Introduction To Signals Chapter Review

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EE 23353
Analog Communications
Chapter 2: Introduction To Signals
Dr. Rami A. Wahsheh
Communications Engineering Department
Ch. 2: Introduction To Signals
Review of signals and linear systems: Chapters 2&3
2.1Size of a signal. g
2.2Classification of signals.
2.3Some useful signal operations
2.4Unit impulse function.
2.5Signals and vectors.
2
g
2.6Signal comparison: correlation.
2.7Signal representation by orthogonal signal set.
2.8Trigonometric Fourier series.
2.9Exponential Fourier series.
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Definitions
Signal: is a single-valued function of time, which
means that to each assigned instant of time (the means that to each assigned instant of time (the
independent variable) there is one unique value of
the function (the dependent variable). This value
may be a real number, in which case we have real-
valued signal, or it may be complex, and then we
can speak of a complex-valued signal. In either
case the independent variable (time) is real-valued
3
case the independent variable (time) is real valued.
Definitions
System: is an entity that processes a set of signals
(inputs) to yield another set of signals (outputs) (inputs) to yield another set of signals (outputs).
System Signal Response
4
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2.1 Size of a Signal
How can a signal that exists over a certain time
and interval with varying amplitude be measured by and interval with varying amplitude be measured by
one number that will indicate the signal size or
strength?
Signal Energy: the area under the signal |g(t)|
2
,
g(t) is a complex valued signal.
5
A necessary condition for the energy to be finite is
that the signal amplitude goes to zero as |t| goes
to . Otherwise the integral will not converge.
Signal Power: if the amplitude of g(t) does not go
to zero as |t| goes to then the signal energy is to zero as |t| goes to , then the signal energy is
infinite.
The measure of the signal size in such a case would
be: the time average of the energy (if it exists:
periodic or has a statistical regularity), which is
the average power P
g
(i.e., the mean of the signal)
.
6
The root mean square (rms) value of g(t) is the
square root of P
g
.
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7
Units of Energy and Power
Depend on the nature of the signal g(t).
f ( ) l l If g(t) is a voltage signal
The energy has units of volts squared seconds
The power has units of volts squared.
8
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Example 2.1 Page 17
Determine the suitable measures of the following
signal: signal:
9
Example 2.1 Page 17
signal: signal:
10
Solution: g(t) = 2e
-t/2
as |t| goes to g(t) goes to 0
8 4 4 ) ( 4 4 )
1
1
( 4 4 2 2 ) (
0
0
0
1 0
2
2 / 2
2
= + = =
+ = + = =

} } }
e e e dt e dt dt t g E
t t
g
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Example 2.1 Page 17
signal: signal:
11
Example 2.1 Page 17
signal: signal:
Solution: g(t) is periodic as |t| goes to g(t) does
t t 0 th f th i t f thi
12
not go to 0 therefore the power exists for this
periodic signal. Averaging it over one period
3
1
3
1
)
3
1
3
1
(
2
1
3 2
1
2
1
) (
1
1
1
3 1
1
2
2 /
2 /
2
= =
= + = = = =

} }
g
T
T
g
P rms
t
dt t dt t g
T
P
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Example 2.2 Page 18
Determine the power and the rms value of:
t j
o
o
De t g c
where t C t C t g b
t C t g a
e
e e u e u e
u e
=
= + + + =
+ =
) ( )
) cos( ) cos( ) ( )
) cos( ) ( )
2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
13
Example 2.2 Page 18
+ = ) cos( ) (
o
S l ti
t C t g u e
} }

+ = =
H
= =
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 2
2 /
2 /
2
) ( cos
1
lim ) (
1
lim
2
T
T
T
o
T
T
T
T
g
o
o
dt t C
T
dt t g
T
P
Signal Periodic T Period
Solution
u e
e
14
| |
} }
}

+ + =
+ + =
2 /
2 /
2 2 /
2 /
2
2 /
2 /
2
) 2 2 cos(
2
lim
2
lim
) 2 2 cos( 1
2
1
lim
T
T
o
T
T
T
T
g
T
T
o
T
g
dt t
T
C
dt
T
C
P
dt t
C
T
P
u e
u e
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Example 2.2 Page 18
0
2
) 2 2 cos(
2
lim
2
lim
2
2
2 /
2 /
2 2 /
2 /
2
C
P
T as
C
P
dt t
T
C
dt
T
C
P
g
T
T
o
T
T
T
T
g
+ =
+ + =
} }

u e
Cancellation of +ve and ve
areas of Sinusoid
15
2
2
C
rms
P
g
=
=
Example 2.2 Page 18
h t C t C t ) ( ) ( ) ( u u
| |
dt t C dt t C P
dt t C t C
T
P
Solution
where t C t C t g
T T
T
T
T
g
} }
}

+ + + =
+ + + =
= + + + =
2 /
2 2
2 /
2 2
2 /
2 /
2
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
) ( cos
1
lim ) ( cos
1
lim
) cos( ) cos(
1
lim
) cos( ) cos( ) (
u e u e
u e u e
e e u e u e
16
dt t t C C
T
dt t C
T
dt t C
T
P
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
g
}
} }

+ + +
+ + + =
2 /
2 /
2 2 1 1 2 1
2 /
2 2 2
2 /
1 1 1
cos( ) cos( 2
1
lim
) ( cos lim ) ( cos lim
u e u e
u e u e
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Example 2.2 Page 18
) ( cos
1
lim ) ( cos
1
lim
2 /
2 2
2 2
2
2 /
1 1
2 2
1
dt t C
T
dt t C
T
P
T
T
T
T
g
+ + + =
} }

u e u e
0
2 2
cos( ) cos( 2
1
lim
2 2
2
2
2
1
2 /
2 /
2 2 1 1 2 1
2 / 2 /
T as
C C
P
dt t t C C
T
T T
g
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
+ + =
+ + +
}
} }

u e u e
Cancellation of +ve and ve
areas of Sinusoid
17
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
C C
rms
C C
P
g
+
=
+
=
Example 2.2 Page 18
t j
o
De t g
e
= ) (
The signal is complex.
D P
D dt D
T
dt De
T
P
T
o
T
t j
o
g
o o
o
= = =
} }
2
0
2
0
2
1 1
e
18
D P rms
g
= =
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2.2 Classification of Signals
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Analog and digital signals
3. Periodic and aperiodic signals
4. Energy and power signals
5 Deterministic and probabilistic (random) signals
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5. Deterministic and probabilistic (random) signals
6. Causal vs. Non-causal Signals
1. Continuous-Time and Discrete-
Time Signals
Qualify the nature of a signal along the time axis.
A Continuous time signal: is specified for every
value of time t. Example: a telephone or video
camera
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A discrete time signal: is specified only at
discrete values of t. Example: monthly sales of a
company.
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2. Analog and Digital Signals
An analog signal:
1. Is a continuous function of time with continuous
amplitude.
2. Its amplitude can take an infinite number of
values.
A digital signal:
1 Is a discrete function of time and amplitude
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1. Is a discrete function of time and amplitude
(i.e., the amplitude can only have a finite set of
values).
2. Its amplitude can take a finite number of
values.
Analog and Digital Signals
22
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3. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Periodic Signal: if it satisfies the following equation
t all for T t g t g
o
) ( ) ( + =
Where T
o
is the period of g(t). The signal must
start at - and continue forever.
23
Aperiodic Signal: if it is not periodic.
4. Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal: if it has a finite energy. (zero
power) power)
< =
}

dt t g t g
2
) ( ) (
Power Signal: if it has a finite and nonzero power.
(infinite energy)
< <
}
2 /
2
) ( lim 0
T
T
dt t g
24
}

2 / T
T
A signal can not both be an energy and a power
signal. If it is one it can not be the other.
There are signals that are neither energy nor
power signals. The ramp signal is such an example.
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5. Deterministic and Random
Signals
A deterministic signal: can be modeled as a
completely specified function of time In other completely specified function of time. In other
words, there is no uncertainty about its value at
any time. For example, the sinusoid signal
Acos(2f
c
t+) is deterministic if A, f
c
and are
known constants.
25
A random (or stochastic) signal: cannot be
completely specified as a function of time.
5. Deterministic and Random
Signals
Deterministic signal: is a signal whose physical
description (i.e., mathematical or graphical
form) is known completely form) is known completely.
Random signal: is when the signal is known only
in terms of probabilistic description, such as
Distribution
Mean value (i.e., the average or expected
l )
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value)
Squared mean value (i.e., the expected
value of the squared error)
Standard deviation (i.e., the square root
of the variance)
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6. Causal vs. Non-causal Signals
A causal signal is zero for t < 0 and a non-
causal signal is zero for t > 0 or
27
Causal Signal Non-causal Signal
2.3 Some Useful Signal
Operations
Time Shifting
T l Time Scaling
Time Inversion
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Operations
Time Shifting:
( T) g(t-T) represents
g(t) time-shifted by
T seconds.
If T is +ve, the
shift is to the right
(delay)
) (t g
) ( T t g
29
(delay).
If T is ve, the
shift is to the left
(advance).
) ( T t g +
Operations
Time Scaling:
Th The compression or
expansion of a signal
in time.
g(2t) represents a
signal that is
compressed in time
Compression
30
compressed in time
by a factor of 2.
Therefore, whatever
happens in g(t) at t
also happens at time
t/2 for (t)
Expansion
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Operations
Time Inversion:
l f Is a special case of time
scaling with a=-1.
(t)=g(-t): Mirror image
of g(t) about the vertical
axis.
N M f
31
Note: Mirror image of
g(t) about the horizontal
axis is g(t).
2.3 Example Page 26
Sketch g(3t) for the signal that is shown in a.
g(t): the value of
t at 6,12,15,24
32
g(3t): is g(t) compressed
by 3. Therefore,
t at 2,4,5,8
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Homework #1
Solve the following problems: Due to one week
from today
2.1-1
2.1-5
2.1-8
2.2-1
33
2.3-1
2.3-2
2.3-3
2.4 Example Page 27
For the signal g(t) shown below, sketch g(-t):Time
Inversion Inversion
-1&-5 in g(t) are
mapped into 1&5 in
g(-t).
34
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2.4Unit Impulse Function
One can visualize a unit impulse as a tall, narrow
rectangular pulse of unit area
) (t o
rectangular pulse of unit area.
A unit impulse is regarded as a rectangular pulse
with a width that is very small, and a height that
is very large
}
=
= =
1 ) (
0 0 ) (
dt t
t t
o
o
35
}

= 1 ) ( dt t o
Multiplication of a Function by an
Impulse
Impulse only exists at t=0
) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( t t t o | o | =
Impulse only exists at t 0
That is why the function
only exists at t=0
) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( t t t o | o | =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( T t T T t t = o | o |
36
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Sampling Property of the Unit
Impulse Function
) 0 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( | o | o | = =
} }

dt t dt t t
This means the area under the product of a
function with an impulse (t) is equal to the value of
that function at the instant where the unit impulse
is located.
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( | | |
} }

}
37
This property is known as the sampling or sifting
property of the unit impulse function.
) ( ) ( ) ( T dt T t t | o | =
}

Unit Step Function u(t)
0 0
0 1
) (
t
t
t u
<
>
=
) (
) (
0 0
t
dt
t du
t
o =
<
If one wants a signal to start at t=0, then
multiply the signal by u(t).
38
e
-at
starts at t=-.
To make it start at t=0,
just multiply it by u(t).
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2.5 Signals and Vectors
Analogy between Signals and Vectors
A vector can be represented as a sum of its p
components in a variety of ways.
A Signal can also be represented as a sum of its
components in a variety of ways.
Component of a vector:
Specified by its magnitude and its direction
39
Specified by its magnitude and its direction.
All vectors are denoted by boldface type.
Component of a Vector
Example:
Vector x of magnitude |x| and Vector g of g g
magnitude |g|
Let the component of g along x be cx
Geometrically this component is the projection of g
on x
The component can be obtained by drawing a
40
The component can be obtained by drawing a
perpendicular from the tip of g on x and expressed
in terms of x as: g = cx + e
e is the error vector.
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Other ways to express g in terms of x:
g=c
1
x+e
1
=c
2
x+e
2
41
The dot (inner or scalar) product of two vectors g
and x is defined as: and x is defined as:
g.x=|g| |x| cos
Where is the angle between vectors g and x.
The length of the vector x is |x| where:
|x|
2
=x x
42
|x| x.x
The length of the component g along x is:
c|x| = |g| cos
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Multiplying both sides by |x| yields
| |
2
| | | | c|x|
2
=|g| |x| cos= g.x
c= (g.x)/(x.x) = (1/|x|
2
) g.x
If g.x = 0 then
1.g and x are perpendicular (orthogonal)
2 h l d 0
43
2.g has a zero component along x and c=0
Component of a Signal
Approximating a real signal g(t) in terms of
another real signal x(t) over an interval [t
1
t
2
] another real signal x(t) over an interval [t
1
,t
2
]
The error e(t) in the approximation is given by:
44
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Energy is one possible measure of a signal size.
To minimize the error signal we need to minimize g
its size (its energy E
e
over the interval [t
1
,t
2
]
45
E
e
is minimum for some choice of c (not t)
46
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1.Remarkable similarity
between the behavior of
vectors and signals The vectors and signals. The
area under the product of
two signals corresponds to
the inner product of two
vectors.
2.The energy of the signal is
47
gy g
the inner product of a signal
with itself, and corresponds
to the vector length squared
(which is the inner product
of the vector with itself).
d
t
}
2
) ( ) (
1
cx(t) is the projection of g(t) on x(t)
If c = 0, then g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal over
the interval [t1 t2]
dt t x t g
E
c
t x
}
=
1
) ( ) (
48
the interval [t1,t2]
0 ) ( ) (
2
1
=
}
dt t x t g
t
t
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Example 2.5 Page 33
Find the component of g(t) of the form of sin (t) so
that the energy of the error signal is minimum.
Where: Where:
t 2 0 sin ) ( s s ~ t t c t g
49
Example 2.5 Page 33
t t x
t
sin ) (
2
2 2
2
t
=
} }
tdt t g dt t x t g
E
c
dt t dt t x E
o
t
t x
t
x
sin ) (
1
) ( ) (
1
) ( sin ) (
2
2
0
2 2
2
1
1
t
t
t
(
= =
= = =
} }
} }
50
t t g
tdt tdt c
sin
4
) (
4
sin sin
1
0
2
t
t t
t t
t
~
=
(
+ =
} }
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Orthogonality in Complex Signals
For complex functions of t over an interval [t
1
,t
2
]
t e t cx t g ) ( ) ( ) ( + =
dt t x E
t cx t g
t e t cx t g
t
t
x
2
2
1
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
}
=
~
51
dt t cx t g E
t cx t g t e
t
t
e
2
2
1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
}
=
=
( )( ) uv v u v u v u v u v u
2 2 2
- - - -
+ + = + + = +
Recall that:
dt t t E
dt t x t g
E
dt t g E
t
t
t x
t
t
e
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
1
) (
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
-
-
}
} }
=
Independent
of c
To minimize
E
e
, the 3
rd
52
dt t x t g
E
c Therefore
dt t x t g
E
E c
t
t x
t x
x
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
2
1
1
-
-
}
}
=
+
e
,
term should
be zero
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Two complex functions x
1
(t) and x
2
(t) are orthogonal
over an interval [t
1
,t
2
], if
0 ) ( ) ( 0 ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
1
= =
} }
- -
dt t x t x or dt t x t x
t
t
t
t
When the two functions are real, then
0 ) ( ) (
2
}
d
t
53
0 ) ( ) (
0 ) ( ) (
2
1
1
2 1
=
=
}
}
dt t x t g
dt t x t x
t
t
t
Energy of the Sum of
Orthogonal Signals
Sum of two orthogonal vectors (x and y) is equal to
the sum of the lengths squared of the two vectors.
If z=x+y then If z=x+y then
2 2 2
y x z + =
The energy of the sum of two orthogonal signals is
equal to the sum of the energies of the two signals.
54
If x(t) and y(t) are orthogonal over an interval [t
1
,t
2
]
and z(t)=x(t)+y(t), then
y x z
E E E + =
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2.6 Signal Comparison:
Correlation
Two vectors g and x are similar if g has a large
l component along x.
This means that c= (g.x)/(x.x) = (1/|x|
2
) g.x is large, then
the two vectors g and x are similar.
Is c a quantitative measure of the similarity?
Such a measure would be defective The amount of
55
Such a measure would be defective. The amount of
similarity should be independent of the lengths of g and
x.
Signal Comparison: Correlation
Doubling the length of g should not change the
similarity between g and x:
Doubling g doubles the value of c
Doubling x halves the value of c
Then c is a faulty measure of the similarity
Similarity between two vectors is indicated by the
56
angle between the vectors.
A suitable measure would be:
x g
x g
c
n
.
cos = = u
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x g
x g
c
n
.
cos = = u
The larger the cos, larger is the similarity.
c
n
is independent of the lengths of g and x.
c
n
is called Correlation Coefficient.
The magnitude of c
n
is never greater than unity
If 1 th th t t li d
x g
1 1 > s
n
c
57
If c
n
=1 then, the two vectors are aligned
If c
n
=-1 then, the two vectors are aligned in opposite
direction
If c
n
=0 then, the two vectors are orthogonal
Consider signals over the entire time interval - to
To make c independent of the energies of g(t) and x(t), p g g
all what we need to do is to normalize the two signals to
have unit energies.
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
1 1 s s
n
c
58
Correlation between two signals is a measure of the
degree of similarity between the two signals
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Example 2.6 Page 37
Find the correlation coefficient c
n
between the pulse x(t)
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
59
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
5 5 1
}
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
60
5 ) (
5 ) (
5
0
5
0
2
1
5
0
5
0
2
= = =
= = =
} }
} }
dt dt t g E
dt dt t x E
g
x
1 . 1
5 . 5
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
1
= =
=
}
}

dt c
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
Maximum
Similarity
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31
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
61
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
5 5 1
}
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
62
25 . 1 ) 5 . 0 ( ) (
5 ) (
5
0
2
5
0
2
2
5
0
5
0
2
= = =
= = =
} }
} }
dt dt t g E
dt dt t x E
g
x
1 ) 5 . 0 (
5 ). 25 . 1 (
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
2
= =
=
}
}

dt c
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
Maximum
Similarity
c is independent of the
amplitude of signals
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Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
63
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
5 5 1
}
64
Maximum
Dissimilarity
g(t) = -x(t)
5 ) (
5 ) (
5
0
5
0
2
3
5
0
5
0
2
= = =
= = =
} }
} }
dt dt t g E
dt dt t x E
g
x
1 ) 1 (
5 . 5
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
3
= =
=
}
}

dt c
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
6/11/2012
33
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
65
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
5 ) (
5 5
2
= = =
} }
dt dt t x E
1

66
1617 . 2 ) 1 (
2
5
2
5
) (
5 ) (
2
5
0
5
2 5
0
5
2 5
0
2
5
4
0 0
= =
= = =
= = =
} }
} }
e
e dt e dt e E
dt dt t x E
t t t
g
x
961 . 0
) 1617 . 2 ( 5
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
5
4
= =
=
}
}

dt e c
dt t x t g
E E
c
t
x g
n
6/11/2012
34
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
67
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
5 ) (
5 5
2
} }
dt dt t E
1

68
5 . 0 ) 1 (
2
1
2
1
) (
5 ) (
10
5
0
2
5
0
2
5
0
2
5
0 0
2
= =
= = =
= = =

} }
} }
e
e dt e dt e E
dt dt t x E
t t t
g
x
628 . 0
) 5 . 0 ( 5
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
5
= =
=
}
}

dt e c
dt t x t g
E E
c
t
x g
n
6/11/2012
35
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
69
Example 2.6 Page 37
n
and the pulses g
i
(t), i=1,2,3,4,5 and 6
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
}

= ) ( ) (
1
1

70
5 . 2 2 sin
5 ) (
5
0
2
6
5
0
5
0
2
= =
= = =
}
} }
dt t E
dt dt t x E
g
x
t
0 2 sin
) 5 . 2 ( 5
1
) ( ) (
1
5
0
6
= =
=
}
}

dt t c
dt t x t g
E E
c
x g
n
t
g
6
(t) is orthogonal to x(t)
6/11/2012
36
Orthogonal Signal Space
Orthogonality of a signal set x
1
(t), x
2
(t), , x
N
(t) over the
interval [t
1
, t
2
] as,
If the energies E
n
=1 for all n, then the set is normalized
and is called an orthonormal set
71
and is called an orthonormal set.
72
6/11/2012
37
73
Trigonometric Fourier Series
Consider a signal set:
{ } ,.... sin .... 2 sin , sin ,.... cos ........ 2 cos , cos , 1 t nw t w t w t nw t w t w
o o o o o o
A sinusoid function with frequency n
o
is called the
nth harmonic of the sinusoid of frequency
o
when n is
an integer.
A sinusoid of frequency
o
is called the fundamental
This set is orthogonal over any interval of duration
74
This set is orthogonal over any interval of duration
T
o
=2/
o
because:
6/11/2012
38
And
The trigonometric set is a complete set. Each signal g(t)
can be described by a trigonometric Fourier series over
any interval To :
75
any interval To :
We determine the Fourier coefficients a
0
, a
n
, and b
n
:
76
6/11/2012
39
Compact Trigonometric Fourier
Series
The trigonometric Fourier series contains sine and cosine
terms of the same frequency. We can represents the
above equation in a single term of the same frequency
using the trigonometry identity
77
Series
The trigonometric Fourier series contains sine and cosine
terms of the same frequency. We can represents the
above equation in a single term of the same frequency
using the trigonometry identity
78
6/11/2012
40
Series
79
Webpage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fourier_Series.svg
80
6/11/2012
41
Webpage
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Pe
riodic_identity_function.gif
81
Example 2.7
82
6/11/2012
42
Example 2.7
83
? ?, ?,
0 n n
b a a
Example 2.7
84
6/11/2012
43
Example 2.7
Compact Fourier series is given by
85
Example 2.7
86
6/11/2012
44
Example 2.7
87
Periodicity of the
We now show that the trigonometric Fourier series is a
periodic function of period T
o
(The period of the
f d t l) fundamental).
88
6/11/2012
45
Periodicity of the
89
Fourier Spectrum
The compact trigonometric Fourier series
g(t) is expressed as a sum of sinusoids of
Frequencies: 0, w
o
, 2w
o
, , nw
o
,
Amplitudes: C
o
, C
1
, , C
n
,
90
p
o 1 n
Phases: 0,
1
,
2
, ,
n
,
C
n
vs. w (Amplitude Spectrum)
n
vs. w (Phase Spectrum)
The two plots together are the frequency spectra of g(t)
6/11/2012
46
Fourier Spectrum
A signal has a dual identity: the time domain identity
d th f d i id tit (F i t ) and the frequency domain identity (Fourier spectra).
The two identities complement each other. Taken
together, they provide a better understanding of a
signal.
91
Example 2.8
Find the compact Fourier series for the periodic
square wave w(t) shown in figure and sketch amplitude
d h t and phase spectrum.
Fourier series:
92
Fourier series:
6/11/2012
47
Example 2.8
93
Example 2.8
94
6/11/2012
48
Example 2.8
The series is already in compact form as there are no
sine terms. Except the alternating harmonics have
negative amplitudes.
95
g p
The negative sign can be accommodated by a phase of
radians as
Example 2.8
The series is already in compact form as there are no
sine terms. Except the alternating harmonics have
negative amplitudes.
96
g p
The negative sign can be accommodated by a phase of
radians as
6/11/2012
49
Example 2.8
97
Example 2.8
98
6/11/2012
50
Example 2.8
We could plot amplitude and phase spectra using these
values.
In this special case if we allow C
n
to take negative values
we do not need a phase of to account for sign.
Means all phases are zero, so only amplitude spectrum is
enough.
99
Example 2.8
Bipolar square wave w
o
(t): is basically w(t) minus its dc
component
100
6/11/2012
51
Example 2.8
Bipolar square wave w
o
(t): is basically w(t) minus its dc
component
101
Example 2.9
Find the trigonometric Fourier series and sketch the
corresponding spectra for the periodic impulse train
(t)
To
(t)
102
6/11/2012
52
Example 2.9
The trigonometric Fourier series for
To
(t)
? ?, ?,
0 n n
b a a
103
Example 2.9
The trigonometric Fourier series for
To
(t)
? ?, ?,
0 n n
b a a
104
6/11/2012
53
Example 2.9
105
Exponential Fourier Series
The set of exponentials
Orthogonal over any interval of duration T
o
=2/
o
Orthogonal over any interval of duration T
o
2/
o
A signal g(t) can be expressed over an interval of
duration T
o
seconds as an exponential Fourier series
106
6/11/2012
54
Each sinusoid of frequency can be expressed as the
sum of two exponentials e
jt
and e-
jt
(using Eulers
f l ) formula)
107
108
6/11/2012
55
Example 2.10
Find the exponential Fourier series for the following
signal
109
Example 2.10
110
6/11/2012
56
Example 2.10
111
Exponential Fourier Spectra
112
6/11/2012
57
113
From Example 2.10
114
6/11/2012
58
From Example 2.10
115
From Example 2.10
116
6/11/2012
59
1. The spectra exist for
positive as well as negative
l f (th f ) values of (the frequency).
2. The amplitude spectrum is
an even function of and
the angle spectrum is an odd
function of .
3 Th i l ti
117
3. There is a close connection
between these spectra and
the spectra of the
corresponding trigonometric
Fourier Series for (t).
118
6/11/2012
60
Example 2.11
Find the exponential Fourier series for the periodic
square wave (t) shown below:
119
Example 2.11
120
6/11/2012
61
Example 2.11
121
Example 2.12
Find the exponential Fourier series and sketch the
corresponding spectra for the impulse train
To
(t) shown
b l below:
122
6/11/2012
62
Example 2.12
123
Example 2.12
124
6/11/2012
63
Parsevals Theorem
A periodic signal g(t) is a power signal.
The power P
g
of g(t) is equal to the power of its The power P
g
of g(t) is equal to the power of its
Fourier series.
The power of the Fourier Series is equal to the sum of
the powers of its Fourier components.
For the trigonometric Fourier series
125
Parsevals Theorem
For the exponential Fourier series
126
6/11/2012
64
Homework #2
Solve the following problems: Due to one week
from today
2.3-4
2.4-1
2.4-2
2.6-1
127
2.8-4
Problem 2.5-2
128
6/11/2012
65
Problem 2.5-2
129
Problem 2.8-3
130
6/11/2012
66
Problem 2.8-3
131
Problem 2.8-3
132
6/11/2012
67
Problem 2.8-3
133

Introduction To Signals Chapter Review

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6/11/2012

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