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Non Destructive Testing Techniques

Introduction..............................................................................................................2 List of NDT techniques............................................................................................3 Radiography .............................................................................................................4 Ultrasonic Inspection...............................................................................................4 Manual Pulse-Echo Ultrasound .............................................................................5 TODF Ultrasound....................................................................................................6 Acoustic Emission Technology ...............................................................................7 Acousto-Ultrasonics.................................................................................................7 Dye Penetrant testing ..............................................................................................8 In-Situ Metallography .............................................................................................8 Electromagnetics......................................................................................................9 Fluorescent Particle testing...................................................................................10 Magnetic Particle Testing .....................................................................................10 Portable Hardness .................................................................................................11 Replication..............................................................................................................11 Metal etch ...............................................................................................................12 Blue Etch Anodizing ..............................................................................................12 Transient Thermography......................................................................................12

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Introduction
NDT (Non-destructive testing ) includes those test methods used to examine an object, material or system without impairing its future usefulness. Non-destructive testing methods or technology used by providers of non-destructive testing services include acoustic emission, beta gauge, eddy current or electromagnetic, magnetic (induction / Barkhausen), magnetic particle system, optical (shearography / holography / magneto optical), Penetrant testing systems, radiographic / X-ray imaging, ultrasonic, and other specialized techniques. Depending on the method and measurement requirements, non-destructive testing can be used off-line in laboratory environments as well as in continuous production line or field monitoring applications. Acoustic emission measures the specific acoustic or vibration response of flaws or features within a mechanical system. If a break, deformation or other failure occurs in a piece of equipment, sensitive acoustic emission sensors can detect the high frequency burst given off during the event. In a Beta gauge non-destructive testing, the absorption of Beta particles is used to measure the thickness of materials or coatings. Eddy current, penetrating radar and other electromagnetic techniques are used to detect or measure flaws, bond or weld integrity, thickness, electrical conductivity, detect the presence of rebar or metals. The eddy current method is the most widely applied electromagnetic NDT technique. Several different magnetic techniques are used in non destructive testing including Hall effect and induction. In a magnetic particle non-destructive testing system current flow or an external magnet magnetizes the part. Magnetic poles created at flaws, cracks or other discontinuities attract magnetic particles. Optical based non-destructive testing instruments using methods such as laser shearography, magneto-optical, holographic interferometry or other optical techniques to detect flaws, residual stress or measure thickness. In penetrant testing, penetrant is applied to the part by spray or immersion. The penetrant is pulled into surface flaws by capillary action. Radiographic or x-ray equipment uses penetrating X-rays or gamma rays to capture images of the internal structure or a part or finished product. The density and composition of the internal features will alter the intensity or density of these features in the X-ray image. Ultrasonic (UT) inspection techniques are used to detect surface and subsurface flaws or to measure thickness. Choices for form factor include bench or rack or cabinet, computer board, portable or handheld or mobile, and monitoring system. Beams of high frequency acoustic energy are

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introduced into the material and subsequently retrieved. Areas of application for non-destructive testing (NDT) services include aerial or crane, automotive, aviation or aerospace, coatings or platings, piping or pressure vessels, welding or fabrication, and structural or construction.

List of NDT techniques Radiography Compton Backscatter Gamma Ray Film Gamma Ray Real Time Neutron Neutron Backscatter X-Ray Film X-Ray Real-Time X-Ray Tomography Ultrasound Automated Pulse-Echo Chime C-Scan Imaging Lamb Waves Manual Pulse-Echo Pitch-Catch Remote Access Self Tandem Surface Waves Tandem Thickness Gauge TOFD Eddy Current AC Potential Drop Conventional Low Frequency Multi Sensor Coil Pulsed Remote Field Penetrant Inspection Automated Manual Thermography Passive Transient Visual Inspection Closed Circuit TV Endoscopy
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Unaided Magnetic Flux Leakage Particle Inspection Squid Flux Leakage Stress Measurement Acoustic Emission Crack Detection Impact Testing Leak Detection Optical Holography Interferometry Profilometry Shearography Triangulation Vibration Interferometry Radiography Radiography is the creation of radiographs, made by exposing a photographic film or plate to Xrays. Since X-rays penetrate solid objects, but are slightly attenuated by them, the picture resulting from the exposure reveals the internal structure of the object. The most common use of radiography is in the medical field (where it is known as medical imaging, but veterinarians and engineersalso use radiography. Radiography is a non-destructive method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by utilising the ability of electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength to penetrate various materials. The value of this ability lays in the fact the material to a degree dependent upon its composition and thickness absorbs penetrating radiation. Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of material. Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wave length less about 10 Angstromunits (10 to the power 10 m). The type of electromagnetic radiation of most interest to radiography is gamma radiation Tthis radiation is much more energetic than the more familiar types such as radio waves and visible light. It is this relatively high energy, which makes gamma rays useful in radiography and potential hazards in radiation protection They are produced by X-ray tubes, high energy X-ray equipment, and natural radioactive elements, such as Radium and Radon and artificially produced radioactive isotopes of elements, such as Cobalt192. Ultrasonic Inspection Ultrasonic methods of NDT use beams of sound waves (vibrations) of short wavelength and high frequency, transmitted from a probe and detected by the same or other probes. Usually, pulsed beams of ultrasound are used and in the simplest instruments a single probe, hand held, is placed on the specimen surface.

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An oscilloscope display with a time base shows the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse to travel to a reflector (a flaw, the back surface or other free surface) in terms of distance traveled across the oscilloscope screen. The height of the reflected pulse is related to the flaw size as seen from the transmitter probe. The relationship of flaw size, distance and reflectivity are complex, and a considerable skill is required to interpret the display. Complex mutiprobe systems are also used with mechanical probe movement and digitization of signals, followed by computer interpretation are developing rapidly. Manual Pulse-Echo Ultrasound In the pulse-echo method, a single ultrasonic probe is used to both excite a pulsed beam into the component, and to receive any reflected echoes. In the manual pulse-echo technique, the pulse-echo probe is connected to a flaw detector, which both generates the excitation pulse sent to the probe, and receives the signals detected by the probe, which are displayed as A-scan traces on a CRT (oscilloscope type) display. The display shows the ultrasonic signal amplitude as either a function of time, or range from the probe (after calibration for the probe delay and the velocity of ultrasound in the material). In the manual pulse-echo technique, the probe is moved by hand, and the display on the flaw detector continually updates to show the A-scan at the current probe position.

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With manual pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection, various standard steel blocks are used to calibrate the probe and the flaw detector. The blocks contain side-drilled holes or curved surfaces at precisely known ranges. With these blocks, the operator can measure:

The probe beam angle in steel The probe index point (point on the probe from which the ultrasound beam appears to radiate) The relation between signal arrival time and target range ("time base expansion") Sensitivity of the equipment, so that "reporting levels" can be applied to an inspection (usually expressed in terms of screen height in relation to the signal from a side-drilled hole at the same range) DAC curve which represents the amplitude of the standard calibration reflector (e.g. sidedrilled hole) at different ranges from the probe.

Various different ultrasonic probes are used in manual ultrasonic testing. The main probe types are as follows:

0 compression-wave probe: for measuring wall thickness, and detecting pores, inclusion and shrinkage cracks, and horizontal laminations in plates 45 shear-wave probe: for many applications including inspection for root cracks ("cornertrap" signal) and volumetric defects in welds. 60 shear-wave probe: for detection of fusion face defects in welds 70 shear-wave probe: for detection of fusion face defects in welds and through-wall cracks in the weld material. 70 compression-wave probe: for detection of front-wall braking cracks

The manual pulse-echo technique can be used both for defect detection and defect sizing. Sizing methods include those based on probe movement the so-called 6 dB and 20 dB drop methods. and also the so-called Max Amp method. However, if accurate defect sizing is needed another ultrasonic method is often preferred. TODF Ultrasound In this ultrasonic method, two probes are used either side of the flaw, and the time of arrival of pulses diffracted from the extremities of the flaw are used to detect and size it.

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Principle of the time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique. Generally the probe beam widths are very broad in TOFD, so that a wide range of depths can be covered with a single probe separation, although in practice a number of different transmitter/receiver probe separations are needed to cover the full range of depths from the inspection surface to the backwall. Signals indicating the front surface (known as the "lateral" wave) and the backwall are also generally present, and can be used to calibrate the measured arrival times of the signals from defects. Unlike pulse-echo methods, in TOFD there is a non-linear relation between signal arrival time, t, and defect depth, d: t = (S2 + 4d2)1/2/c where S is the probe separation and c is the ultrasound velocity. TOFD inspection is generally carried out in the form of line scans of the two probes, made with constant separation. A computer-based ultrasonic recording and imaging system is used to digitise and store the unrectified RF waveform data, which is then displayed in B-scan or D-scan format.

Acoustic Emission Technology Acoustic Emission (AE) testing is a powerful method for examining the behavior of materials deforming under stress. Acoustic Emission may be defined as a transient elastic wave generated by the rapid release of energy within a material. Materials "talk" when they are in trouble: with Acoustic Emission equipment you can "listen" to the sounds of cracks growing, fibers breaking and many other modes of active damage in the stressed material.

Acousto-Ultrasonics The AU technology consists of sending low frequency acoustic pulses at a predetermined angle of incidence into a material under inspection. These acoustic pulses travel through the material and are reflected by the different interfaces inside the sample. If a discontinuity (delamination, debond etc.) is present inside the material, the reflected acoustic energy changes, revealing the presence of the discontinuity. The AU technology can be used in the inspection of critical composite structures. In order to determine the optimal inspection parameters for a particular composite structure (incidence angle, frequency, and pulse length), a wave propagation model for multi-layered structures is used. This model is based on a plane wave propagation model using the Thomson-Haskell transfer matrix for multilayered media. The characteristics of the composite material such as layout and material properties are used as input data to the model. The system can be used with traditional wedge sensors or adapted for use with rolling sensors, which eliminate the need for extra coupling between the sensor and the piece under inspection. The system can also be used with a free-motion, wireless position tracking manual scanner.

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Dye Penetrant testing Dye Penetrant Inspection is used generally in the detection of flaws in Non-ferrous and Non-ferrous alloys, but is not limited to these and can also be used on the inspection of Ferrous material where Magnetic Flaw Detection techniques are not specified in the requirements or the configuration of the part makes Magnetic Flaw Inspection impossible to be used. In some cases Dye Penetrant Inspection can be used on non-metallic materials. This method employs a penetrating liquid, which is applied over the surface of the component and enters the discontinuity or crack. Subsequently, after the excess penetrant has been cleared from the surface, the penetrant exudes or is drawn back out of the crack is observed. Liquid penetrant testing can be applied to any non-porous clean material, metallic or non-metallic, but is unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. Penetrants can contain a dye to make the indication visible under white light, or a fluorescent material that fluoresces under suitable ultra-violet light. Fluorescent penetrants are usually used when the maximum flaw sensitivity is required. Cracks as narrow as 150 nanometers can be detected. Mainly, all the processes consist in is applying a red penetrant dye to the surface of the item being tested then the removal of the red dye, which remains on the surface of the material after the recommended soak time, has elapsed once all of the red dye has been removed from the surface the White Developer is applied, the purpose of which is to draw to the surface any dye which has penetrated any defects which may be present, really similar to the action of blotting paper. Any red stains, which may appear, will indicate the position and type of defects on the surface of the item under inspection. There are two processes, which are available; one is the use where the Penetrant contains an Emulsifying Agent, i.e. Water-Emulsifier or Water-washable, and in the other a dye solvent has to be applied separately after the penetration time has elapsed. These processes can be sub-divided even further where the use of dry developer may produce a better result or by the use of a wet developer is used. Always follow the Manufacturers recommendations and instruction carefully for directions of use to ensure satisfactory results.

In-Situ Metallography In-situ metallography is performed as NDT on actual site with a team comprising of expert metallographers and metallurgists. It is used to find out in-service degradation of critical components of process plants operating under high temperature/ high pressure/ corrosive atmosphere. It provide damage assessments of fire affected equipment of plants. Microstructure survey for critical components viz., Boilers, Pipelines, Reactors and Vessels for condition monitoring and health assessments. TCR can also develop a data bank of critical components of equipment of process plant by periodical monitoring for preventive maintenance and planning for inventory control. TCR can provide suggestions on repair welding of used components of process plants. In-situ metallography checks the microstructure of component for intended service prior to being put in use. In-situ metallography is used for remaining life assessment studies.

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Duplex stainless steel weld

Pitting and stress corrosion cracking in a welded stainless steel tube

Electromagnetics The research and development of electromagnetic (EM) technology is related to the EM induction of fields in a conducting material to generate an eddy current or an acoustic emission (AE) for nondestructive testing. While the EM induced eddy current is a mature technology, the EM induced AE is a newer concept developed to solve the problem of detection and characterization of metal casting with complex structures, weldments, and weld repair defects. It is known that an electrical current passing through a plate of material containing a defect (such as porosity, cracks, or inclusions) is concentrated at the tips of the defect. This effect of electric field distortion by a defect or flaw can be used for Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) of the structure. The induced high current density in conducting materials containing flaws (electric field concentrators) will load the defect faces with electromagnetic forces, which will tend to open them (due to current flowing in opposite directions along the defect faces). In addition, the tips of the defect act like single turn solenoid coils, which concentrate the magnetic flux and produce localized Lorentz forces along with local thermal stresses from Joule heating. The effective current density at the defect tips may be higher than in all of the surrounding material by one order of magnitude (depending on stress or field intensity factor). If the current density is high enough, the generated heat may be sufficient to melt the material at the defect tips, a phenomenon that has also been used to arrest fast-growing cracks. However, if the effective current density has the right value, the effect will be the generation of AE without an increase on the flaw size. Finite element analysis can predict the values of the electric current density around a defect embedded in a metallic sample, as shown in Figure 1. The EM induced AE may also be enhanced by the application of an external magnetic field normal to the defect plane. The presence of this field increases the Lorentz stresses at the defect tips by the
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creation of an additional interaction between the dynamic electric current and a static magnetic field. This mechanism of coupling the electrical and acoustic energy is similar to the one used in to electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT). By using the EM stimulation method to produce AE, specific areas may be inspected without loading the whole structure since EM induction produces local loading. Structures may be tested insitu and there is no need for disassembly and fabrication of special test fixtures used to apply mechanical loading. EM induction loading may also permit AE "inspection on demand", which could reduce the need for long term AE monitoring.

Fluorescent Particle testing Fluorescent Particle Inspection methods (a.k.a., FPI and PT) are typically used to detect cracks, micro-shrinkage, or other discontinuities that are open or otherwise connected to the surface of a part being inspected. In general, FPI can be applied at any point during the manufacture and/or in-service use of an applicable part. Applicable parts are those made of ferromagnetic or non-ferromagnetic material, including some plastics and ceramics. FPI cannot be used on porous materials or parts with interfering coatings or contaminants. Surface defects as small as .015" (.38mm) can be reliably detected with FPI. In aerospace applications for example, FPI is commonly used on aluminum and magnesium alloys, stainless steel, brass, and copper as well as graphite-epoxy composite materials. Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Inspection processes are used for the detection of defects in Ferrous materials, the detection of defects by magnetism depends on the magnetic susceptibility of a fault is clearly poorer to that of the surrounding material of the specimen. Basically, the magnetic resistance of the defect is greater than the sound material. The flaw acts in the same way as a discontinuity in the path of the magnetic fluctuation caused to flow in the specimen in such a direction it crosses the main plane of the defect at right angles, causing the flux to bend around the defect in an alternative direction in the material which surrounds it. This deformation of the flux is not limited to the immediate locality of the defect but extends, in a deteriorating degree, for a considerable distance around it, and out through the surface into the surrounding air if the intensity of the magnetism is high enough. It is the external field effect, which makes Magnetic Particle Inspection possible. The simplest of these, and the main one, which is generally accepted, is the method, which finely divided iron or magnetic iron oxide, held in suspension in kerosene or other suitable liquid is applied to the specimen. (This Ink is usually black in colour and a White Lacquer background should be applied to ensure any defects can be observed. Also the method using a Black Light and Fluorescent Ink can used) The Ink, which is the term used for the above, can be sprayed or painted over the magnetised specimen. The magnetic particles are attracted by the surface field in the area of the defect and hold on to the edges of the defect to reveal it as a build up of particles. The Magnetic Particle Inspection method of Non-Destructive testing is a method for locating surface and sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic material. It depends for its operation on the face that when the material or part under test is magnetized, discontinuities that lie in a direction
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generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, will cause a leakage field, and therefore, the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, some of these particles being gathered and held by the leakage field, this magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and indicates its location, size, shape and extent. The typical use of magnetic particle inspection methods (a.k.a., MPI and MT) are to detect cracks, inclusions, seams, laps, and other discontinuities at or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. Typical materials that fall into this category include "plain carbon steels" (i.e., ferrite matrix phase those containing < .8% carbon), low grade stainless steel, cast iron, etc. [Note that a quick and easy test to determine the suitability of MPI is to place a magnet on the part. If the part is not magnetic, MPI is not an applicable test method.] In general, MPI can be applied at any point during the manufacture and/or in-service use of a ferromagnetic part. MPI cannot be used on non-ferromagnetic materials or on parts with interfering coatings. Surface defects as small as .015" (.38mm) can be reliably detected with MPI. Visual Inspection (NDT technique) Visual inspection also known as VT, commonly refers to inspecting a part or material without the use of magnification (i.e., 1X power). VT can be applied alone or in conjunction with other NDT methods. As a stand alone, VT is done to detect macro manufacturing defects or damage. In conjunction with other NDT methods, it is essentially applied at every stage involving the human eye (i.e., reading instrument screens, printouts, images, examining surfaces after applying etch, FPI, and/or MPI. Non-Destructive visual inspections can be preformed on-site or at the laboratory facility, and are based upon the requirements of the client or specification. Industries utilizing this service include Fabrication, Construction, Automotive, Power Generation and Transportation. Inspections can be performed at the laboratory facility or onsite. These inspections are performed to IS, BS, ASTM, AWS, ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) and many others.

Portable Hardness Per ASTM E110, this testing is normally used for on-site applications or on very large samples. The TCR portable hardness unit performs the hardness testing by applying a 5 kg. Vickers load indenter and electronically converts the values in the preferred scale. Replication Replication is a follow-on inspection technique to assist in further evaluating surface indications. It involves polishing an indication, application and development of a wetted film, and subsequent visual examination under high magnification. Replication essentially transfers the part's surface topography to the film for examination under a microscope. It is commonly used as a follow-up to Blue Etch Anodize (BEA) on titanium to enhance a material segregation indication. It can also be used after any etch process. In general, replication as an NDT method can be applied at any point during the manufacture and/or in-service use of an applicable part. Replication can be applied to nearly any material. Surface defects as small as grains can be reliably detected with replication and subsequent magnification.

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Metal etch Metal etch methods, both chemical and anodic, are typically used to detect grain structure, grain segregation, cracks, micro-shrinkage, or other discontinuities that are open or otherwise connected to the surface of a part being inspected. In general, etching as an NDT method can be applied at any point during the manufacture and/or in-service use of an applicable part. Surface defects as small as .015" (.38mm) can be reliably detected with metal etch methods. In aerospace applications for example, etching is commonly used on aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel and titanium.

Blue Etch Anodizing Blue Etch Anodizing (BEA) is a highly sensitive nondestructive testing (NDT) technique to detect surface discontinuities such as laps, cracks, material segregations, heat-treating imperfections, and abnormalities caused by machining. Under normal conditions, surface defects as small as .015" can be reliably detected. BEA is specifically used to detect discontinuities in titanium materials such as those involved in the manufacture of critical rotating parts for the aircraft and power generation industries. One of the most critical applications of BEA is to detect material segregations known as "Hard Alpha Inclusions" (HAI), and/or High Aluminum Defects (HAD's).

Transient Thermography Transient thermography involves the rapid application of a short pulse of heat to the component. The temperature of the components surface is then monitored for a period of time after the application of the transient heat source. The heat source can be applied to the same surface as that monitored by the infra-red camera (single sided or reflective method) or the far component surface (double sided or transmission method). Flaws in the component disrupt the flow of heat caused by the transient heat source, and cause corresponding hot or cold spots on the adjacent component surface.

Principle of reflective (single-sided) transient thermography For poor thermal conductors such as composite materials (e.g. CFRP, GRP), the time-scales over which the defects appear after application of the heat pulse are generally several seconds, or even a

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few minutes. For good conductors, such as metals, the timescales are often much shorter, typically a second or less. In general, the timescales for single-sided (reflective) thermography are less than those for doublesided (transmission) thermography. The rate of heating should be short compared to the response time of the material, which may be calculated. Because heat diffuses sideways as well a through the specimen, the worst spatial resolution of the method will be of the same order as the specimen thickness. Flaws at different depths will have different resolutions however, and the resolution will be optimum when the flaw is close to the surface being scanned.

Small-scale damage is detectable long before failure, so AE can be used as a non-destructive technique to find defects during structural proof tests and plant operation. AE also offers unique capabilities for materials research and development in the laboratory. Finally, AE equipment is adaptable to many forms of production QC testing, including weld monitoring and leak detection.

Some typical applications of the Acoustic Emission principle in testing materials are as follows: Behavior of materials: metals, ceramics, composites, rocks, concrete:

Crack propagation Yielding Fatigue Corrosion, Stress corrosion Creep Fiber fracture, delamination

Nondestructive testing during manufacturing processes:

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Material processing Phase transformation in metals and alloys (martensitic transformation) Detection of defects such as pores, quenching cracks, inclusions, etc. Fabrication Deforming processes rolling, forging, extruding Welding and brazing detects detection (inclusions, cracks, lack of penetration) TIG, MIG, spot, electron beam, etc. Weld monitoring for process control

Monitoring structures:

Continuous monitoring (metallic structures, mines, etc.) Periodic testing (pressure vessels, pipelines, bridges, cables) Loose Part Detection Leak Detection

Special applications:

Petrochemical and chemical: storage tanks, reactor vessels, offshore platforms, drill pipe, pipelines, valves, hydro-treaters Electric utilities: nuclear reactor vessels, piping, steam generators, ceramic insulators, transformers, aerial devices Aircraft and aerospace: fatigue cracks, corrosion, composite structures, etc. Electronics: loose particles in electronic components, bonding, substrate cracking.

Credits to: Nicholas J. Carino Metal Testing Company Physical Acoustics Corporation

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