighbourhood compact, design. parking area. mixed-use

plans have been based on walking,

communities

and truck routes are planned

and

across the urban

The percentages of trips made by walking, cycling, transit and high-occupancy all increasing; the percentage of trips made by single-occupancy The average distance An area-wide parking and time for peak hour commuter strategy is in place and enforced. goods transfer. access to public transit

cars are

cars is decreasing.

travel is decreasing.

Few places still require on-street The physically challenged

enjoy universal

and services.

Roads and bridges are in good repair. Air pollution Urban from motor vehicles is declining. infrastructure revenue and services are adequately funded from

transportation

stable and sustainable

sources. of a well-informed and transportation public when making systems to serve the area.
(Ottawa,

Political leaders have the support decisions on urban development

Source: Tiansportation February 1996).

Association

of Canada,

Urban Vision Sampler (pamphlet)

The Canadian substantially assumption land-use

Urban

Institute,

in its 1994 study Cities Without Cars, presented transportation. Starting from the what requires cities without and Vancouver

different

approach

to sustainable

that sustainable and transportation

transportation planners

cars, two teams of envisioned phased out by

from Toronto

their regions would be like if use of personal 2032 and 202 1 respectively. readers are directed Initially, possible scenario working These visions to the study for further

automobiles information.

was gradually

are not easily summarized,

and interested

Cities Without Cars was a visioning for the purpose

exercise in which one of several of securing fresh perspectives insight on the cars for anyone that the cities without is a powerful patterns

futures~ [was] assumed is desirable,

present. After initial scepticism, toward sustainable

the teams concluded Visioning

feasible and even necessary. This is a valuable transportation. to permit current the development are essential

tool to break out

of existing moulds

and methods

of new paradigms29 are in our lifestyles, to create a sustainable by the

Given how deeply ingrained psyches and institutions, transportation Government system. No long-term

transportation

new ways of thinking

vision of sustainable or any provincial

transportation government.

has yet been embraced

of Canada

Definitions of Sustainable Transportation

Despite the voluminous surprisingly of sustainable conceived development and expanded economic transportation transportation literature on sustainable transportation, of sustainable there are development. is the ability have refined social and As few formal definitions by the Brundtland of the term. Nonetheless, in 1983, sustainable it is clear that definitions development compromising elaborations

derive from the definition Commission

which meets the needs of the present without to meet their own needs. Subsequent to encompass ideas are found in the definitions this definition

of future generations

a range of environmental,

issues. Analogous

of sustainable

listed in Exhibit 2.3.

Selected Definitions of Sustainable

Environmentally endanger sustainable transportation

Trunsportution
that does not needs consistent and of with:

is transportation

public health or ecbsystems resources

and meets mobility

the use of renewable

at below their rates of regeneration; at below the rates of development

the use of non-renewable renewable substitutes.

for Economic

resources

Source: Organization

Cooperation

and Development,

Environmental Criteria@

Sustainable Transportation (Paris, 1996).

In economic infrastructure, environmental

terms a sustainable

transportation

system will have to optimize including the

labour, capital operating impacts of transportation

costs, and logistics costs and benefits. accidents, and to reduce travel time congestion. to eliminate air, land and

In social terms it will have to reduce noise, decrease accidents, and the associated In environmental water pollution; density urban stress and frustration

arising from, for example,

terms it will have to reduce and/or transportation, an optimal

and it will have to apply reduce, reuse and recycle strategies mixed use and higher of balance between services. land-use and zoning policies will enable the development

decrease waste. In the area of urban transportation

systems which will provide and more sustainable

peoples

and freight shippers needs for access to transportation healthy communities,

Source: D. Bell, R. Delaney Framework (Ottawa:

services and mobility,

transportation

and R. Lewis, A Proposal for Sustainable Transportation -A Canada, 1996).

National

Transport

Sustainable capable

transportation of delivering

is a transportation required capacity

system that is: and performance;

renewable, relatively compatible

which ultimately inexhaustible

means using solar energy, or failing this a fusion;

energy source such as nuclear

with the kinds of places we want to live in; quality is maintained or enhanced; costs. and

clean, so that environmental affordable

in terms of capital and operating/maintenance

Source: IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation and Cost-Bused Pricing Strategies (Toronto: Transportation and Climate Change Collaborative, November 1995).

Sustainable include technology. Changing

transportation

entails elements

of several visions.

These visions

changing

people and the way they live, changing

prices and changing

people and how they live means reducing premised ecological on the belief that automobile force. transportation

the need for vehicle miles travelled through the use of to make and to reduce

transportation, are a destructive Changing

prices means modifying

demand

market forces to enhance the marketplace ecological Changing the impact

system wide transportation of against sustainable appropriate

efficiency. The role of development technologies

public policy, in this vision, is to send the right signals to the economy work for instead integrity. technology means employing on society. of transportation

Source: D. Gordon, Transportation and Energy: Sustainable Transportation and How We Get There (Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1995).

A sustainable

transportation

system: capacity and performance for people

meets the access needs (transportation and goods) of the present allows all future generations grow because is powered of economic generation;

to meet their own access needs (which will growth and rising populations);

by renewable

(inehaustible)

energy sources; the planets ability to

does not pollute absorb/cleanse is technologically is economically supports supports

air, land or water beyond (especially possible; and financially CO,); ~ affordable;

a desirable

quality of life; and global sustainable

Association of Canada,

local, national
Transportation House, 1995.

development
presentation

goals.
Canada

Source: J. Hartman, retreat at Econiche

to Environment

:mEp;gp.b iiiiiiiii,i. .I

Decision-Making Transportation
One of the basic barriers decision-making that, together, principles. the decisions

Principles for Sustainable

to progress In particular, toward sustainable transportation is current to ensure now in use

(1) there is no central oversight principles

made create the transportation

system we want (whatever

that may look like); and (2) some of the key decision-making work against sustainability. Achieving decisions sustainable transportation requires

changes in the way transportation Within the literature, there are

are made by individuals

and governments.

calls for changes to: Educate the public to sustainable Integrate Integrate about the risks of inaction and sustainable objectives and the potential transportation benefits of shifting

development

approaches. policies. responds to

environmental land-use

fully into transportation

and transportation form.

policies so that transportation

desired land use and urban Shift the emphasis minimize

in transportation

systems from mobility

to accessibility,

to

the need for motor transportation. decisions of individuals, business and governments take

Ensure that transportation full account Use economic economic of the external instruments

costs of such decisions.30 more aggressively to achieve specific environmental, (which internalizes external

and social targets when fuller cost pricing to achieve sustainability.

costs) is inadequate Think current Provide creatively

about our vision of the future, without or urban settlement practices.

being constrained

by

transportation

accessibility/mobility of high external

alternatives

in parallel with measures infrastructure

to reduce the

availability

cost transportation

and services, such as

road or air transportation. Look for the environmental, individuals from transportation social and economic practices benefits to society and to

that meet the test of sustainability. and implementation for sustainable that can be

Ensure flexibility transportation

in policy development integrated

by adopting

packages of policy measures

altered to reflect experience Appendix Transportation Environmental Climate Change

gained from new approaches. principles Canada, that have emerged Council from the on

C lists decision-making Association Initiatives, of Canada, Transport

the International Round

for Local. Action Program and the

Canadas National

(1995) and the National

Table on the Environment

Nat,ona' Round Table .he an Ewronmsnt and ,be Ecorany

Sus-amble Tmsptcrion,n Canada- Bockgrounder

Economy. modified

The NRTEEs set of principles Transportation, Canada. by Environment

was presented

at the OECD conference, in March 1996, and was later

Towards Sustainable

held in Vancouver

Quantifiable
Quantifiable the sustainability contribution

Performance Measures
measures are essential to provide a baseline _ of progress for tracking the system as it evolves, and measuring to achieving objectives: transportation goals and targets. measures

performance

of the transportation Canada

of policy instruments four strategic

A paper by Transport toward achieving

staff suggests performance

To meet Canadians services. To achieve continuous measures waste management. To respect ecosystem To promote

needs for access to safe, efficient and affordable

improvements

in the sustainable efficiency, improve

use of resources stewardship

through

to increase transportation

and enhance

integrity. transportation measures in Canada and abroad.31 impacts of

more sustainable

Other sources of performance

focus on the environmental

transportation. For example, Environment Canada has developed environmental _. . .. indicators tor Canadian passenger transportation based on the following series of interrelated Human factors: activity: how Canadians travel (passenger-kilometres (litres consumed). air quality, stratospheric ozone by mode).

Stress: fossil fuel use by automobiles Environmental depletion, etc. urban transit conditions:

climate change, urban

Societal response:

and automobile and Control

use (passenger-kilometres). Task Group on Transport sustainable has also

The OECD Pollution proposed namely: emissions six quantitative emissions of particulates;

Prevention

criteria for environmentally oxides; emissions of greenhouse Protection emissions

transportation, compounds;

of nitrogen

of volatile organic

gases; land in use for motor Agency provides a more measures and and are

transport; and noise Ievels. A report for the U.S. Environmental comprehensive provided support; maintenance; list of performance for environmental

measures. 32 For all modes, quantifiable to infrastructure construction

effects relating

vehicle and parts manufacture;

vehicle travel; vehicle maintenance

and vehicle and parts disposal.

Indicators sustainability. Housing sustainability

of urban

sustainability and Environment

overlap with indicators sponsored Canada identified

of transportation Mortgage and

For example, a 1995 workshop indicators

by Canada

Corporation

a wide range of urban

that relate to transportation, density, mixed use, urban per capita consumption.

including: form.

Land use/urbanization: Energy consumption: Transportation:

modal splits, infrastructure vehicle-kilometres,

expenditures, energy consumed,

commuting pollution produced.33 indicators. data

distance/time/mode, Several observations First, sustainable collection

can be made about the search for performance Prioritization Tracking may be necessary

transportation

has many facets, each of which could be measured to avoid unwieldy accessibility or safety performance may be less

using a variety of indicators. and manipulation.

important than environmental performance. Second, transportation has many environmental in importance. highway runoff Prioritization will likely be necessary than tracking to use reference of a pollutant may be a suitable may be less important emissions

effects, not all of which are equal here. For example, air quality measures. that represent correlated indicator a group of with tracking

Third, it may be possible effects. For example, emissions of ,pollutants. of other pollutants

indicators reference

that are strongly

for that entire group

Objectives and Strategies for Sustainable Transportation

Existing objectives almost exclusively for transportation following goals: nitrogen oxide emissions are reduced to meet objectives for and strategies relating to sustainable transportation perspective. focus For example, on sustainability from an environmental sustainable

to be environmentally

in 2030, the OECD suggests the

Transport-related ambient nitrogen

dioxide and for ozone levels as well as for nitrogen compound emissions are reduced

deposition. to avoid

Volatile organic

to the extent necessary

excessive ozone levels. Emissions ambient Climate of particulates air levels. change is prevented by achieving per capita carbon dioxide emissions goals for the from are reduced to the extent necessary to avoid harmful

fossil fuel use that are consistent atmosphere. Land surface in urban ecosystem protection

with the global protection

areas is used for the movement, transport vehicles) and maintains

maintenance, urban

and storage of for structure.

motor vehicles (including

in a way that meets objectives

a high degree of mixed-use

National Round Table the on Enwonmentand Economy the

Surtmab'e Tmspor,at,on in Canado ~ aackgrounder

Transportation concern

does not create excessive outdoor

noise levels that present

a health

or serious nuisance.34 of the 199Os, these objectives seem to

The OECD argues that, from the perspective be the most comprehensive and adjusted accordingly. The Second Assessment (IPCC) says that stabilizing require reducing worldwide with further 80 percent for increases emissions.35 These are challenging systems. OECD countries Most countries emissions committed reductions in emissions and relevant.

However, they should be reviewed

frequently Change

Report of the Intergovernmental carbon carbon dioxide concentrations dioxide emissions Other authors currently

Panel on Climate at near current

levels would of to allow

immediately

by 50 to 70 percent, countries

thereafter.

have argued that reductions responsible

or more per capita should be achieved in industrialized in countries

for very low levels of for transportation goals. gas have greenhouse

targets, which have profound have committed themselves to stabilizing

implications

to much more modest Germany

have committed

transportation-related

at 1990 levels by 2000. Austria, Denmark, to reductions of between that many countries situation,

and the Netherlands meeting

10 and 25 percent are reporting

to be achieved in later years. difficulty even these 1997, the on

The OECD indicates modest targets. The international Third Conference Climate Geneva, Switzerland Wirth, indicated He also presented the international countries if adopted, should

however, could change quickly. In December Nations Framework Convention

of the Parties to the United

Change will be held in Kyoto, Japan. At the Second Conference in July 1996, the U.S. Undersecretary States has formally accepted the U.S. proposal community endorse that legally binding systemof transportation continues the United

of the Parties in

for Global Affairs, Timothy the science on climate change. emission targets be adopted the developed Such a protocol, by the meeting, trading.

in Kyoto, and that, during

an international for sustainable

emissions

would likely have major economic of crisis. Canada Canada

implications.

for Canada. isnot being carried its national of the World of the at 1990

Policy development out in an atmosphere ground international United States.

in Canada

to work to harmonize regulations

level air quality standards community.

and emissions embraces

with those of the standards

the air quality guidelines vehicle emissions greenhouse

Health Organization, Canada National

and the transportation

has committed

itself only tostabilizing on Climate Change

gas emissions

levels by the year 2000, and is unlikely Action Program

to meet even that modest (1995) (NAPCC)

target. Canadas does not set out specific

objectives for reducing greenhouse gases from the transportation sector. While it does summarize the activities of various government departments that are expected to help reduce greenhouse these activities. To bring carbon the reductions measures consideration gases, it does not indicate dioxide emissions the quantitative gains expected in Canada from

from transportation

into line with

recommended by governments

by the IPCC would require far more aggressive policy than any so far in place or under serious in Canada.

and changes in societal behaviour

Nakmal Round Table he on Ennronmen, me Economy and

Sustmable Transpor;o,,on m Canoda - Bsckpunder

However, the situation Municipal and provincial driven almost exclusively serendipitous, congestion shifting pricing

could-change thinking

substantially

in the relatively budgets.

near future. today is

about urban

transportation

in Canada

by the new reality of shrinking for, new revenue

This may be impacts may by point

because some proposals

sources, such as roadway environmental transportation

and user fees and tolls, can have positive and environmental goals in urban

auto demand

to other times and other modes. We seem to be at a unique for sustainability. the most developed

in history when economic British Columbia complementary Reducing

converge, with major implications has perhaps policy objectives:

clean air strategy based on three

the need for transportation

through

such actions

as land-use

planning

and telecommuting. Encouraging and cycling. Reducing and fuels. British Columbia intent to support has not published carbon estimates of the impacts of these measures or its emissions per vehicle-kilometre through the use of cleaner vehicles alternatives to the automobile such as public transit, carpooling

set specific targets for reducing

dioxide emissions. sustainable

It has, however, expressed gas emissions to further standards to 1990

Canadas com,mitment has also pushed Transportation

to reduce greenhouse approaches

levels by the year 2000, and to examine British Columbia of California. The Ontario sponsored

reductions.36

to adopt the stringent and Climate Round a 12-point

emissions

Change Collaborative,

which was jointly and Economy transportation

by the NRTEE, the Ontario

Table on the Environment endorsed

and other groups, has proposed

strategy for sustainable

(Exhibit 2.4). This strategy has not been formally of Ontario.

by the Government

A Recommended in Onfario

Strafegy

for Susfcrinuble

Transportation

Design and implement

a broad range of programs

to ensure that the public on the use

understands the risks of climate change and the need to economize of fossil fuels. Implement development travel demand. Establish decision-making deliver integrated policies that will bring about more compact, mixed-use

in urban areas to shorten travel distances and reduce vehicular

bodies in large urban areas to evaluate, plan and and urban development, as well as integration

transportation

of transit systems and services. Implement automobile Maintain transit priority measures to make transit time competitive travel. sufficient funding to ensure adequate transit funding with

capacity, increase

the acceptability of using funds from user-pay sources to improve public transit and enhance transit service in areas with sufficient population density. Implement pricing and supply policies to control parking and encourage transfer to transit. Implement fuller cost pricing for transportation modes to discourage overuse of single-occupancy vehicles and encourage the use of more fuel-efficient technologies and transportation modes.

Develop a Memorandum of Understanding with automotive manufacturers to increase the availability of fuel-efficient models, recognizing the linkage between gasoline prices and consumer demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles. Implement mandatory vehicle inspection and maintenance programs in large urban areas to ensure the proper operation of emission control equipment. Maintain promote incentives for the use of cleaner alternative fuels and explore tiays to further the development and use of alternative fuelled vehicles.

Develop an Ontario capability to participate in the U.S. governments and the Big Three auto manufacturers Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV). The PNGV is working to develop vehicles that will achieve a threefold increase in fuel efficiency over todays vehicles, while maintaining performance utility and safety. size,

Enhance intermodal freight transfer facilities and services and encourage development of new intermodal technologies and service levels.
Sour& Transportation and Climate Change November Collaborative, A Strategy for Sustainable

the

Transportation in Ontario (Toronto,

1995), pp. 6-7.

Jurisdictional Roles and Activities

Every level of government sustainable important transportation. interjurisdictional responsibilities and initiatives has several important discussion jurisdictions in different The following summarizes

,
some of the key some of the more

roles to play in achieving and identities

issues raised in the literature.

lnternafional
most important stratospheric

So&es
Nations set international goals for sustainability. Convention The on of these related to transportation are the 1988 Montreal -Human Conference Protocol The

Bodies such as the United ozone depleting

substances, Declaration

the 1992 Framework on Sustainable Nations

on Climate

Change, and the 1996 Istanbul latter was the outcome Human Settlements.

Settlement.

of Habitat

II, the United

on Sustainable and awareness, and It has

The OECD has been a strong player in the research, education policy development also influenced Community. aspects of sustainable transportation. many of its studies and disseminated policy making the practical experience particularly

It has published

the results of

of many countries. in the European

for transportation,

Federal
transportation

Government
governments key responsibilities in the achievement of sustainable include: to the development, related to sustainable negotiation of and commitment and sustainable to

The Canadian

Canadas contribution international transportation. Programs Monitoring including National content of public protocols

development

education

and awareness. against national air quality standards,

and evaluating

performance

health effects and impacts energy policy including fuels than gasoline technologies

on ecosystems. promoting the use of lower carbon for cleaner fuels. need for

measures

and diesel, and standards contributing to reduced

Developing transportation. Regulating

fuel use and reduced

vehicle emissions

standards,

with particular

attention

to harmonization

with the United Regulating.vehicle Regulating standards.

States and dealing with transboundary safety standards. standards, including

air and water pollution.

vehicle fuel efficiency

harmonization

with U.S.

Harmonizing governments, economic&y

sustainable particularly competitive

transportation the United

strategies

and actions with other remains

States, to ensure Canada

with other jurisdictions. instruments in ways that internalize economic In particular, objectives. and fuel

Using its taxation external social objectives, tax and income Implementing performance

powers to apply economic by changing consumer

costs of transportation

or to meet specific environmental, and business behaviour. to meet sustainability

tax levers could be adapted policies that improve

the energy efficiency fleets.

and environmental

of its own transportation

The federal government NOx/VOC Change Management (NAPCC).

plays a key role in national include program.

initiatives

such as the on Climate

Plan and Canadas National and Sustainable

Action Program

Strictly federal initiatives

the newly established the Ozone Depleting levels of certain

Commissioner Substances

of Environment

Development,

Plan and the federal FleetWise

Despite these initiatives, air pollutants. including

it is clear that we are far from acceptable it is apparent

There is much more yet to do. Further, being addressed

that science has

much more to tell us in future about the impacts those currently the subject of policy focus. Canadas NAPCC does not yet contain Moreover, measures emissions development government impact there is no indication will enable Canada initiative

of a broad range of pollutants,

by policy makers and those that are not now specific targets for the transportation of the programs Challenge transportation dioxide (VCR) and Registry and to stabilize carbon sector.

that the impact

to meet its commitment

at 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Voluntary with about 600 organizations bodies mainly

is the main national

under the NAPCC. The VCR is in its early stages of large corporations form it is unlikely to have a major from to expand its

signed up. In its present

on transportation,

since it does not address individuals of carbon sponsors

or small and medium-

sized enterprises, transportation. reach to include Directors now encourage environmental achieving approach. including

the source of the majority The federal and provincial a much broader its members, Association including

dioxide emissions In October endorsed

of the VCR intend

range of organizations. of Canada provincial to sign on.

1996, the Board of that

of the Transportation

the VCR. The TAC will of transportation

departments

may or may not have been involved and energy ministries, transportation,

in earlier submissions

to the VCR from packages of policies for

Canadas NAPCC is silent on the need for integrated sustainable despite extensive The program is also silent on government long-term transportation.

international use of economic

attention

to this

instruments, that could

fuel taxes, to promote sustainable

changes in market behaviour In its present impact outcome.

help in achieving Canadian

form, the transportation It is a list of on sustainability.

section of the program initiatives

is not a strategy with an expected

that may have an (unspecified)

Provincial

Governments
have jurisdiction toward long-term over land-use sustainability planning. planning, an activity that may play a Currently, each in transportation.

The provinces key role in working province provinces

has its own approach vest most land-use

to land-use responsibilities

In general, however, most level. This tends to as municipal decision making. communities,

at the municipal

reduce the ability to achieve higher density, mixed-use governments Provincial Provincial are highly susceptible governments responsibilities include

to NIMBY opposition capital and maintenance and licensing

from local homeowners. costs of road infrastructure

also play a large role in transportation

and public transit, and regulation following provincial Some provinces examples

the registration have initiated illustrate

of vehicles, fuel taxes, safety, policing at sustainable transportation. roles for The

of the insurance

industry. programs targeted potential

the range of responsibilities-and

governments. has a Clean Vehicles and Fuels Program. It expects this policy to

British Columbia

result in air quality levels in the Lower Fraser Valley that are similar in 2020 to what they are now, despite the projected initiatives under consideration growth in vehicle use in that period. The range of include: warranties. in the Clean Vehicles and Fuels Program emission

Improved

emissions

test levels and manufacturer program

performance

A heavy duty vehicle inspection A voluntary scrap program of natural

for trucks and buses. vehicles. and requirement

for highly polluting gas and propane

Encouragement that converted

vehicle conversions standards. standards), vehicles.

vehicles meet low emission standards (similar

B.C. low emission zero emission, Encouragement alternative-fuelled Government Emissions Cleaner standards Cleaner standard,

to California

encouraging

low and

fuel efficient and alternative-fuelled of original equipment manufacturer

(OEM) manufacture

of

vehicles, especially

for fleet and heavy duty applications. programs.

fleet changes and demonstration labelling of new vehicles. improved

diesel fuel, including for off-road gasoline, minimum

diesel performance

and diesel fuel

markets. the Canadian standards, Government (MMT). reduction of allowable vapour pressure Standards of Board gasoline

including

detergent

and the elimination

methylcyclopentadienyl Gasoline pressure reduction vapour pressure

manganese controls,

tricarbonyl including

in gasoline

in summer

and extending

the application

of vapour

to areas outside the Lower Fraser Valley.

Nat,acol Round Table the on Enwonmen!andthe Economy

Svsfamable TranspomonI" Conoda - Backgrounder

Reformulated Renewable

gasoline. alternative fuels such as ethanol, ethyl tertiary additives. natural gas, propane butyl ether (ETBE) and

methyl tertiary

butyl ether (MTBE) as gasoline transportation

Tax relief for alternative and methanol.

fuels, including

Stage I and II gasoline vapour Ontario, transportation Metro Toronto mandatory estimated ground in addition

recovery in the Lower Fraser Valley. in the national NOx/VOC Management of the results in

to its participation

Plan, is pursuing

initiatives

that will address emissions the newer initiatives (I&M) program

originating

in the

sector ....37 Among

is the evaluation announced

of the pilot inspection

and maintenance in Ontario,

that has been in operation plans for a has a to reducing The government by 400 kilotonnes in Ontario.

for the past year. The government for the Greater Toronto would reduce carbon of total emissions developing

recently

I&M program that a program

with details still pending. dioxide emissions from transportation

Area (GTA), in addition

level pollutants, is currently

year, or by about Ontario ground

1 percent

a smog management approximately States. ,

plan, aimed at reducing work on this in of such emissions

level ozone and particulates. to Canada,since has begun municipalities

It should be noted that international 50 percent

issue is important Eastern Canada The province with the regional appropriate requirements infrastructure, Opportunities assessed.38 Statements meeting for the community,

come from the United within

development

of a GTA Transportation the city-region. investments

Plan in cooperation benefits

The plan is to ensure that to yield optimum of existing will also be The plan tiill address the the use of existing facilities. network

choices are made in transportation the environment associated with the preservation

and the economy. for optimizing

and rehabilitation

as well as opportunities for selective expansion describing urban

of the transpartation

the new GTA Transportation for transportation

Plan are not clear on how of sustainability suggests that may still be statement

forecast demand

and the new objectives transportation planning

and more compact the traditional driving the effort:

form will be realized. The following

model of demand-responsive

The dynamic and Durham

growth of population will result in significant will include and growing

and employment travel increases large industrial component

in Halton, within

Peel, York

these regions.

Their city centres and development major trip destinations commercial development. also form an important

nodes will attract many new trips. Other parks and low density from Metro will of future travel demand.39 commuters

As a result, outbound

On the other hand, the document Significant decisions supported Nothing objectives economic governments. advances

also contains

statements

such as:

in terms of integrating structure concept

land use and transportation and provincial transit consisting of designated

at the Official Plan level have been made by regional An urban centres and corridors in the public documents has been endorsed describing Support

for future development.40 Plan suggests the five urban to social,

the GTA Transportation objective. Among the goals of sustainable

the plan will be based on any particular of the plan is the following: and transportation and environmental which requires issues.41 development

environmental

in the GTA by taking a balanced

approach

On the surface this does not appear to be a commitment transportation, at a minimum substantial energy consumption. reducing the impact In the same document, of harmful emissions

to sustainable in transportation by

reductions

part of A Transportation

however, is the following statement as Vision for the GTA : [The Plan] respects the environment through declining use of single occupancy of the GTA off green-fields transportation the directions development.42 in Canada, the Ontario since the project is not government land-use and the and

vehicles, and by taking pressure Transportation complete. regional Transportation transportation transportation province minimize required planning.

At this stage it is not possible to assess the likely contribution Plan to sustainable Plan are infrequent, However, because municipalities major long-term, planning

efforts such as the GTA

take now in developing

and implementing for decades to come. plan is under

plans for the GTA could have a profound in Canadas largest city-region transportation

effect on the sustainability development for the to law has for a long-

of

In Quebec, a multimodal urban regional congestion

and 10 regions, and a truck route network and road deterioration. to integrate in implementing municipalities

has already been established Since 1993, provincial planning this provision,

transportation

into municipal

To assist municipalities

the Ministry

. Municipalities has created a transportation The Quebec Ministry of Transportation range transportation I35 municipalities. infrastructure through improve plan for the Montreal Priority

planning guide for municipalities. has taken the lead in developing urban region, which embraces the current

about

is being given to optimizing management measures.

transportation are to

and increasing

the modal shift from automobiles

to public transit

transportation air quality

demand

The major objectives

as well as traffic flow in the region. One of the main factors driving modalshare for public transit is the fact that continuing construction of several costly new bridges to access transportation needs in The new and road

the push for an increasing auto dependence Montreal Island.

would require

At the end of 1995, the Government agency for the Montreal the Greater Montreal former regional throughout transit

of Quebec created a regional

region to address transit

and related transportation Transit Commission. approach

Region. The new agency will have broader agency, the City of Montreal

powers than the

agency has been created to foster a comprehensive the region. It will have planning

to transportation

powers related to both transit

infrastructure. financial function

It will also have dedicated for transit

sources of revenue

that it will use to provide public transit network. to plan by

assistance

services offered on the regional systems in the Montreal agency. transportation

The three existing major transit in collaboration The concept for the Montreal the priorities arrangement of sustainable

region will continue

with thenew

is not explicit in the transportation sustainability are implied

region. However, moves toward financial above are successfully sustainability implemented,

~established within described

the plan. If the plan and the new institutional there should be progress of transportation in the region.

toward environmental

Regional

and Municipal
regional cosponsors to actions

Governments
transportation will require significant key of and municipal transportation. governments For example, are becoming the Federation

As recognition

grows that sustainable

changes to travel patterns, Canadian members Municipalities have, committed

players in efforts toward sustainable

the 20% Club, whose 130 or more municipal on climate change. Six of Canadas largest gas emissions by 20 percent energy is land-use of from from transportation, forestation

municipalities consumption, planning Canada

have committed landfill methane

to reduce greenhouse are coming recovery, urban

1990 levels by 2005 .43 Reductions One clear municipal to encourage published

and other activities. transportation However, municipalities Association sustainable social and efforts relate to pedestrian

role in working

toward sustainable communities.

higher density, mixed-use

have many other roles to play. In February transportation and individual economic traffic demand infrastructure; Montreal the following A network Pedestrian pedestrian Intermodal efforts by eight municipalities. measures of local transportation. public transit

1996, the Transportation

an Urban Vision Sampler, which highlights and plans for improving

These cover a broad range of strategies the environmental, municipal Most frequently, of municipal

impacts

management; parking items:

services; cycling infrastructure; transportation

policies; and greening

fleets. For example, policy that includes

has adopted

an official plan and an urban

of 130 kilometres infrastructure priority parking signals.

of bicycle paths. walkways in the city core and

such as underground

at metro stations.44 policy that discourages for residents long-term parking. a program of the International transportation energy parking downtown, provides

A private parking street-reserved transformation

parking

and uses tax policy to discourage

of vacant land into outdoor that involved joining

A green fleets program Council consumption.

for Local Environmental

Initiatives

to reduce urban

The approach complementary

in the Greater Vancouver initiatives:

Regional

District

is based on three

The Liveable Region Strategic Plan, which provides compact Transport mixed-use communities and increased

a land-use

plan including choice. plans

transportation

2021, which provides

long- and medium-term for walking,

transportation

based on desired urban goods movement The Air Quality pollution

form and priorities

and then the automobile. Management Plan, which provides

cycling, public transit, c on many sources of air

controls

including

transportation. of Ottawa-Carleton making (RMOC) has adopted of its two vision

The Regional documents transportation

Municipality

as the basis for decision system:45 Community

related to development

Ottawa-Carletons environmentally The Transportation

Vision: a region of communities and diverse. Transportation

that are

healthy, safe, caring, prosperous Association

of Canadas Urban

Vision. to address in the

The RMOC has adapted the unique region have identified transportation.

the generic TAC vision and decision that have particular relevance

principles

issues and needs of the Ottawa-Carleton key concerns For example: opportunity

region. Public consultations to sustainable

There is a desire for increased Many residents There is support Environment feel dependence for improved

to walk and cycle. needs to be reduced.

on the automobile transit service. one priority

was ranked as a number

by those surveyed economic

during

the

RMOC community

vision process, despite current Vision statement

conditions. to encompass all of the

An overall Transportation principles promoting cycling. In February Wentworth was premised environment Transportation, adopted effective, affordable

was developed

for the region: Ottawa-Carleton and other environmentally

will be a model region in emphasizing an increased and modes such as walking of HamiltonVision the making. Vision 2020

and accessible transportation friendly

use of public transit

1993, the Council

of the Regional

Municipality decision among community

adopted

a vision statement

and implementation broader linkages

report, entitled the economy,

2020: The Sustainable

Region, as a basis for all regional factors, if a sustainable

on the need to consider and health/social land-use

is to be realized. in the region

and other planning

and program adopted

development for Vision 2920.

are all under way using the goals and principles

Hamilton-Wentworth three-year around planning. walking,

is Canadas designated collaboration

community Program

participating

in the from

United Nations Local Agenda 2 1 Model Communities research and development Transportation cycling, transit, the world are developing

(MCP). The MCP is a development policies, The Initiatives. integration.

in which 14 municipalities on new land-use

tools and models for local sustainable with emphasis Council on automobiles and intermodal

is a key element, less reliance

MCP is coordinated

by the International

for Local Environmental

sirzs.i~;L,:.: g~.DgJgqp;l &ggs~i~~~:~l ~~~~@~;:~, ______ .Ll.

/ t ! i z.

Footnotes
Canadian Urban Institute, Cities Without Curs (Toronto, Vancouver, 1994), section on Greater Vancouver Regional District, p. 3. are costs to society that are not borne by users of injury and death to others, social gases.
National

External costs of transportation transportation. isolation of non-users,

These include costs of congestion, air and water pollution,

solid waste and greeenhouse

D.Bell,R.Delaneyand Framework

R. Lewis, A Proposal for Sustainable T'runsportation -A Canada, 1996). Impacts of Transportation,

(Ottawa: Transport

Apogee Research, Indicators of the Environmentul for the U.S. Environmental Protection

paper prepared

Agency, June 1996. Canadian Indicators Workshop Proceedings and Environment Canada, 1996).

Lura Group, Measuring Urban Sustainability: (Ottawa: Canada Mortgage Organization.for Economic and Housing Cooperation

Corporation

and Development,

Environmental

Criteria for

Sustainable Transportation Ibid., p. 59. Ibid, p. 14. Ontario Ministry

(Paris, 1996), p. 62.

of Environment

and Energy,

Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change: A 1995).

Status Report on Initiatives in Ontario to Reduce Greenhouse Gus Emissions (Toronto, Ibid. Ontario Ministry of Transportation, (Toronto, Towards a Greater Toronto Area Transportation 1995), p. 4.

Plan:

The Challenges (brochure) Ibid., p. 8. Ibid. Ibid., p. 7. Federation of Canadian

Municipalities,

The 20% Solution: A Municipal Approach to (Ottawa, nd.), p. 6. to use public transit for

Addressing Climate Change (brochure) Intermodal a portion

parking is located at transit stations of their trip. of Ottawa-Carleton,

to enable motorists

Regional Municipality

Transportation

Master Plan -

Transportation

Vision, Principles and Issues, approved

by Regional Council, October

25, 1995.

;ipkaicr.-. *,h:;ii;&i;

Notiona, Round Table -he an Enwonmenford Em-my he

Susainoble Trans,mlat,on in Conado- Backgrounoe~

Where is Sustainable Transportation on the Policy Development Agenda?

Policy development starting National Professor William for sustainable transportation is, in a phrase, just out of the was expressed in November is set on an and by to the 1995. in a presentation gate. The essence of the challenge Rees of the University on Sustainable Conference faced in transportation of British Columbia in Vancouver from nature, the natural

Transportation, alienated degrades

It seems that humankind, unsustainable Cambridge conclusion political which could plausibly economist

thoroughly

course which certainly

environment

end with the ecological

razing of the Earth. As out, this sobering It is the scientific, on for

Terry Barker (1994) points consensus as expressed

... is not that of a deep green minority. and economic Change, the Brundtland

by the UN Intergovernmental Council

Panel on Climate Environment Sustainable

Report, the (UN) Conference Institute.46

and Development Development,

in Rio de Janeiro, the Business

and the World Resources advances remains

Despite major technological transportation, range of negative reductions continuing combinations of governments transportation environmental, and industry,

in the past-two decades in all modes of sector in terms of a broad Moreover, despite actions impacts.

the fastest growing

social and economic smog, particulates,

in some air pollutants problems.

in recent years, as a result of the coordinated sulphates and air toxics are continue

Policy responses

by governments,

at least in North America, policy options stronger

to focus on sector. Few

of regulation

and technology and business

in the technology

steps have been taken to implement broad range of consumer Governments investment example construction evaluating externalities. decisions are financially primarily

packages of policies that can affect a and can no longer base infrastructure growth by individual mode. A current to continue for in for in Ontario

decisions.

constrained on demand

at the municipal

and provincial

levels is the decision

of the Sheppard alternatives

subway line in Metro Toronto, were not widely debated. transportation alternatives

where opportunities and in accounting

more cost-effective

More effort is required

the most cost-effective

There are, however, many signs of change in the way decisions Regional way urban planning articulated metropolitan transportation approaches. governments The Federation in all parts of Canada of Canadian systems will be developed

are being made. to rethink the new land-use transportation

are beginning

in future to support Municipalities for urban

and some individual

municipalities

have adopted

the generic vision and principles Association

by the Transportation it advocates

of Canada. While the TAC acknowledges they are steps in the

that the approaches right direction.

will not lead to true sustainability,

Nol,onol Round Table the on Enwonment and the Economy

SilalaMe Tmnsporiailo 1 Canodo - Backpounder

However, Canadian and broad consensus

efforts have not coalesced into a well-formed actions for tackling of intercity modes. urban to the sustainability and marine its infancy stab&zing

national

strategy So

on a set of integrated

sustainability.

far, there has been little attention Climate levels. Canada legally binding December Convention change is essentially~in

freight movement, Specific could at the if it does have II and the of

and little action to address the aviation targets have not yet been set beyond meet this modest

as an area for policy making. emissions of greenhouse

gases at 1990

does not have policies in place that would ensure transportation goal. Yet there are strong indications emissions Change. post-2000 targets will be the subject of negotiations of the Parties (COP3) Canada as other countries Nations, could be vulnerable to which Canada economically is a signatory, if sustainable Habitat

that much more aggressive and of the U.N. Framework community.

I997 Third Conference on Climate

not address the issue as seriously Recent protocols focused international development, the beginnings Initiatives movement. including U.N. Conference attention

in the international required

of the United sustainable

on the policy directions transportation, Development

is to be achieved.

on Sustainable

in Rio are the most recent expressions Council for Local Environmental

of a global commitment

to policies for sustainability. a force in the local sustainability

New organizations Toronto-based members

such as the International

(ICLEI), created in 1990, arebecoming

ICLEI now has about 200 member municipalities worldwide and expects its growth to continue. 47 By 1995 , 15 Canadian municipal governments had become transportation conferences conference endorsed strategic European of ICLEI. 2, the OECD has been an active participant It has sponsored in Vancouver in sustainable international Transportation, in March 1996. of Transport transportation. This a As stated in Chapter

research and policy development. hosted by the Government of Canada

on the subject, the latest being Towards Sustainable Conference

In 1994, the OECD and the European a comprehensive framework national

of Ministers urban

strategy approach

to sustainable proposed

is one of the most advanced governments Canada.

to date. It will be used by It could further

as they develop their own policy responses. This integrated strategy approach Approach. transportation

also be used as astarting the challenges for urban in the section Integrated In the United strong legislative

model for a comprehensive Policy: The European that includes

strategy, at least for dealing with is discussed

States, moves toward sustainable framework Surface Transportation decision making

are rooted in a (CAAA) of

the Clean Air Act Amendments

1990 and the Intermodal driving transportation evaluations

Act of 1991. However, it has been level air quality in the CAAA are into project

noted by U.S. analysts that the clear targets fo,r ground goals, including or program transportation outcome In conclusion, response

in the U.S. and that societal and sustainability

to the climate change issue, are not incorporated of either act. a number of initiatives are contributing

although

toward sustainable

in Canada,

no focused strategy or program can be achieved.

yet exists to ensure that an

of sustainable

transportation

What Has Worked

What Has Worked
With the exception urban pollutants pollutants. carbon of ground

and What Has Not

level ozone, coefficient from reductions of haze and nitrogen in emissions of some from air lead dioxide and Particulate Total in fact, (NAPS) consists oxide,

air quality in Canada has benefited Annual mean concentrations and volatile organic

in the past 25 years. Progress has been made in acid deposition of sulphurs dioxide, nitrogen compounds although have all declined. this measure

monoxide

has declined~ by 96 percent suspended remain network particulates not to be a good indicator Routine monitoring stations represent

since 1974 because

of the ban on lead in gasoline. sources. Particulates, Surveillance

have also declined,

is now understood

of health effects or pollution results from the National

an area of concern.48 Air Pollution for the period 1970-1994 are shown in Exhibit 3.1. The NAPS network cities with populations levels at individual air quality. greater than sites and may pollution sampling

of air monitoring not necessarily

in most Canadian community-wide

100,000. The NAPS data represent

SuemhJo~ky of Seven

Air Pollutants

Measured

by .the NAPS

ppb = parts per billion; ppm = parts per million; coefficient of haze

pg/m3 = micrograms

per cubic metre; COH =

Source: Pollution Probe, Transportation, Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives, paper prepared for Health Canada, March 1996.

These improvements improved Canada. fuels developed Regulations

have resulted in response tighten

from changes in vehicle technologies to emissions emissions standards standards imposed continue supporting to be

and

in the U.S. and

to further

implemented

in both countries. have been financially Ballard Power of fuel cell in its development of electric propulsion systems for

The federal and B.C. governments Systems of Vancouver transportation technology, important commercialized applications.

Ballard is a world leader in the development in transportation, air pollutant to attempt

which is at the prototype/demonstration for broad application to reducing be premature contributions

stage. If it can be successfully the fuel cell could make At present, however, it is market, of the impact the transportation emissions.

not possible to predict how far the technology and it would therefore technology program, 3 percent, 24 percent. effectiveness, on sustainable transportation. introduced

will penetrate

to predict the long-term inspection

In 1992, British Columbia Valley. Under this program, volatile organic British Columbia

a mandatory

and maintenance by by its for

called AirCare, for the one million emissions compounds is planning

light duty vehicles in the Lower Fraser oxides have been reduced and carbon inspection monoxide to this program

of nitrogen

by 18 percent, improvements mandatory

to increase

and also plans to introduce

and maintenance has overwhelming

heavy duty vehicles. For this latter initiative, public support. Progress in reducing result of coordinated agreements Environment, Committee. taken place through emissions

the B.C. government

of air pollutants

from transportation

has been the and has

regulatory

action by the federal and provincial and fuel supply industries. as the Canadian Council and the National

governments, Coordination of the

with vehicle manufacturing such mechanisms Canadian Energy Ministers

of Ministers

Air Issues Coordinating

What

Has Nof Worked

Level activities noted above, there is a general lack of issues among all-levels of of the federal designed evident to in the and so far little sense decisions

National

In spite of the coordinating integrated government. produce of urgency governments Ground continue increased their negative decision making governments. Economics

about transportation consideration environmental development

still drives most transportation

There is limited economic, about sustainable

of policies and programs and social benefits, (including transportation)

combined

policies and programs. level ozone, inhalable health impacts. and respirable particulates, and nitrogen epidemiological dioxide evidence has of particularly in view of emerging

to be of concern,

As shown in Exhibit 3.1, ozone concentration since 198 1.

by about 20 percent

Virtually

all growth trends point to more frequent further just to hold emissions

use of light duty vehicles with emissions control at emissions

longer trips at lower speeds. Therefore, will be required current levels appears to be the limited level ozone appears to increased

gains in automobile

at todays levels. (Note: stabilizing long-range goal of the current

B.C. Policy on

Clean Vehicles and Fuels.). Since ground research is leading reductions the literature transportation on gasoline to be increasing and since epidemiological (despite that we must conclude concerns particulates over the health effects of particulates over past decades),

in total suspended

from a health perspective in future.

sustainable

transportation

has not been achieved. Moreover, to result in sustainable increase in the excise tax for automotive on in the

suggests that current

policies are unlikely announced

In 1994, the federal government effect on automobile fuel consumption. in Canada.

a one-time

of 1.8 cents per litre. The tax was justified,

at least in part, by its expected of demand

Given the elasticities

fuels, it was clear from the outset that the new federal tax would have little impact overall fuel consumption range of 1 percent. variations In contrast, commitments by a minimum intended expectation governments in the market In theory, the tax could reduce demand However, the increase was well within price for the fuel. in 1993, as one measure to meet its climate change, initiated a policy of increasing industry in the the range of short-term

the British government for mitigating of 5 percent

fuel taxes and

in real terms per year, indefinitely.49

This move was

to send a strong and long-term of continuously

signal to allow consumers,

to adjust a wide range of decision rising fuel prices. annual

criteria and behaviours

The OECD projects that a 7 percent for the next 20 years, in combination The Voluntary principal initiatives Challenge

real price increase would be required package of other instruments, gas emissions.50 2, is one of the does not yet

with an integrated

to meet the IPCC target of a 60-80 percent

decrease in greenhouse in Chapter

and Registry, described is uncertain users.

of Canadas NAPCC. The future impact

of the VCR on

transportation energy demand in Canada involve a large percentage of transportation contribute greenhouse production concludes resources to life cycle reductions gas emissions of transportation that the upstream gas intensive

since the program

To the extent that the oil and gas sector participates of greenhouse

in it, the VCR could in theory from the transportation in gas for the

gas emissions

sector. However, it is not clear from reviews of the VCR that there will be reductions from the extraction fuels.51> 52 Oil, Canadas largest producer, sector will become of the depletion SGA Consulting of fossil fuel oil production more energy intensive of crude oil and natural

Based on the plans of Imperial and greenhouse

in the future by virtue oil and bitumen

in the west. As conventional

(tar sands) reserves are depleted, of water

more and more energy is expended trying to extract declining resources. For conventional oil production, processing and reinjection of increasing volumes produced along with the oil requires from Imperial increased Exhibit 3.2, extracted Oilssubmission

energy use per barrel of oil produced.53 to the VCR, reflects these trends.

CO; Equivulent Emissions per Unit of Production from lmperiul Oil U stream Operations
(tonnes/thousan cf bbl oil equivalent production) ;,j6851L--U;;: /ni-..-ij_ /jNi/._ ~~~-;~FFE~:~i_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~pqg&gj& __:- z,.14 .y -. s; _:*.. . - :N&&..&@.~ . - : .I -:.. ,YI- 59 .-.: : ;I:;:,I.: -.-1. )/ . $&+; r +.:: -. ,f . & _ -.;. 1 )_ -. . ,,i _

Source: SGA Consulting,

An Analyis of Comprehensive Action Plans Received under the Canadian Environment Canada, 1995), p. 2.

Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (dttawa:

It was not possible, within projections are indicative efficient extraction cycle carbon extraction further

this study, to determine

whether

Imperial

Oils

of industry

trends. New technologies

may enable more in the exhibit. may of oil oil toward oil sands, life

for any of the three segments

than is indicated

However, if future production dioxide emissions

shifts away from conventional per unit of transportation

energy consumption energy intensity dioxide emissions

.increase. There appears to be a risk, therefore, could reinforce consumption from increased of transportation

that the increased

the future growth of carbon

expected

fuels. This is an area that warrants

investigation.

Provincial and Municipal levels

In 1990, the Ontario Tax for Fuel Conservation consuming economy 90 percent ratings above 9 litres/100 government introduced a graduated feebate system called the of high fuel (TFFC). This program kilometres. taxes purchases

vehicles. The tax ranges from $75 to $7,000 for vehicles with fuel economy It also provides kilometres. $100 rebate for vehicles with fuel of the approximately 10 percent of annual of ratings below 6 litres/100 of vehicles falling within an incentive For purchasers for about

these two limits, a flat tax of $75 applies. The TFFC decisions approximately 8 percent of the on-the-

thus provides

to alter purchase

new vehicle sales. New vehicle sales represent road fleet in any given year. Therefore, less than 1 percent There is no mechanism However, in its November Change, the Ontario will reduce annual would represent approximately Ontario $55 million carbon a reduction 0.5 percent in tax revenue Ministry to measure

the TFFC is likely to affect the fuel efficiency the impact of Ontarios TFFC program.

of the total vehicle fleet each year. 1995 status report, of Environment in fuel consumption of the projected annually.55 dioxide emissions Meeting the Challenge of Climate and Energy estimated by 200 kilotonnes transportation from the Ontario to raise between that the program fleet of in $32 and by the year 2000.54 This

energy consumption

in that year. The TFFC has been estimated

Notional Round Table the on Envirormenl the o-d Eco-my

Sustmoble Transpr~kmm Canoda ~ Bockgrounder

In a presentation Minnesota in February Civil Engineering

to the Centre for Transportation 1995, Dr. Richard Soberman, of Toronto,

Studies at the University observations regions: growth within

of of in on what

then Chair of the Department of urban transportation

at the University

made important

has worked and what has not worked in the development the GTA. Some of his key remarks Centralized encouraged Toronto. controls on zoning

could apply to many major urban during periods of rapid population transit patterns

high land-use

densities controls

along designated and employment

corridors

Metro in the

Outside

Metro, residential

that emerged urban

absence of strong planning

led to automobile-dependent of the Ontario a poorer government transportation

sprawl.

Had it not been for the intervention repute as a good place to live. The concept assumes of balanced transit transportation

in 1971, Toronto system, and less

today would have had more expressways,

does not work. If a plan really offers true transit will not survive. (Note: this land, roads

choices between

and automobiles,

automobile

users do not pay the full costs of their use of urban

and of air pollution.) Torontos.early successes with subway construction in obvious transit-intensive corridors led to attitudes that now preclude any serious consideration of less capital-intensive spatial patterns. Cost-based construction, Athough patterns subsidy policies encourage operation transit , of transit investment influence on on land inefficiency in all aspects of transit alternatives that may be more appropriate to emerging

and procurement. an example as well.

Toronto

provides within

of the impact

use, expressways

and near Metro have had tremendous

of land development

Opportunities
International have untilrecently coincidence negative regulation impacts

und Burriers
efforts to develop effective approaches focused on regulation of transportation and reliance convened to sustainable on technology on technology transportation fxes. It is no and using

that the first few OECD conferences to force adoption and encourage of technologies more efficient

to address the widespread

focused primarily

to make vehicles cleaner and more fueluse of transportation toward more holistic society. of Corporate Average Fleet fuel led to improved introduction Standards facilities. There is approaches to

efficient. Less attention transportation modifying now an opportunity

has been paid to policies that reduce the need for

to shift policy attention and North American

values and behaviours

in all sectors of Canadian

Clean air legislation Efficiency/Corporate efficiency

Average Fuel Consumption

of new cars and, to a more limited

extent, new light duty trucks in the 1970s helped to constrain growth in fuel

and up to the mid- 1980s. While these standards

Nat~ono Round T&e on.he E~irmnent ,be and Economy

SumnobleTmsprtotm \n Conadc - Backgrounder

consumption increase,

across the continent,

gasoiine income

and diesel consumption

continued

to

due to growth in disposable

and cheap fuel, as well as larger numbers countries, with the possible exception of

of vehicles and larger vehicles being driven longer distances. To date there are very few industrialized Singapore, where growth in transportation the following: favour single-family exurban homes on large lots and reasons are many but include Cultural values in Canada fuel consumption has been halted. The

wide use of the private motor vehicle. Fuel prices are at historically percentage consumers European of disposable to purchase countries low levels in North America. used by consumers gasoline The relatively fixed has allowed There is a

income

for transportation

new vehicles and to drive them longer distances. between

well-established

relationship

price and vehicle use. Fuel prices in

are typically

two to three times higher than in North America, in the EC is in the range of one third of that in

while per capita fuel consumption North America. It is argued that urban transportation America. population

densities

are much higher and that public in Europe than in North of cheaper wide use of of of

systems are more highly developed

The counterarguement and low density

is that it has been the availability urban development.

fuels and land in North America the automobile objectives, urban we in North America

over many decades that has enabled may be forced to look seriously

In order to meet sustainability at patterns Europe, for models

development

in other parts of the world, including

how we can have vibrant, The availability investments commercial intercity

liveable cities with less dependence land, the economic development,

on the automobile. over massive and areas and

of inexpensive urban

policies of governments have encouraged in urban

past decades and advances in single-use

in road transport

technologies

road infrastructure public transit

and personal

vehicle fleets that have overwhelmed of goods by rail.

transport

Historically, encouraged subsidized

government developments shipping low density financially

policies at all levels, combined in road and air transport and public urban and suburban viable transit mixed-use transport. development

with market forces, have Governments with land-use have policies to dependence.

at the expense of modal share

for rail, domestic that preclude

urban

systems and foster automobile form. for sustainable

The fact that governments move to more compact,

are now fiscally constrained urban

may offer an opportunity

One of the major limitations worth doing anyway protection. agree on quantitative

of policy development

development

has been thit efforts to date have largely taken the form of doing those things that are for economic or other reasons in addition governments in Canada reduction to environmental have not been able to As yet federal and provincial greenhouse transportation.

gas emission

targets that would ensure real

progress toward sustainable

With targets in place, it would be possible contributions Canada transportation

measures.5657,5%59

to evaluate

the absolute for reducing

and relative that could move the impacts of of

of various in Canada

measures provide

or integrated

packages of measures

toward such targets. Recent analyses of measures the basis for linking

targets and the effectiveness air pollution,

In Canada, jurisdiction among international environmental of negotiating greenhouse negotiating the national provincial through community

over environmental and the provinces will attempt

issues, including (see Chapter

is shared

the federal government

2). It is likely that the that, in advance

to establish

more aggressive targets for important

issues such as climate change. It is therefore future international gas emission position position reduction, agreements the federal government This anticipatory of provincial

related to issues such as targets for work out a national approach interests Committee would ensure that in relation to is one mechanism

with the provinces. includes

consideration national

powers. The National which a coordinated suggested commentator

Air Issues Coordinating position

on climate change might be developed. Towards Sustainable relative the following

One prominent Transportation, weighting

at the 1996 OECD conference,

that policy makers should consider of the different

of the effectiveness improvements

classes of policy instruments:60 I - relative weighting: 100 1000 field has been dominated have been made in have been 10

technology shifting shifting

in vehicles - relative weighting: cars to efficient transport transport

from single-occupant to non-motorized of unnecessary

- relative weighting:

elimination

travel - relative weighting: in the transportation investments

As noted above, policy development in the past by initiatives urban transit overwhelmed categories numbers in category infrastructure by investments

1. Substantial

and services in Canada, but these investments in road transport policy and public investment

by all sectors of society. Limited have focused on but they suggest conference leverage seems possible. ,Mr. Brittons transportation.

research and even more limited are admittedly rough -

3 and 4, where the most substantial

some would suggest outrageous Transportation

where priorities addressed

may have to be placed to achieve truly sustainable at the Towards Sustainable in policy approaches

Other commentators

the need to shift the emphasis that governments integrated

as follows: transportation are taken by all action by the (seeing it to to sustainable

It is unlikely through majority levels pursuing

will be able to achieve sustainable approaches It will also take informed

policy measures of citizens

alone, even if coordinated strategies.

(in their choices as consumers)

and by businesses

be in their best interests transportation). observers

to offer goods and services that contribute have a responsibility

Hence governments

to educate the public

about how they can change their behaviours have suggested and unlikely

to enable real change to occur. Many transportation.

that efforts to date have been very much at the margin

to result in real progress toward sustainable

Measures barrier

promoting

the use of compact

urban

form and mixed land use, as well as to reduce the social isolation, impacts of transportation

non-motorized

forms of transport,

have the potential of society.

effects, public safety, health and environmental efficiency

and to increase the economic The report (Golden report) infrastructure by adopting

of the GTA Task Force to the Premier estimated that capital investment from $55 billion mixed-use could be reduced

of Ontario

in January

1996

in new road, sewer and water to $42.8 billion pattern over the next 25 years the as for the region.61 When urban sprawl would be

a more compact

development

capital, operating about $1 billion. well as increasing The subsequent generated reduced settlement Regional automobile pattern.

and maintenance, that the annual

as well as external

costs are taken into account, on governments report through

Task Force estimated

cost savings of containing

This, it is argued, would reduce the cost burden the economic competitiveness of the city-region public debate on the recommendations of the collateral benefits use that could accompany to those of the Golden urban

in the global market. the

of the Golden mixed-use

little discussion

that could be obtained

the more compact

Similar conclusions District range planning transportation activities further strategy.

report have led the Greater Vancouver settlement as an element advanced development excellent of its long-

to adopt more compact Transportation Preparation and municipal

The Towards Sustainable professionals. federal departments awareness

conference of sustainable

the debate among strategies by for

for submission building

to Parliament

in December

1997 and the many opportunities

at the provincial

levels present

among planners,

policy makers and the public.

Policy Instruments for Sustainable Transportation

Policy instruments changes required are the levers governments use to encourage system. or mandate the to create a sustainable transportation

Maior Obiectives of Policy lnstrumen ts

Regulatory/technology-based to address emissions efficiency and impact overwhelming approaches have been used to date in North America improve fuel is of However, the evidence or tonne-kilometres values and behaviours of air pollutants per unit of fuel consumption, policy instruments travelled

many other aspects of sustainability. of growth in vehicle-kilometres transportation

that regulatory/technology-based

have not and will

not offset the impact in the literature will be required.

goods moved. If sustainable

is to be achieved, there is broad consensus and business

that major changes in consumer

Regulafory/Techno/ogy-Based
Focus

Policies: Past and Current

fall into the following of vehicle emissions from the transportation controls do not categories: has been sector.

Regulatory/technology-based

policies generally

Controls on air emissions: Direct regulatory the traditional Controls kilometre numbers Mandated emissions gasoline control decrease carbon approach to reducing generally target tailpipe emissions.

control

air emissions Moreover,

Such ,emission

dioxide emissions.

gains in emissions

per vehicle-

or per tonne-kilometre

from regulation

tend to be offset by increased

of vehicles and by larger vehicles being driven longer distances. improvements

in fuel quality: Use of reformulated

Reformulations content,

fuels can reduce and oxygenates emissions in

of a range of pollutants. and sulphur technologies and aromatics to function

can involve changes to a range aromatics and cetane number to allow enhanced of diesel

of fuel characteristics

such as levels of lead, benzene, volatility fuels are essential effectively.

fuels. In some cases, reformulated

Like emission

controls,

fuel quality offers short- to medium-term

opportunities of vehicles

to are

reduce vehicle emissions. and vehicle-kilometres to be reduced Mandated Changes ignition significantly.

In the long run, however, increased

travelled will necessitate other actions

numbers

if total emissions

increases in fuel eficiency: can contribute

Lowering

the amount

of fuel consumed

per

vehicle-kilometre

to reduced

fossil fuel use and reduced

emissions. can improve

to vehicle weight, aerodynamic and fuel management

drag, tire rolling resistance,

transmissions,

systems and other vehicle components

fuel efficiency. Past experience North America, resulted with mandating fuel efficiency standards in the 1970s and 198Os, in in average fleet to increase. This travelled by to the

showed that although

they led to improvements continued

fuel efficiency, total transportation from growth in numbers

fuel consumption of vehicles, increases

in distances

each vehicle, and higher growth in sales of vans and light duty trucks compared with cars. Part of the increased lower operating vehicle use has been attributed by researchers costs that result from higher fuel efficiency. and the U.S. automobile Vehicle (PNGV) to establish industry are cooperating mid-sized participation in the car that is in the

The U.S. government Program

for a New Generation

to developa Canadian

about three times more fuel efficient than current of federal and provincial governments PNGV have, so far, not been successful. Promotion

North American

vehicles. Efforts

of alternative transportation
However. further alternative

fuels: Even with stringent vehicles will continue reductions

emission

controls

and fuel efficiency, petroleum-fuelled air emissions. carbon content

to be major sources of hydrogen,

emission

can result from use of lower gas, propane,

fuels such as alcohols, natural

and electricity in alternative

from renewable

resources

such as biomass transporting potential

and solar energy. Choices social each fuel.

fuels should be driven by life-cycle analysis of the total economic, effects of producing, and consuming for alternative

and environmental

The rate and extent of market penetration by the state of technology, massive societal investment alternative in Canada. fuels represent operational approximately

fuels is constrained fuels and the fuels market

issues, low prices of conventional 1 percent of the transportation

already made in gasoline and diesel fuels. To date,

policy lnstrqmenis for Reducing and Shifting Transportafion Demand

Truly sustainable reductions energy consuming transportation is unlikely to be realized without modes of transport major, long-term in addition to in in the use of high energy intensive or non-motorized and shifts to lower energy consumption income and advancing

modes. Other policy instruments, to reduce transportation per capita disposable that have the potential include:

those applied to date, will be required the face of population technologies contributions that continue to sustainable

growth, increasing

to reduce the costs of travelling transportation

greater distances. for major additional

Some of the types of policy measures

Measures which account for the constitutional The current governments fragmented division of powers among makes land use and transportation in Canada. Actions

division of powers in transportation: and municipal and funding very with the planning

federal, provincial,

in one jurisdiction

can create conflicts

policies or programs Federal income supplied provincial understood Finance. parking

of other jurisdictions. tax policies allowing

For example: tax deductions transit higher transit for employeruse. It is of

business

but not for employer-subsidized efforts to encourage

passes work against

and municipal

that this issue is now under

study in the federal Department

Effective use of fuel taxation term behavioural federal and provincial Municipal reinforced

as an economic

instrument

for influencing coordination powers.

long-

changes in the market would require

between

levels since both have fuel taxation fuel consumption tax policies.

efforts to reduce transportation or negated

can either be

by federal or provincial

The split of responsibility federal governments approaches movement. for encouraging

for road and rail transport difficult

between

the provincial policy

and

makes it extremely

to develop integrated

higher use of rail for both freight and passenger

Proposed properties

changes to Actual Assessment tax burden in the province,

of property

taxes in Ontario

could triple on all rail

the already high municipal mode in Eastern Canada.e2 The federal government deliberations Canadas commitments federal government of the provinces Governments compromise

from $20 million to $60 million

further threatening

the financial viability of the rail

is responsible to international

for participating agreements. jurisdiction.

in international Conflict can occur if the without the support

on global and regional international enters into such international

issues and for negotiating negotiations

in areas of provincial

need to find ways to ensure that interjurisdictional progress toward sustainable transportation.

issues do not

Use of economic instruments to influence market behatiiour: The use of economic instruments, including taxes and fees, to send strong, long-term use and to manufacturers signals to consumers However, for reduced automobile for sale of more fuel-efficient

vehicles, has been the subject of much research and analysis internationally. purpose because of the entrenched

there has been great resistance in North America to the use of fuel taxes for this cultural values and beliefs of North Americans. appears to be gaining political support the United Kingdom, in

In contrast, the use of such instruments various European countries, including

despite the fact that fuel such as the PNGV Institute, other

prices in Europe are already two to three times higher than in North America. If major advances in fuel efficiency can be achieved in future from initiatives or the Hyper-Car constrain proposed by Amory Lovins of the Rocky Mountain instruments and/or emissions policies such as economic

trading will be required to

increased personal vehicle use. instruments. has been suggested or implemented affect the broadest range of transportation

A wide variety of economic worldwide.

Measures such as fuel taxation

users, and are said by their proponents to be among the most cost-effective measures. Alternatives such as vehicle registration fees and/or insurance premiums tied to annual vehicle or fuel use have been proposed. such as road congestion More narrowly focused instruments pricing or gas guzzler taxes have also been suggested. municipal

Changes in land use, urban design and transportation planning: Provincial planning legislation, as well as regulation of zoning and building urban settlement transportation requiring patterns by encouraging

codes, can influence

more compact, mixed land use to reduce modes such as walking and systems. Some of the~specific aspects

demand,

increased use of non-motorized

cycling, and shifts to public transportation attention include:

integration modification transportation

of transportation of transportation systems;

and land-use decision

planning; making to ensure selection integration of least of public

societal cost modal alternatives

and interjurisdictional

long-term improved

commitment

to providing

transportation

alternatives

to ensure

access for all citizens, as policies constraining

high energy intensive

modes take effect. Some- progress is starting implementation concerned kilometres integration municipal two levels. At the regional with changing travelled of transit boundaries to be made in sustainable level in Canada. level, the planning origin/destination transportation planning networks is and

at the municipal

Change is happening to minimize

on at least

of transportation patterns

passengerof the above is services across

using high fuel-consuming services within and among modes.

modes. An example

a region to ensure optimized

At the neighbourhood architectural for walking

or street level, the contributions

to sustainability

tend to be priority

or design solutions

that ensure close connection modes, and urban.design

of activities,

and other non-motorized

that supports

quality public transit. Catalysts for change toward sustainability the International Association Urban Sustainable Council of Canada, the Federation the Canadian at the local level include Initiatives, Institute, of Canadian Urban Municipalities, the initiatives the Canadian for Probe and of

for Local Environmental

the Transportation

Transit Association,

the Institute Pollution

Cities, the Centre for Sustainable Centre for Applied

Transportation,

the York University

Sustainability. change on the scale required is well aware of and

Increased public education for sustainable transportation

and awareness: Achieving will only be possible

if the public

the risks of the status quo and is ready to change its values, behaviours beliefs. The literature of governments. The public will have to be convinced shown that there can be long-term past battles for environmental industrial processes resisted regulation that it is in societys long-term suggests that the job cannot

be done solely by interventions

interest

to take

action to modify the way we live. The message will be much more palatable economic and social and lifestyle benefits advocates associations changes needed to reduce transportation

if it can be from the from

energy use. There are many examples and industry profitability

change. Some of the strongest

for clean up of who initially

are leaders of companies but have realized improved

from their subsequent

efforts to reduce waste.

A Menu

of Policy Inshwnent~
on sustainable transportation transportation. describes and/or hundreds of individual as calls for the that have beensuggested, analysed implemented

The literature policy measures contributions application coordinated,

toward sustainable of policy instruments

There are frequent

using specific approaches are described

that are integrated, in more detail below.

and phased. These elements

Nalional Round Table ,he on Enwronment Ihe and Emmy

Suslmable Transporman m Canada - Bsckgaunder

An Integrafecf Approach: Instruments

Achieving instruments. sustainable The problem transportation

Packaging

Ihe Policy
packages of policy by one or different into to combine

will require.integrated and multifaceted weaknesses It will be necessary

is too complex

to be addressed and objectives,

even a small number policy instruments, politically proposed. Management Sustainable Change integrated acceptable, Examples Some integrated

of policy instruments. integrated

each with its own strengths,

packages coordinated Regional

among all levels of government. already exist or have been Districts Air Quality and Climate an package of that rely on Plan, and the Strategy for

packages of policy instruments are the Greater Vancouver in Ontario proposed Management

Plan and the NOx/VOC Transportation

by the Transportation

Collaborative.

On the other hand, Canadas NAPCC does not provide It does not present a comprehensive reduction regulations, opportunities. economic

package for transportation.

policy instruments different planning, is essential approaches,

to exploit the full range of emission packages are likely to contain including command of education and information, Understanding and control

Effective integrated instruments, provision and technology to developing

policy instruments transportation

and land-use interact

development.

how these approaches

an effective package.

Regulatdry
Regulatory companies

Instruments
instruments are policy instruments that (1) command include people and standards, of players, of approaches in specified ways; and (2) specify the penalties vehicle emission of vehicle fleets and speed limits. When the behaviour and control

to change their behaviour mandatory instruments

that will be imposed fuel standards, Regulatory millions become

if they do not obey. Examples fuel conversion

work best when there is only a small number needs to change, command

such as petroleum

refiners or auto makers, to be regulated.

of people and companies less enforceable. technological standards, standards

Mandating Vehicle emission examples reducing

change is one possible fuel standards change.

role for regulatory standards

instruments. are prominent are important for of in of

and fuel efficiency

of regulated air emissions Council

technological in the medium of Ministers

More stringent the Canadian the number

for vehicle emissions

and fuel efficiency

term. However, even if the recommendations will eventually include rise due to the increases travelled. mandating the conversion

of the Environments

Task Force on Cleaner Vehicles

and Fuels are implemented, Other examples all or a portion

vehicle emissions

of vehicles on the road and vehicle-kilometres of technological regulations of a vehicle fleet to use an alternative

fuel or electricity.

Ecgnomic Instruments
Economic instruments, or market-based behavioural incentives, change. are policy instruments tha create price signals to encourage

In at least two Ways, encouraging of economic sustainable driving, instruments. transportation.

sustainable

transportation has a contribution

is an ideal application to make to achieving of the transportation a vacation locally rather change on but is the

First, each individual of decisions,

On a daily basis, the sustainability produce, spending

system is affected by millions buying than abroad, or driving raison detre of economic Second, the current required. increase programs awareness When economic consumer issue suggests that voluntary of the consequences

such as walking to the store rather than

local rather than imported a car instead instruments. lack of urgency approaches instruments

of a sport utility vehicle. Behavioural approaches,

such a micro level is not well suited to command-and-control surrounding are unlikely

the sustainable

transportation

to lead to changes on the scale they act as reminders instruments do. Education by raising public

are visible to consumers, education of economic programs

of purchasing awareness

decisions.

In this way, some economic instruments

much as public the effectiveness have the potential

can also improve of the intent instruments

of economic

instruments. to have a dual effect on sustainability. energy consumption from high in on or can be invested

Economic

They can directly reduce demand fossil energy consuming other measures progress The use of economic tax revenues as revenue experience consumption. use of economic the United States. that encourage

for transportation

modes. Revenue reduced instruments

from such instruments fossil energy consumption.

on a scale that would have a major impact economic instruments

towards sustainability could be generated. neutrality, a significant economic

could result in large changes in tax structure, The design of individual would have to include impacts consideration

since large

packages of instruments

for Canada

of issues such of

and social equity. This implies that we could taxation to heavier taxation of ensuring

shift away from income-based Canada faces the particular does not compromise

The literature instruments

suggests that such changes are feasible and may in fact be challenge that the with its economic competitiveness

cost effective and equitable.

Public Education
Public education social change through change. Social marketing actions. Frequently, programs persuasion. are planned, Littering, targeted recycling, approaches seat-belt campaigns to promote use, drunk to promote voluntary and social driving

many other issues have all been the target of education can influence behaviour

by increasing

awareness change.

of a problem, of these for

the actions that can be taken to reduce the problem, they also rely on moral suasion transportation will require Achieving several reasons: The unsustainability Public education,can environmental decisions and personal of current transportation sustainable

and the costs and benefits to encourage sustained public education

trends is not well understood. understanding of the with transportation infrastructure

build a better and more widespread and costs associated behaviour.

impacts

Current significant

patterns

of transportation,

particularly Behavioural

our heavy reliance

on the

automobile,

are deeply ingrained.

change will not come without

changes in our way of thinking. for some of the tougher regarding action. a wide range of policy instruments codes of practice, suitable for include driver vehicle information policy instruments that will be needed can provide is

Public support support Education encouraging fuel efficiency training

weak. Public education for political

the benefits

of tough measures

encompasses different labelling,

types of behavioural environmental

change. Policy instruments incorporating

about sustainable

transportation

into school curricula,

media campaigns,

and highway signs.

Transportation
Altering and business and land-use will, therefore, Decisions traffic control

and Land-Use Planning

demand Planning will require practices significant changes in our lifestyles a new transportation and land use approvals, sustainability. These changes can only occur within to achieving long-term investments,

transportation operations. infrastructure. be important

related to transportation transportation urban development

related to public infrastructure and other planning

issues will be affected.

Technology Development
There are two schools of thought development. regulatory One position instruments stringent to mandate regarding governments role in technology that a is that governments standards. Another should focus strictly on using position sees government playing

the private sector to develop new technologies If government

meet increasingly

more active role in encouraging role, it can act in several ways: Offer tax incentives, Participate hydrogen per gallon. Conduct in-house

new technologies.

is to play an active

grants and other financial-incentives programs,

for private sector research. such as the Ballard Fuel system using a of rating of 80 miles for a New Generation

in joint research and demonstration in Canada, aimed at developing a mid-sized fuel cell to produce electricity;or

Cell program

a vehicle propulsion

the U.S. Program

Vehicles, aimed at developing

car with a fuel economy

research through

government

agencies and institutes. The question is whether by the in in

Governments warnings Canada

are already using all three policy approaches. In fact; if the threats to the human Panel on Climate

their use should be expanded.

species implied priorities reductions

of the Intergovernmental

Change are taken seriously, to absolute

may be well advised to reconsider

its research and development

favour of a major shift in focus to R&D that can contribute fossil fuel use in transportation.

Namal Round Table the on Enmnmentond the Emmy

Suiimoble iianspo.to,ion r Canado ~ Bockgrounder

Integrated Policy: The European Approach

The OECD study Urban Travel and Sustainable Development an integrated integrated approach environmental approach to policy instruments (Exhibit strategies were not only necessary by the European offers an example economic, integrated of Transport. of that 3.3).63 This study concluded

but that their benefits Conference

and social -

will greatly outweigh

their costs. The proposed of Ministers

has been approved

Integrated Approaches to Sustainable An OECD Example for Urban Travel

The OECD integrated policy approach contains of current

Transportation:

three main strands: land-use planning and traffic cities. for car

Best Practice: raise the effectiveness

management measures

. .. to the level of those in the best managed demand

Policy Innovations: develop new policies aimed at bringing

travel into balance with road capacity. repeated annual

SustainableDev$opment: introduce
fuel taxation environmentally All three strands improve development. environmental estimated to promote friendly

increases

in motor

more economical modes.

vehicles, shorter

and fewer car

trips, a shift in travel away from solo driving

and greater use of

of the policy package are necessary for those without

to reduce car travel . . . to urban the economic, currently Product. Best

accessibility

cars and to achieve sustainable

Together they could reduce substantially to about 5 percent be pursued starting

and social costs-of travel in CECD countries,

to be equivalent

of Gross Domestic immediately.

All three strandsshould

Applying

Practices would have its major impact in the period to the year 2000. The Policy Innovations strand is projected to be in place and effective by the year
2015. The effect of the first two strands

would be to slow but not stop the and other impacts combined of transportation.

growth in transport

energy consumption

Only the SustainableDevelopment strand, lowers urban emissions car travel generally to meet the IPCC [Intergovernmental reduction

with the other policies, CO, Change]

and reduces overall car travel, allowing Panel on Climate in CO, emission levels] by

target value [of a 60 to 80 percent about 2030.

Source: Organization for Economic Development (Paris, 1995), Chapter

Cooperation 8.

and Development,

Urban Travel and Sustainable

A Coordinated
developing

Approach:

A Role for Everyone

will likely be involved A coordinated in approach for

All levels of government and implementing selection, to the assessment, several reasons. First, coordination jurisdictional

and other stakeholders design and implementation

packages of policy instruments.

of the packages is essential with

is required

to create effective packages consistent has different in different

responsibilities.

Each level of government

policy instruments Avoiding is adopted. Under

available to it and is constrained Second, coordination duplication will be particularly

ways in how it applies the instruments. of policy instruments. users through

can avoid duplication important

if a full costing approach should

full costing, the total costs paid by transportation fees, user fees, fuel taxes and other payments external costs. Third, coordinated instruments. public transit investments individual instead

vehicle registration private and policy

equal the full public, of synergies

packages will allow exploitation an increase

among

For example,

infuel prices may cause some people to use a fuel tax increase with effects of may have a much greater effect. some of the undesirable the following: consider

of private vehicles. However, coupling public transit As examples, packages will counter

in more attractive policy instruments.

Finally, coordinated

Policy instruments consumption stringent maintain

that mandate

increases

in fuel efficiency will decrease fuel However, lower fuel costs could mean of fuel efficiency. More with higher fuel taxes to

per vehicle-kilometre standards

travelled.

people travel more, thereby offsetting fuel efficiency a constant or increasing

some of the benefits

could be combined

fuel cost per vehicle-kilometre. will lower travel time and cost, thereby road pricing might offset roads.

Policy instruments encouraging any tendency

that decrease congestion

more travel. Higher parking

prices and/or

for more travel on less congested

A Phased Approach: Sustainable Future

Given the magnitude transportation gradually immediate situation. instruments

Do What We Can Now and Prepare for a

of the change involved, a sustainable to urban will

and complexity

system will evolve only over several decades or more. Changes now on the horizon Nonetheless, technological standards.

forms and lifestyles will occur slowly. Some technologies emerge as new practicable reforms that can improve long-run Furthermore, implemented points or avoid further

there are

deterioration

of the current by policy

changes will only occur if pushed actions include: of current

in the short run. for short-run

Logical starting Providing

education

on the unsustainability

transportation

practices,

the consequences sustainability, on reducing behaviours.

of not taking action, the actions to take to encourage of those actions placing the emphasis by encouraging changes in public values and

and the costs and benefits fossil fuel consumption

National Round Table :he on Environman, tk Ecmny ord

Sustoimble Tmiporto~ion m Ccnoda- Backgrounder

Implementing

reforms

in regions most affected by unsustainable zones). into todays infrastructure that will determine

transportation

(air quality non-attainment Incorporating patterns

targets for sustainability planning

investment, transportation demand

land-

use and transportation alternatives are available

decisions

for many years to come. Governments modes. standards available

must ensure that accessible shifts

as public values change and transportation

away from energy intensive Implementation and fuel efficiency

of more stringent opportunities

to fully exploit the emissions

control

now. improvements and alternative fuel

Raising fuel prices to encourage technologies, mode shifting be effective in the 1970s. Focusing, as a national priority,

fuel efficiency

and reduced vehicle use, a policy instrument

shown to

on research and development

that builds on

Canadas particular from transportation.

strengths

and is aimed at reducing

fossil fuel consumption

Footnotes
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Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives,

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U.K. Royal Commission Environment Organization Ministers (October

for Economic

of Transport,

Urban Travel and Sustainable Development

(Paris, 1995), p. 25.

SGA Consulting,

An Analysis of Comprehensive

Action Plans Received under the Canadian Canada, November 1995).

Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (Ottawa: Environment Pembina Institute,

Canadas Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program: An Independent Valley, Alta., November 1995). Action Plans Received under the Canadian Canada, November

Review (Drayton SGA Consulting, 1995), p. 2. Ontario Ministry

An Analysis of Comprehensive

Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (Ottawa: Environment

of Environment

and Energy, Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change, A Gas Emissions, report prepared and Council of Energy Ministers of the Environment

Status Report on Initiatives in Ontario to Reduce Greenhouse for the Canadian, Council of Ministers (Toronto, November 20, 1995), p. 32.

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1993. A Status Report on Initiatives for the Canadian 1995. D.C.: National Academy Press, Council in Ontario to of Ministers

Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change of the Environment Policy Implications 1991. and Council
of Greenhouse

Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Report prepared

of Energy Ministers. Warming. Washington,

Nokmal Round Table ihs on Env~ranmentandthe Economy

S"itolnoale iansporlotlo" ir Canada-Backgrounder

bbendix C

m -Making Principles
This appendix following agencies; Round Table on the Environment Association of Canada and the Economy contains principles of sustainable transportation suggested by the

National

Transportation Transport International

Canada Council for Local Environmental Program on Climate Initiatives Change

Canadas National Canadian Urban

Action Institute

National Round Table on the Environment

and the Economy

At the request of the federal Minister of the Environment, the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (NRTEE) initiated a consultative process to develop a draft set of sustainable the March Vancouver. following 1996 OECD conference, These draft principles, page. transportation as amended principles. They were presented held in on the are presented at Towards Sustainable Transportation,

at that meeting,

Sustainable Transportation

Principles

Transportation Association of Canada

Decision-Making
Plan for increased Promote Increase Provide walking

Principles
densities and more mixed land use. mode of person trips. mode of travel. its attractiveness relative to the

as the preferred

opportunities higher quality

for cycling as an optional transit

service to increase

private automobile. Create an environment Plan parking priorities. Improve Promote Promote the efficiency inter-modal of the urban and interline that goods distribution connections. improve urban mobility and help protect the systems. supply in which automobiles can play a more balanced with walking, cycling role. and transit

and price to be in balance

new technologies

environment. Optimize Design the use of existing and operate transportation systems to move people and goods. that can be used by the physically

transportation

systems

challenged. Ensure that urban transportation decisions protect and enhance systems. the environment.

Create better ways to pay for future transportation

Source:-Transportation Association of Canada,

A New Vision for Urban Transportation, March 1993.

Transport Canada
A discussion environmental sustainable paper from Transport considerations development. Canada staff suggests principles as a starting for integrating into decision making point for building

Decision-Making

Principles
integrity. manufactured and social capital.

Respect for ecological Efficient Promoting Committing Environmental use of natural,

equity in terms of access to service, now and in the future. to participatory stewardship approaches. by all decision makers.
Sustainable Transportation -A

Source: D. Bell, R. Delaney Framework (Ottawa:

and R. Lewis, A Propkalfor Canada, 1966).

National

Transport

Nat\ona! Round bble on .he Enwonmentand Econcmy tre

Susla,nabie Traniporv~~an m Canodo-Bockgrounder

International
The International to municipalities could be adapted transportation

Council for Local Environmental

Council for Local Environmental Initiatives entitled Saving the Climate toward sustainability. its jurisdiction.

Initiartive$
(ICLEI), in its guide with modification, of sustainable

Saving the Cities, suggests six principles These principles,

to guide local authorities

by any level of government

in the development

policies within

Decision-Making
be environmentally movement unsustainable. structure

Principles for local Authorities

Sustainable sustainable. (transportation) The current impacts requires that economic activity goods dependency of aviation implications on cars, intercity are environmentally for the long term

Ecological integrity -

by truck and the growing of key sectors of Canadian

This has, of course, profound

and global industry. anticipate authorities and prevent needs to replace urban

Emphasis on prevention react and cure in guiding growth, transportation, Reduction ofpoverty -

The principle government

to better manage

energy systems and waste. Sustainable transportation requires that all peoples needs flawed.

be met. Wealth that governments

at any level help to create that is not distributed is fundamentally

to meet these needs means that the development Equity among generations manner needs. Authorities way that minimizes, consume and social groups this principle

Peoples needs should be met in a to meet their economic growth in a by managing

that does not diminish can implement

the ability of future generations

on a per capita basis, the life cycle energy that citizens

for transportation. approach Lack of scientific consensus certainty should not be a reason for and economic of current at all levels. through cost of damage. Given

Precautionary delaying

an action

to prevent

social, environmental impacts

the great risks involved, transportation to compel

enough

exists today on the serious negative trends in

social, health, climate change and economic

action from governments

Polluters should pay their transportation their pollution. to implement

Those who pollute decisions

and degrade the environment measures,

should bear the full social and environmental

Authorities this principle.

Council

can turn to economic

such as taxes and fees,

Source: International the Cities, 19%.

for Local Environmental

Initiatives,

Saving the Climate -

Saving

National

Chafe

Chunge Action Program

Action Program government includes principle. on Climate in meeting Change (1995) sets out principles under the United to its commitments

Canadas National be used by the Canadian Nations Framework

Convention

on Climate

Change. Readers should note that the with the ICLEIs principles, do not mention the principles

NAPCCs list of principles namely, the precautionary modifying behaviours.

only one in common In addition,

Decision-Making
Precautionary to postpone reasons.

Principles
lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for other actions which are cost effective or justified

principle mitigative

Shared responsibility Effectiveness Competitiveness competitiveness. measures -

with all sectors of society. that clearly reduce greenhouse which do not compromise gas emissions. Canadas international

measures

Transparency and accountability Flexibility International

establish

who is to be accountable.

to change with experience co-operation -

and technology.

as part of a global effort. to reduce Canadas net greenhouse gas emissions for

Strategic directions 2000 and beyond.

working

Canaciiarn Urban Insfitufe

The Canadian decision-making There is significant as interesting comfort, convenience Urban principles, differences. Institutes Cities Without Cars study outlines the principles of travel principles principles proposed correspond two sets of and Vanco,uver). principles one from each of its study teams (Toronto For example, the first three principles have a stronger have a stronger

overlap between and efficiency

by the two teams, as well for Toronto to Vancouvers focus on travel focus on equity and

#3 and #11. However, the Toronto characteristics fairness. and the Vancouver

National Round Table tie on Env~ronmenr :he and Economy

Susiomable Tranipitation I" Canado - 3ackgrounoer

Decision-Making
Toronfo

Principles
cars should be at least as comfortable as travel in the

Travel in the GTA without GTA today.

Travel in the GTA without cars should be at least as convenie&as

travel in the GTA today.

The GTA without cars should [be] at least as eficient as the GTA today. Travel in the GTA without with cars. Travel in the GTA without region today. The process of reconfiguring the GTA must be gradual and fair and be such as to enhance it. access to green space cars should be at least as safe and secure as travel in the cars should have less impact on the environment than travel

the social fabric of the GTA rather than diminish Residents within Vancouver
Lifestyle Principles

of the GTA without

cars will have at least as much as residents of the region today.

the region and outside,

Minimize

impacts

upon

auto users and auto dependent lifestyle. of the benefits

services

when

changing

from auto dependency Promote understanding

to an auto-free and knowledge

of an auto-free

city to ensure

that any perceived Ensure

or real changes to lifestyles are supported convenience, and efficiency

by those affected. to, or exceeds,

that comfort,

of travel is similar

existing levels of user experience.

onomic Principles

Fully account auto-free Ensure city.

the true costs of auto use against the costs associated

with building

an

that the full costs for building/operating

an auto-free

city are substantially

less than the costs of an auto city.

Environmental Principles

Re-orient Minimize

auto-dependent detrimental

resource impact

industries

in an orderly and equitable activities.

fashion.

upon auto-dependent

Ensure that the auto-free benefits. Ensure that any

city displays improved

air quality and other environmental

development sustainable.

associated

with

an

auto-free

-option

must

be

environmentally

Social

Principles

Promote Ensure

an equitable that comfort,

system of moving convenience,

goods and people in the auto-free are similar

city,

and efficiency

to, or exceed, existing

levels of user experience. Recognize increased city. personal and public safety as a major real and perceived benefit

of an auto-free

Need for political Need to address regional Need level. structural

will and massive public support all of the issues relating

to move to an auto-free to a city without

city. cars at a

to converting

changes

and

associated

municipal

changes

to respond

to all

requirements.
Source: Canadian Urban Institute, Cities Without Curs (Toronto, 1994).