EARTH SCIENCES CENTRE GTEBORG UNIVERSITY B446 2005

PRESENT AND FUTURE METHANE EMISSIONS FROM RICE FIELDS IN NG NGC COMMUNE, HANOI, VIETNAM.
Sara Sandin

Department of Physical Geography GTEBORG 2005

GTEBORGS UNIVERSITET Institutionen fr geovetenskaper Naturgeografi Geovetarcentrum

PRESENT AND FUTURE METHANE EMISSIONS FROM RICE FIELDS IN NG NGC COMMUNE, HANOI, VIETNAM.
Sara Sandin

ISSN 1400-3821

B446 Projektarbete Gteborg 2005

Besksadress Geovetarcentrum Guldhedsgatan 5A Telefo 031-773 19 51 Telfax 031-773 19 86 Earth Sciences Gteborg University S-405 30 Gteborg SWEDEN

Postadress Centre Geovetarcentrum S-405 30 Gteborg

Summary Sandin, S. (2005) Present and future methane emissions from rice fields in ng Ng c commune, Hanoi, Vietnam. Gteborg University, Department of Physical Geography, 41 pp. Since the turn of the last century greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, have increased due to extensive farming. Vietnam in South East Asia is the worlds biggest exporter of rice. Vietnam expands its agricultural land to meet the needs of the global market and an increasing population. As the rice growing areas expand the emissions of methane increase. There is a need to investigate how high the emissions are from Vietnamese paddy fields in order to establish its contribution to the global greenhouse gas budget. The objectives of this project are to measure methane emissions from three paddy fields in the outskirts of Hanoi in ng Ng c commune in Northern Vietnam. The measurements were done during a short period, but estimations in methane emission were made for a whole rice cycle. The methane emissions were measured in situ and in laboratory. The highest methane emission was emitted from rice field with a high water level; 15 cm, and the least methane was emitted from the paddy field with intermittent irrigation. The methane emission were 228 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with high water level, 167 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with medium water level (10 cm) and 88 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with intermittent irrigation. The emission of methane could be reduced in many ways. Better water management, a suitable selection of rice cultivars and fertilizer are some of the suggestions made in this report. Sammanfattning Sandin, S. (2005) Nutida och framtida metanemissioner frn risflt i ng Ng c-kommunen, Hanoi, Vietnam. Gteborgs Universitet, Naturgeografiska institutionen, 41 s. Sedan 1900-talets brjan har vxthusgaser ssom metan och kvveoxid kat p grund av kat jordbruk. Vietnam i sydstra Asien r vrldens strsta exportr av ris. Vietnam kar sina jordbruksomrden fr att mta vrldsmarknaden och en kande population. D omrden bevxta med ris kar, kar ven metanutslppen. Det finns ett behov att underska hur hga utslppen r frn vietnamesiska risflt fr att befsta dess bidrag till den globala budgeten av vxthusgaser. Syftet med detta projekt r att mta metanutslpp frn tre risflt i utkanten av Hanoi, i ng Ng ckommunen i norra Vietnam. Mtningarna gjordes under en kort period, men uppskattningar i metanutslpp r gjorda fr en hel riscykel. Metanutslppen mttes p plats och i laboratorium. De hgsta metanutslppen kom frn risfltet med hg vattenniv; 15 cm, och minst metan slpptes ut frn risfltet med periodisk bevattning. Metanutslppen var 228 mg CH4 /m2 och dag frn fltet med hg vattenniv, 167 mg CH4 /m2 och dag frn fltet med mellanvattenniv (10 cm) och 88 mg CH4 /m2 och dag frn fltet med periodisk bevattning. Metanutslppen kan minskas p mnga stt. Bttre bevattningssktsel, mer passande val av rissort och gdningsmedel r ngra av frslagen i denna rapport. Keywords: Paddy field, rice, methane emission, Vietnam.

Preface
This project is part of a 20 point course at the department of Physical Geography at Gteborg University. This study was made possible by the funding from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). I would like to thank my supervisors professor Deliang Chen and Ph D student Elisabeth Simelton at the department of Physical Geography at Gteborg University for their valuable input, support and enthusiasm during the development of this paper. I would also like to thank my supervisor in Vietnam, Msc Tran Duc Toan at the National Institute of Soils and Fertilizers for support and help during my stay in Hanoi. Many thanks to Mr Phoung for his help with many diverse things, from organizing measurements to helpful tips. I am also grateful to my best friend Martin Andersson for useful (healthy) criticism, Mum for the English corrections and Dad for help with scanning. I am also grateful to all who wrote contributions to my travel diary on the internet and kept my spirits up when needed and made me even happier during my stay in Vietnam.

ii

Table of contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Methane sources ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The growth of rice .................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Increasing demand for rice ....................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Rice production in Vietnam ..................................................................................................... 2 1.5 Presentation of problem ........................................................................................................... 2 1.6 Objectives................................................................................................................................. 2 2. Emissions from paddy fields ....................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Emission of methane from rice paddies ................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Factors affecting the emission of methane ........................................................................ 6 2.2.2 Mitigation options for methane emission........................................................................ 10 2.3 Emission of nitrous oxide from rice paddies.......................................................................... 11 3. Study area - Vietnam ................................................................................................................. 12 3.1 Morphology............................................................................................................................ 12 3.2 Climate ................................................................................................................................... 12 3.3 Land use ................................................................................................................................. 12 3.4 Greenhouse gas emission ....................................................................................................... 13 3.5 Rice paddies ........................................................................................................................... 13 3.6 Hanoi province ....................................................................................................................... 13 3.6.1 Soil characteristics of Hanoi province ............................................................................ 13 3.6.2 ng Ng c commune...................................................................................................... 14 4. Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 15 4.1 In situ measurements .............................................................................................................. 15 4.1.1 Temperature and methane ............................................................................................... 15 4.1.2 Rice variety, water and fertilizer management................................................................ 17 4.1.3 Mapping and GPS ........................................................................................................... 17 4.1.4 Interviews ........................................................................................................................ 17 4.2 Laboratory measurements ...................................................................................................... 17 4.2.1 Air samples...................................................................................................................... 17 4.2.2 Soil samples..................................................................................................................... 18 4.3 Modelling methane emissions................................................................................................ 18 4.3.1 The seasonal variations of methane ................................................................................ 18 4.3.2 The future methane emission .......................................................................................... 18 4.4 The measurement fields ......................................................................................................... 20 5. Results ......................................................................................................................................... 23 5.1 Soil properties ........................................................................................................................ 23 5.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................................... 24 5.2.1 Farming calendar............................................................................................................. 24 5.2.2 Water management.......................................................................................................... 25 5.2.3 Fertilizer usage ................................................................................................................ 25 5.2.4 Rice variety and mitigation options ................................................................................ 26 5.3 Methane emission................................................................................................................... 26 5.3.1 Methane emission measured in situ................................................................................. 26 5.3.2 Methane emission measured in situ and in laboratory .................................................... 27 5.3.3 Diurnal methane emission............................................................................................... 27 5.3.4 Seasonal methane emission............................................................................................. 28 5.3.5. Future methane emission................................................................................................ 29 6. Discussion.................................................................................................................................... 30 6.1 Field studies............................................................................................................................ 30 iii

6.2 Calculations ............................................................................................................................ 31 6.3 Mitigation options for Vietnam.............................................................................................. 33 7. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 35 8. References ................................................................................................................................... 36 8.1 Articles and books .................................................................................................................. 36 8.2 Internet addresses ................................................................................................................... 38 8.3 Other references ..................................................................................................................... 39 9. Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................. 40

iv

1. Introduction
The global average surface temperature has increased with 0.6 0.2C over the last century. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes (IPCC) SRES scenarios the global average surface temperature is predicted to increase 1.4 to 5.8C over the period 1990 to 2100 (IPCC 2001). Methane has, among other greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons, a strong infrared absorption band, which traps the outgoing long wave radiation from earths surface (Wuebbles & Hayhoe 2002). The IPCC (1996a) points out that the warming potential of methane and nitrous oxide is 21 times and 280 times greater respectively than that of carbon dioxide in 100 years time scale. Goudie (2002) remarks that land changes are the largest human induced emission of methane. In the year 2000 the methane concentration in the atmosphere was 1.75 parts per million volume (ppmv), which was an increase compared to the preindustrial level of 0.7 ppmv (Weubbles & Hayhoe 2002). Schimel (2000) concludes that the methane concentration was continuing to increase at an annual rate of 1 %, see also figure 1. Figure 1 shows the methane emissions of different sources emitted globally from 1860 to 1994. It is clear that the emissions of methane have increased during this period. The emissions from rice is high but has not increased as much as livestock during the last decades. According to Goudie (2002) it is difficult to estimate the long term level of methane in the atmosphere due to the fact that methane reacts quickly with other substances, which decreases the amount of methane.

Figure 1. The change of different anthropogenic sources of methane emission from 1850 to 1994 (CDIAC 2004).

1.1 Methane sources

According to IPCC (1996a) methane is emitted through both biological and industrial processes and the atmospheric concentration of methane has increased approximately 246 % of its preindustrial concentration. Methane is produced in an anaerobic environment such as rice paddies, swamps, sludge digesters, rumens and sediments (Banker et al. 1995). According to Sommer et al. (2004) the anthropogenic methane sources are of special interest, because they offer an opportunity to manipulate and reduce the emissions. Approximately 410-660 million tons methane are emitted globally per year (IPCC 1996a) and between 25.4 and 54 million tons of this is due to irrigated rice fields (Cole et al. 1995).

1.2 The growth of rice

Rice is grown in approximately one third of the worlds irrigated cropland. Rice represents one half of the irrigated cropland in Asia. Rice is often grown in monsoonal climates due to its tolerance to flooding. Intensification of cultivation of irrigated rice has been registered, above all in Asia, especially that of wet rice, which is an exceptionally large source of methane. During the dry stages of the rice large amounts of nitrous oxide is emitted from the paddy field. These areas also have problems with waterlogging and increased salinity in the soil. The intensification of wet and irrigated rice production is believed to increase application of fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides and the use of genetically engineered crops (Goudie 2002).

1.3 Increasing demand for rice

According to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI 2004) the rice production has to increase from 585 million tons in 2003 to 800 million tons to meet the demand in 2025. This means that the yield must increase or the irrigated land used to grow rice must expand. Then there is a risk that the rice paddy areas increase at the expense of low methane emitting areas.

1.4 Rice production in Vietnam

Vietnam represents 12-15 % of the world market in production of rice and is the worlds biggest exporter. The population of Vietnam is continuously increasing with nearly 1.5 million people per year. Since rice is the main feeding source in Asia, the rice yield must increase. The rice area in Vietnam increased from 6302000 hectares (ha) in 1991 to 7468000 ha in 2002. This means an increase of 18.5 % (VBF 2004). The production of rice comes mainly from irrigated rice fields (73.9 %) and from rainfed rice (18.1 %) (NC-1003 2005). According to Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) the rice area in Vietnam has decreased to 7449300 ha in 2003. The rice yield was 4633 kg/ha in 2003 (FAO 2004). During 2002 the average Vietnamese ate 168.9 kg rice per year (FAO 2005).

1.5 Presentation of problem

Since the turn of the last century greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, have increased due to extensive farming. Vietnam expands its agricultural land to meet the needs of the global market and an increasing population. As the rice growing areas expand the emissions of methane increase. There is a need to investigate how high the emissions are from Vietnamese rice fields, both upland rice and paddy rice in order to establish its contribution to the global greenhouse gas budget. Vietnam may need international help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector. There is therefore a need to know what factors affect the emissions of methane and what there is to be done against it. There is also a need to know what the present conditions are in order to take the correct precautions.

1.6 Objectives
The objectives of this project are to measure methane emissions from three paddy fields in the outskirts of Hanoi in ng Ng c commune in Northern Vietnam. The measurements were done during a short period, but estimations were made for a whole rice cycle. The diurnal variations of methane and air temperature were measured and also soil characteristics, fertilizer usage, rice variety and water management were at the three paddy fields. The results were compared to other measurements in Asia of methane at a local level. Land use maps over the three fields were created to show the land use in the area. Interviews were done to investigate the rice cultivation tradition and policies regarding rice cultivation in the area. The study was complemented with literature studies of plausible countermeasures.

Important questions relating to this are: How high are the methane emissions from small rice fields during flowering in the Hanoi area? How high are these measurements in Vietnam in relation to other measurements in Asia? Will the methane emissions increase in the future? Through literature studies the different factors affecting methane emission will be treated. The possibility to reduce methane emission and the possibility to implement these techniques will also be considered. An overview of the policies that exist today in Vietnam to reduce the methane emissions from paddy fields will be discussed.

2. Emissions from paddy fields

The emissions from paddy fields are put in relation to other emissions in table 1. The contribution from rice paddies to the methane budget is high, only second to natural wetlands. Table 1. Major methane sources and sinks. The numbers are approximate. The unit is millions of metric tons of carbon equivalent per year.
Sources Natural wetlands (methanogenesis) Rice paddies (methanogenesis) Bovines Natural gas leakage Landfill/waste Biomass burning Termites Oceans and lakes Total: Approximate rate (Range) 85 (75-150) Sinks Reactions with hydroxyl radical and atmospheric accumulation Soil uptake Approximate rate (Range) 355 (290-420)

80 (45-130) 60 (45-75) 75 (60-90) 60 (60-80) 40 (35-75) 15 (5-75) 10 (5-15) 425 (310-765)

20 (15-25)

375 (305-445)

Source: Goudie 2002. There are uncertainties in the measurements and the values in parenthesis show the range of the methane emissions. The totals of sinks and sources do not add up, creating a gap in the annual budget. The calculations have large uncertainties in the estimates and therefore it cannot be concluded that this difference really exists. More accurate measurements have to be done. About 55% of the worlds rice fields are irrigated and 75% of the worlds rice comes from irrigated rice fields. The rainfed rice paddies in the lowlands represent 25 % of the worlds rice areas and 17 % of the worlds rice production (NC-1003 2005).

2.1 Emission of methane from rice paddies

For a better understanding of the processes that drive the methane emission from rice paddies a brief introduction to plant and soil chemistry will follow. Carbon as a base of which methanogenic microorganisms live is thought to come from three sources: the death of root tissue from crops, the decay of both freshly added organic matter and humus and carbohydrate exudates from living root tissue. Depending on which of these three pathways used, production of H2 and CO2 or acetate (CH3COO-) is done through breakdown of organic matter (CH2O). Methanogenic bacteria can then produce methane either from the H2 or CO2 through the following equation (Wassmann et al. 2000): CO2 + 4 H2 CH4 + 2 H2O Or methane could be emitted through acetate: CH3COO- + H+ CO2 + CH4 And a summary could be written as: 2 (CH2O) CO2 + CH4 (3) (2) (1)

This is also confirmed by research done by Fullen & Catt (2004). Bharati et al. (2001) concludes that the methanogenesis in flooded soils is influenced by the availability of fermentable substrates. According to Schtz et al. (1989) methane is emitted from rice paddies to the atmosphere via three pathways; diffusion, ebullition and plantmediated transport (figure 2). Ebullition is when bubbles due to fermentation are emitted through the water. Less than 1 % of the emissions from rice fields come from diffusion from subsurface soil to flood water. During the transplanting stage, ebullition is the most important way of emitting methane, but this is only about 10 % of the total emission during a plants emitting cycle. The remaining 90 % comes from the rice plant itself. The methane is emitted through the plants aerenchyma in leaf blades, sheath, culm and roots. The rice plant is an effective gas exchange system between the anaerobic soils and the troposphere (Holzapfel-Pschorn et al. 1986). According to measurements by Wassmann et al. (2000) when Figure 2. The emission of methane the methane production in the soil was high, methane through the rice paddy and plant. was mostly emitted through the aerenchyma of rice (Holzapfel-Pschorn et al. 1986) plants rather than through ebullition. The plants aerenchyma formation and root exudation are affected by cultivar and soil parameters such as nutrient availability, physical impedance and redox potential (Wassmann et al. 2000). The soil oxidation-reduction (redox) potential is a measure of the degree of aeration in a soil. A high redox potential indicates a high oxygen level. Low redox values may be an indication that conditions are anaerobic. The soil oxidation-reduction (redox) potential (Eh, measured in millivolts) are important for the methane production, since the methanogens are dependent on anaerobic conditions (Bharati et al. 2001). The rice goes through different growth periods and the transplanting stage is when the young rice is replanted in the paddy field. This treatment is not used everywhere, sometimes the rice is planted directly in the paddy field without transplanting.

Figure 3. The growth stages of the rice plant and the different parts of the rice plant (IRRI 2004). Next stage (figure 3) is the active tillering stage, when the rice develops leaves and shoots. During the latter part of the panicle development stage (about 16 days after visual panicle initiation), the sheath of the flag leaf swells. This swelling is called booting. The heading stage is when the panicle emerges out of the flag leaf sheath (panicle initiation). The flowering stage occurs when the anthers of the terminal spikelets protrude and shed pollen. It occurs 25 days after visual panicle initiation regardless of the variety. When the grain colour in the panicles begins to change from green to yellow, the rice is mature (IRRI 2004).

2.1.1 Factors affecting the emission of methane

Climate, water management, soil characteristics, fertilizer application and rice variety all affect the methane emission fluxes (Liping 2001). According to the IPCC (1996b, 2004) the amount of methane emitted is believed to be a function of the rice species, number and length of the harvest, soil type and temperature, irrigation practices and fertiliser use. 2.1.1.2 Climate Methane emission rate is closely connected to temperature. High temperatures increase the degradation of organic matter and enhance the production of methane (Yang & Chang 1999). According to Liou et al. (2003) and Singh et al. (2003) the soil temperature is an important factor for methane production in paddy soils. Singh et al. (2003) found that the methane emission peaked in the afternoon (at 1400h) and the soil temperature are at its highest during these hours, concluding that methane emission is a soil temperature dependent process if all other factors are left constant. Temperature is also a major factor affecting the interannual variation in methane emission (Watanabe et al. 2005). Yang & Chang (1999) found that the air temperature had the highest correlation coefficient with methane emission among the test temperatures air, soil and water when measuring methane emissions from rice fields. They also conclude that temperature and water management are the major factors influencing methane emission from rice paddies. They also found that most methane is emitted during the daytime hours. According to Liu & Wu (2004) the methane production was very active at high temperatures, during an evaluation of methane emissions of Taiwanese rice 6

paddies. Watanabe et al. (2005) found that the relationship between seasonal methane emission and temperature and rice straw application can be described as: y (x, E) = (0.02x + 2.067)E (32x + 1866) (4)

when measuring methane emission from rice plants planted in pots, where x is the rice straw application rate (g/kg soil), y is the seasonal methane emission (mg C / pot), E = (T-15) the sum of the effective temperature (C) and T is the daily mean air temperature (C) during the growth season. This relationship was derived when other parameters effecting methane emission were held constant. The effective temperature is a concept derived from the assumption that at 15C the methanogenesis is considered to be negligible and over this temperature the methane emission starts. This equation can only be used when temperatures are above 15C. If global warming continues there would be an increase in methane production and emission. But one has to take into account other changes induced by global warming, such as changed precipitation and soil moisture (Fullen & Catt 2004). 2.1.1.3 Water management Methane emission measurements made on pots with flooded and non-flooded rice showed that the methane emissions were always lower from the continuously non-flooded pots (Bharati et al. 2001). Singh et al. (2003) found that the methane emission rates dropped drastically with complete water drainage, even if the drainage was only for a short period. When the water is drained, the oxic conditions impair the methane production (methanogenesis). According to Yang & Chang (1999) the methane emissions from soil with continuous flooding was 2.8 times higher than that with intermittent irrigation. Intermittent irrigation is the process when the paddy field is flooded when the rice is planted, then the soil is drained and not re-irrigated until the soil is perfectly dried (Yang & Chang 2001). Measurements in Los Baos, Philippines show that drying the paddy field during midtillering resulted in reduced methane emissions by 15-80 % as compared with continous flooding (Wassmann et al. 2000). Wassmann et al. (2000) also concludes that the drainage of water should be of short duration, only 7 to 10 days and timed so that the plants have used up the nitrogen (N) fertilizer applied at basal and vegetative stages. Reflooding should be done before the N fertilizer is applied at the panicle initiation. Measurements with the closed chamber method in Jakenan, Indonesia showed that rainfed rice emits less methane than irrigated rice according to Wassmann et al. (2000). Intermittent irrigation in paddy fields reduces methane emissions significantly (Yang et al. 2003). Mishra et al. (1997) found that the accumulative methane emission was around 70% lower for intermittent irrigated paddies than continuously flooded paddies. 2.1.1.4 Soil Characteristics Emission measurements made by Bharati et al. (2001) showed that the methane emissions varied during the growth period of the plant. Methane emissions where low during the early growth stages of the rice plant. This may be due to low levels of methanogenesis (Satpathy et al. 1997). Methane maxima were measured during the reproductive and ripening stages (Baharati et al. 2001), and this is probably due to higher availability of fatty acids and sugars. Bharati et al. (2001) also investigated the relationship between flooded and non-flooded conditions and soil redox potential (Eh) and found that the redox potential was high during non-flooded conditions. The redox potential is a measure of the degree of aeration in a soil. In the laterite soil the redox potential was high through the whole crop season under non-flooded conditions. In alluvial soil the redox potential was low during the reproductive state under flooded conditions. In 7

the laterite soil the redox potential dropped drastically, which could be due to high emission of methane. This may mean that even though the paddy field is well drained, it could emit high levels of methane. Paddy fields sometimes contain anoxic microsites, such as aggregated soil particles or sand grains, even under non-flooded conditions with different redox gradients favouring methanogenesis (Rath, Mohanty et al. 1999). Measurements in Prachinburi, Thailand in deepwater rice show that low emissions of methane are related to acid sulphate soils (Wassmann et al. 2000). According to Yang & Chang (1999) the soil redox potential and soil pH correlates badly with methane emission. The soil redox potential had a correlation coefficient of less than 0.35 and soil pH had 0.30 and water pH had even less: 0.25. This is to be compared with air temperature, which had a mean correlation coefficient during the transplanting stage of 0.83. Their results also showed that during high methane emission and flooded circumstances, the redox potential was low and during intermittent irrigation the methane emission was low, with high redox potential. However, the fluctuation of soil pH during the day was not significant, except during the transplanting stage (Yang & Chang, 1999). Another soil characteristic which affects the methane emission is methane oxidation. Approximately 95 % of the methane produced in flooded soils is oxidized to carbon dioxide before it is released to the environment. Therefore the methane oxidation is important for the biogeochemical cycling of methane (Wassmann et al. 2000). 2.1.1.5 Fertilizer application Fertilizers work differently when applied to the rice paddies. Some fertilizers decrease the methane emissions and some stimulate them. According to Yang & Chang (2001) application of green manure (Sesbania) resulted in increased methane emission. This conclusion was also reached by Singh et al. (2003). Rice straw or green manure increased methane emission and humified substrates generated less methane. Rice-straw and bio-fertilizer treatment increased methane emission by 16 % and 114 % respectively. This is also the result from measurements done in Jakenan, Indonesia; according to Wassmann et al. (2000) rice straw application results in a 40 % increase in methane emissions. Paddies with fermented cow dung decreased methane emission by 64 % and leaf manures generated 58 % less methane (Singh et al. 2003). Urea fertilizer, much used in Asia, had the highest methane emission rate followed by ammonium chloride and ammonium sulphate in decreasing order (Liou et al. 2003). In deepwater rice fields in Prachinburi, Thailand the methane emission was highest from paddy fields using straw incorporation followed by straw compost and least emission was received with straw ash incorporation (Wassmann et al. 2000). Liou et al. (2003) points out that the amount of fertilizer used, how and when you apply it also greatly effects the methane emissions. During the second crop season the green manure usage gave 1.4-2.9 times higher methane emission than a paddy field with intermittent irrigation and conventional chemical fertilizer. A paddy field with rice straw application gave 3.3-12.0 times higher methane emission than a paddy field with intermittent irrigation and conventional chemical fertilizer during the second crop season (Yang et al. 2003). According to Rath & Swain et al. (1999) prilled urea did not enhance methane emission, urea supergranules applied under water and soil was an effective methane inhibitor. A mix of prilled urea and Nimin (a nitrification inhibitor) was most efficient at reducing methane emission. Application of nitrification inhibitors, nitra pyrin and especially wax-coated calcium carbide retarded methane emission from paddy fields without lowering yield and could be an alternative to intermittent irrigation. Ammonium thiosulphate is a suitable option to mitigate methane emission during flooded rice cultivation. Ammonium thiosulphate lowered the methane emissions by 38-60% depending on how much was applied (Rath et al. 2002). According to Wassmann et al. (2000), rice straw gave the most methane emission followed by green manure, urea and ammonium sulphate. Sulphate application even reduced the seasonal emission of methane due to competition between methane 8

producing and methanogenic bacteria. Plots receiving 6 t/ha of rice straw in addition to mineral fertilizer, increased annual methane emission rates approximately 2 to 3 fold as compared to the plots only treated with mineral fertilizer, regardless of soil type (Yagi & Minami 1990). 2.1.1.6 Rice variety Singh et al. (2003) reached the conclusion that the Indian rice variety Saket had the highest methane emission followed by Pant 4, Sarju 52 and Sundari in decreasing order. According to Liou et al. (2003), who made measurements on two rice varieties in Taiwan, Indica rice were emitting more methane than Japonica rice. The emission of methane increased when potassium nitrate (a fertilizer) was added to the Indica rice. According to Wassmann et al. (2000) the modern cultivar IR72 gave the highest seasonal methane emission. No special plant trait could be singled out as the cause for the high emissions. 2.1.1.7 Other remarks on methane emission Some tropical areas may have two, three or even four crop seasons. The methane emitted from the paddy field differs between the crop seasons. Yang & Chang (2001) found that the total methane emission in the second crop season was two to five times higher than the first crop season, when measuring from rice fields in Taiwan which have two crop seasons. They also found that during the second crop season the highest methane emissions were measured during the transplanting stage and for the first crop season the booting stage. Yang & Chang (1999) found that the methane emission of the first crop season was only 19-41% of that in the second crop season. Liou et al. (2003) found that the methane emissions during the second crop season were high during the transplanting to active tillering stage. They also found that the methane emissions were 1.7 to 2fold higher at noon than at early morning during the second crop season. According to Liu & Wu (2004) the methane emission was 7-16 times higher on the second crop season than in the first crop season. They also found that much methane is emitted during the transplanting stage for the second crop season and the effective tillering and booting stages for the first crop season. According to the methane emission model of Liu & Wu (2004), temperature is the most important parameter for methane emission rates and that soil pH, soil water depth and soil organic content also are important parameters. Another reason for the different emissions during the growth stage is that the rice morphology and size is changing and therefore also the way the rice plant emits methane (Schtz et al. 1989). All research does not point in the same direction. According to Yang & Chang (2001) methane emission measurements made on paddy soil (not planted with rice) and paddy field (planted with rice) were almost the same when the same climate, water management, fertilizer application rate and soil characteristics was used. However Holzapfel-Pschorn et al. (1986) concludes that the presence of rice plants stimulated the methane emission both in laboratory and field measurements. A compilation of the research discussed above regarding factors that increase or decrease methane from paddy soils is found in figure 4.

Agricultural method Transplanting

Climate Increasing temperature Increasing precipitation

Water management Continous flooding Water depth Soil characteristics Anoxic microsites Soil redox potential

pH - ?

Fertilizer application Rice straw and green manure Urea fertilizer Increase methane emission

Decrease methane emission

Rice variety Japonica rice

Rice variety Saket Indica rice IR72

Several crop seasons

Fertilizer application Humified substrates Ammonium sulphate Prilled urea Nitrification inhibitors

Water management Intermittent irrigation Water drainage

Figure 4. A summary of the factors affecting methane emission

The rice variety Japonica does not decrease the methane emission, but it has lower emission values compared to other rice varieties in the study.

2.2.2 Mitigation options for methane emission

One important factor for farmers is to ensure that grain yield is unaffected, even though mitigation options are implemented. According to Singh et al. (2003) measurements from rice paddies in India, the most important ways to lower methane emission is improved water management, the right selection of rice cultivars, fertilizer usage. According to Wassmann et al. (2000) the rice cultivar should be selected with care since the methane emission potential ranges from 9% to 56%. Singh et al. (2003) also points out that drainage of the paddy field before the heading stage lowers the methane emissions without lowering the yield. This makes better water management an ecofriendly alternative. One problem they also point out is that many tropical countries lack of water certain months and abundance in water other months. This means that many farmers need to keep the water on the fields in order to get a harvest. At times it can be difficult to drain the paddy fields because of heavy raining. Yang & Chang (1999) concludes that intermittent irrigation is a very useful strategy to lower methane emissions from paddy field. Intermittent irrigation is a good mitigation option, but must be evaluated further and done in the way described above according to Wassmann et al. (2000). According to Liu & Wu (2004) some farmers in Taiwan choose to leave the rice straw from the first crop season in the paddy field. If the rice straw were removed after the first crop season, the methane emissions would decrease. Liu & Wu (2004) also suggest that the depth of the paddy field water should be increased to 25 cm, which can reduce the methane emission rate by 18 % according to a methane emission model. Wassmann et al. (2000) presents another mitigation option through finding that direct seeded rice reduced methane emission by 16-54 % compared with transplanted rice. This may also make it easier for farmers to plant rice. In the thin surface layer or rice rhizosphere methane is transformed to carbon dioxide. This process is due to autotrophic bacteria, which utilize methane as sole carbon and energy source.

10

Accelerating methane oxidation could be a mitigation option, but there needs to be more studies before it can be developed as a field-scale technology (Wassmann et al. 2000).

2.3 Emission of nitrous oxide from rice paddies

Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas that also is emitted through the paddy field. Emission of nitrous oxide is connected to the methane emission rates. Agriculture is the main source of most nitrous oxide emissions. Nitrous oxide is produced from soil processes as an intermediate product of microbial nitrification and denitrification and could be enhanced by addition of organic manures or biomass burning (Fullen & Catt 2004). According to Liping & Lin (2001) non-flooded fields emit nitrous oxide and flooded fields almost do not emit any nitrous oxide at all. Consideration must be taken to the fact that nitrous oxide is a more effective greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and methane, especially in the long term period. Results from Liping & Lin (2001) show that midseason aeration of paddy fields reduce methane emissions by 50 % and this decrease in methane is larger than the increase in nitrous oxide on a 100-year scale. According to Yang et al. (2003) the nitrous oxide emissions also decrease with appropriate application of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation.

11

3. Study area - Vietnam

3.1 Morphology
Vietnam covers an area of 332560 km2. Vietnam borders to the South China Sea in the east, the Gulf of Thailand in the south, Cambodia and Lao in the west and China in the north (figure 5). Two major rivers; the Red River in the north and the Mekong in the south, have their mouths in Vietnam. The Song Hong (Red river) and its tributaries the Song Da (Black river) and Song Chai flow south-east in deeply incised valleys through mountains which reach heights up to 3000 m. Southward to the Mekong delta, the country is divided into a mountainous interior and a narrow coastal plain. Most of the population in Vietnam lives in the deltas of Red river and the Mekong (Moores & Fairbridge 1997).

The equator

Figure 5. Location of Vietnam and Hanoi (Maps, 2004)

3.2 Climate
Northern Vietnam has four distinct seasons and two monsoon regimes. The northeast monsoon (from November to April) brings cold and dry air from the Siberian high pressure and the southwest monsoon (from May to October) brings hot, wet air from the Bengal Gulf. This summer monsoon brings heavy rains and typhoons. The average temperature in Hanoi is 23C and the average annual rainfall in all of Vietnam is 1500 to 2000 mm (figure 6). The sunshine hours are 1500 to 2000 per year and the average solar radiation is 100 kcal cm-1 year-1 (NISF 2002).
35 Temperature ( C) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Hanoi province
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 J F MAM J J A SO N D Month

3.3 Land use

Before 1943, Vietnam had a forest coverage exceeding 43 %. The forest coverage has changed extensively due to 12

Figure 6. Temperature and precipitation patterns in Hanoi province 2003 (Stat, 2004).

Precipitation (mm)

population growth and two wars, one against France and one against USA. In 1994 the forest land had decreased to 28-29 %, however this figure has increased over the last years due to reforestation measures. The crop yields are not high compared to the crop yields of an industrialized country, however Vietnam agriculture growth rate is so high that it assures enough food for domestic consumption and a portion for export. Agriculture, forestry and aquaculture products make 27.4 % of GDP (Vietnam INC 2003).

3.4 Greenhouse gas emission

According to the Vietnam greenhouse gas inventory made in 1994, the total greenhouse gas emission was 103.8 million tons of CO2 equivalents. Methane (CH4) contributed with most of the emissions; 52.5 million tons which is 50.6 % of the emissions. Agriculture represents the largest emitter of CO2 equivalents (50.5%) followed by emissions from the energy sector (24.7%). Rice cultivation represents 62.4 % of the methane emissions from agriculture. One of the mitigation options suggested in the Vietnam Initial National Communication (INC) is reduction of the methane emissions by improvement of irrigation-drainage management in rice fields (Vietnam INC 2003).

3.5 Rice paddies

The total agricultural land in Vietnam is 9537000 ha (2002) and of this 7449300 ha (2003) is land grown with rice. Rainfed paddies represent 3415000 ha and irrigated paddies stand for 2276000 ha (FAO 2004). Deep water paddies, the least used way of growing rice in Vietnam, are mainly located in the Mekong Delta. The typical rice field close to Hanoi is rainfed shallow water lowland area and after the harvest the fields are burnt. Different kinds of fertilizers are used; pig manure, rice straw residue and manufactured fertilizer. The water management differs, some farmers have the ability to keep the fields filled with water, but some have to be content with the periodic water from rainfall. The farmers use the rice varieties that are available for purchase in the area (Personal communication, Tran Duc Toan).

3.6 Hanoi province

Hanoi province has 42500 ha of agricultural land and a major part of this is paddy rice (Stat 2004). ng Ng c commune, where the measurements have been made, is located northwest of Hanoi centre (figure 7). ng Ng c commune is indicated by a black star and the dotted rectangle represents an approximate location of the city of Hanoi including surrounding communities. Also shown in the map is the international airport, the railroads, Ho Tay Lake and 14 km 1.4km the Red River. The alluvial soil of the red river delta, which most parts of Hanoi province comprise of, is very fertile. Figure 7. Map of Hanoi and its surroundings

3.6.1 Soil characteristics of Hanoi province

The alluvial soils of the Hanoi province are formed from different river alluvial deposits. The soil in the measurement areas is a fluvisol. The Red River has an irregular water regime, which gives rise to different texture in the profiles and plains. Soils of the Hanoi province often have layers of clay or silt far from rivers or sand close to rivers. The soils of the Red River delta are very fertile. The soils have medium texture, bright brown colour, neutral reaction, high base saturation, oxides, carbon and total nitrogen content are usually medium and phosphorus and potassium content are 13

high. In intensive regions of the Red River delta rice crop yields can reach 14-15 tons hectare-1 yield-1 (NISF 2002).

3.6.2 ng Ng c commune
ng Ng c commune is located west of the Ho Tay Lake (figure 7). It is a rural area with different kind of agricultural fields (mostly rice), low constructed houses (2-3 floors) and gravelled roads. Along the main road there are many small cement factories and one large factory (indicated by a yellow star in figure 8). Measurements were made in three different fields indicated by figure 8.

Measurement points Cement factory Bridge Big road Small road Railroad River, lake Stream

N
1.5 km

Figure 8. Map of ng Ng c and vicinities

14

4. Methods
Because of economic limitations measurements could only be made during three days. It was decided to further investigate the relationship between methane emission and air temperature, since it seems to have the best correlation (Yang & Chang 1999). The well-known way of measuring methane i.e. the chamber method could not be used due to economic limitations. Since the wind influences the measurements in this case the methane emissions need to be high in order to be correctly measured. The measurements were therefore carried out during the second crop season, because the emissions during this period are higher than the first crop season (Yang & Chang 2001). The methane emissions were measured when the rice was flowering to pinpoint a maximum value due to the possible enhancement made by application of fertilizer. The methane emissions of the rice field were measured directly with a particle counter and an air sample was also taken to analyse the methane content in laboratory.

4.1 In situ measurements

The measurements of soil properties, temperature, methane emission, GPS and mapping were made in ng Ng c commune north of Hanoi. Hanoi is in the time zone GMT+07:00, hereafter referred to as local time (LT).

4.1.1 Temperature and methane

The measurements were made on three different areas on three days: the 17th, 18th and 19th of October 2004. The temperature was measured with an ordinary mercury thermometer. No professional shelter from incoming radiation was used. The thermometer was kept in shade when possible. The wind speed was low during the measurements. The methane emission was converted into CO and was calculated by a device branded MX-21 plus Oldham, France (figure 9). Pictures of the measurement equipment can be seen in figure 10, taken by Sara Sandin 2004-10-17. A plastic tube is inserted to the pump and connected to a stick with a rubber band. This is the air intake, arrow 3 in figure 10, picture 1. It took approximately 10 to 15 minutes to get a reading from the MX-21 plus. The methane emission and temperature measurements were done at 8.30, 10.30, 12.30 am and 2.30, 4.30 pm (LT). Firstly the in situ measurements were done and secondly the plastic bag was filled with air from the pump. The methane emission in the paddy field was converted to CO by the following reaction: 5CH4 + 6KMnO4 + 9H2SO4 5CO + 3K2SO4 + 6MnSO4 + 19H2O (5)

Pump Chemical reaction MX-21plus

Filter of CO

Air pressure control

Figure 9. Measurement equipment in situ

15

2 3

Picture 1

Picture 2

Figure 10. Picture 1 shows the in situ measurement. Arrow 1 indicates the particle measurement equipment, 2 the pump, 3 the intake of air and 4 the reaction tube. Picture 2 shows the plastic bag sampling. The methane emission was then calculated by the following two formulas (NISF, 2004): a) Defining the methane content (in ppm) Cm = 4/7 Ck Where: Cm is methane content in the air Ck is value of CO received in MX-21 4/7: Conversion coefficient b) Defining the methane content C (in mg/m2) C= 1.29 Cm / [1 + (T / 273)] Where: Cm is content of CH4 in the air (ppm) T is the temperature at the measurement time (C) 4.1.1.1 The diurnal variations of methane The methane content were measured 5 times per day during 10-15 minutes each and to get the diurnal emissions the measurements were plotted in a graph, with 10 minutes interval on the x-axis and methane emission on the y-axis. The least mean square method was used and a polynomial equation of the second degree was calculated from the graph. The polynomial equation was used to calculate a mean value for each 10 minutes period. The emissions of the intervals are then added between 6 am and 8 pm because this is when the most methane emission is emitted (Yang & Chang 1999). The emissions during the night have not been included in the calculation.

16

4.1.2 Rice variety, water and fertilizer management

Interviews have been made with the owners of the rice fields in order to find out what kind of rice variety, water and fertilizer management have been used in the field. The questions asked are found in appendix 1.

4.1.3 Mapping and GPS

The mapping of the three fields was made with a compass and a pedometer. The area was subdivided into smaller areas by lines such as roads, paths and streams and the areas in-between were mapped and classified. These maps were then scanned and converted into raster images in Idrisi32 version I32.11. The maps were then digitalized in CartaLinx version 1.2 and were made thematic with Map Info Professional 7.0. The Global Positioning measurements were made with a Garmin GPS with an approximately accuracy of 10-20 meters. There was no signal obstruction because the rice fields were open. The transverse Mercator projection WGS84 and the rotational ellipse GRS80 were used to get the coordinates.

4.1.4 Interviews
The interviews were made 4th 5th and 7th of November. I was not present at the interviews due to a misunderstanding. Therefore follow up questions could not be asked and the expressions and behaviour of the interviewee could not be observed first hand. It cannot be ruled out that the person interviewing may have affected the answers in the interview. However, the person interviewing were not involved in other parts of this research project. Many of the questions were not answered and it cannot be known if it is a result of neglect or a mistake. The questions asked are found in appendix 1 and the questions not answered are bold.

4.2 Laboratory measurements

Air and soil samples were taken at the three fields. The air samples were taken in plastic containers via a pump, see picture 2 in figure 10. The soil samples were taken at 5 cm depth in a plastic bag.

4.2.1 Air samples

The methane emission cannot be measured directly from the plastic bags. The methane needs to be converted into another substance. The following reaction was used to transform the methane into carbonoxide. 5CH4 + 6KMnO4 + 9H2SO4 5CO + 3K2SO4 + 6KMnO4 + 19H2O The methane of the air sampling bags was mixed with liquid NaOH. Then H2SO4 was added to the mixture and the air was pumped into a reaction tube with KMnO4. The carbonoxide was the put in with the liquid I2O5 to create iodide, which was measured. CH4 liquid NaOH liquid H2SO4 Pump reaction tuble ( KMnO4) liquid I2O5 The carbonoxide reacted with iodideoxide to create iodide: 5CO + I2O5 I2 + 5CO2 The iodide (I2) was detectable in a Jasco V-530 (Japan).

17

4.2.2 Soil samples

The three soil samples were taken on the three measurement sites on 5 cm depth. The samples were sent to the laboratory at NISF, where it was analysed according to FAO guidelines. Granulometric analysis was carried out by sieving and sedimentation (Robinson pipette) considering clay (<0.002 mm), silt (0.002-0.02 mm), fine sand (0.02-0.2 mm) and coarse sand (0.22 mm). The samples were first dried and crushed in a mortar so that no particles were aggregated. The samples were treated with dispersant NaCH3COO. The soil pH was measured in a potassium chloride solution (KCl). The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined with the Kjeldahl ammonia distillation technique. The tests of nonexchangeable potassium in soils were done with the tetraphenyl-boron-K precipitate method (TBK-method). The amount of potassium available for plants was determined by the ammonium acetate method. The non-extractable phosphorus was decided by the spectrophotometer method and plant-available phosphorus was determined by the Bray & Kurtz method (Bray 2 method) and the Oniani method. The total nitrogen content of the soil was determined by the Kjeldahl method and for the analysis of the organic matter content the Walkeley-Black method was used (MARD 1999).

4.3 Modelling methane emissions

The emissions analysed in laboratory was used to create the modelled seasonal and future values.

4.3.1 The seasonal variations of methane

To calculate the seasonal emission of methane from the two irrigated paddy fields the work of Corton et al. (2000) was used. The emissions measured in this project were compared to the emissions measured by Corton et al. and the fraction relationship between the two measurements was used. Therefore the seasonal emission of the three rice fields is directly related to the work of Corton et al. The water management is the same in Central Luzon (in the Philippines) and on the two first paddy fields in Vietnam, namely irrigated. Vietnam (Hanoi) and Central Luzon is close latitude-wise (22N and 17N respectively) and therefore the climate is quite similar. However Luzon is an island in the Pacific Ocean, which makes the climate conditions a bit more peculiar. The soil of Central Luzon is not the same as the soils of the three fields in this study. The average emission during the crop season was used. The measurements were made during the dry season of 1996. The measurements were done of the two rice varieties IR72 and IR64. Since IR72 is a high emitting crop and IR64 has lower emissions the two crops are both used in the modelling in order to show the size and range of methane emissions. The same method was used to calculate the emissions of the rainfed paddy field and the measurements were taken from the same area even though it was not a rainfed paddy field. The seasonal emissions of field 3 must therefore be overestimated.

4.3.2 The future methane emission

The emissions of methane will likely increase with increasing temperature and precipitation due to the global warming effect. Sandin (2005) has done future climate studies of the climate of Vietnam using a climate model called CGCM2 based on the IPCC IS92a scenario. The CGCM2 is a coupled global climate model developed by the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (CCCma 2005). According to Sandin (2005) the precipitation anomaly in North Vietnam is small during the years 2019-2095. The temperature anomaly in this area is thought likely to 18

increase during the same time period. The model estimations of increased temperature from Sandin (2005) are used to calculate the future methane emissions of North Vietnam during the autumn. A relationship between temperature and methane emissions (see table 2) was found by Xu et al. (PU 2005) through modelling emission from rice paddy soil measurements in Chongqing (1999) and Sichuan (1989), China. The relationship is not firmly established but due to difficulties in finding other sources, this relationship was used to create future emissions of North Vietnam during the autumn season. Table 2. Relationship between temperature and methane emission
Temperature increase 1 C 2 C 3 C Methane emission increase 20 % 46.5 % 68 %

Source: PU 2005.

19

4.4 The measurement fields

Detailed maps of the three fields can be seen in figures 11, 13 and 15 respectively and pictures of the three fields are found in figures 12, 14 and 16. All pictures by Sara Sandin. The first field (GPS: X=0580642, Y=2332480, Z=7 meters) is in a constant water filled rice field, with flowering rice. The water level was 15 cm and the crop was 75 cm high. Approximately 350 m north of the first field a brick and cement factory is located. The wind speed was approximately 2 m/s northeast, when the measurements were made. The location of the factory and the low wind speed suggests that the emissions from the factory could not have influenced the particle counter. A heavily trafficked road is located north of measuring point one. This should not have affected the 100 m measurements due to the filtering of CO and CO2 before measuring the methane amount. 35 m from the first measuring point a 20 m Figure 11. Map of field 1. wide ditch filled with water was located. The weather was sunny with a heat haze covering 8 octas of the sky. Two days before the first measurement there had been heavy rain in the area for two-three hours during the afternoon. The measurements were made at a 10 cm level above the crop.

Picture 3 Figure 12. The big black arrow indicates measurement point 1. There is approximately 40 meters to the black arrow. Picture 3 taken towards the south 2004-10-17, indicated by the small black arrow on the map. 20

The second field (GPS: X=0580125, Y=2331242, Z=3 meters) was also in a rice field filled with water, but the water level was only 10 cm, and the crop 50 cm. The in situ measurements were done at 10 cm height over the water level and during this measurement the mud was heavily trampled. The crop was flowering. A heavily trafficked road is located north of measuring point two. The wind speed was approximately 1 m/s northwest and increased during the day to approximately 3 m/s at the end of the measuring day. The methane measurements should not be affected by the traffic due to the filter. The weather was cloudy with thicker clouds covering 8 octas of the sky.
100 m

Figure 13. Map of field 2.

Picture 4

Figure 14. The big black arrow indicates measurement point 2. There is approximately 30 meters to the black arrow. Picture 4 is taken towards east 2004-10-20, indicated by the small black arrow on the map.

21

Field three (GPS: X=0581145, Y=2332656, Z=7 meters) was located in a dry rice field, with 60 cm high flowering rice. Close to the measuring point a ditch of 0.5 m width and a wildly grown cemetery was located. This in situ measurement was also done at 10 cm height over the mud level during heavily trampling. The weather was clear and the wind speed was approximately 3 m/s northeast.

100 m

Figure 15. Map of field 3.

Picture 5

Figure 16. The big black arrow indicates the measurement point 3. There is approximately 1 meter to the black arrow. Picture 5 is taken towards the north-northeast 2004-10-24, indicated by the small black arrow on the map.

22

5. Results
5.1 Soil properties
The properties of the soils of the three fields can be seen in table 3. The soil texture is shown in figure 17. Table 3. Soil properties of the fields.
pH (KCl) 4.2 4.2 4.6 Org C % 2.1 1.6 2.2 Total (%) N P2O5 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.25 K2O 1.1 1.3 0.8 mg/100g soil (available) P2O5 P2O5 K2O 4.9 4.7 3.6 6.3 5.9 4.8 9.4 5.4 3.6 meq/100g soil 2+ 2+ Ca Mg CEC 3.6 0.97 17 3.9 2.0 16 5.1 2.1 10

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3

The pH (KCl) is acid for all three points; however if the pH (H2O) had been measured it would probably be 0.5-1 unit higher. But it is still an acid soil. Most plants perform best in a soil that is slightly acid to neutral, which is a pH (H2O) between 6.0 to 7.0. Acidic condition (pH< 5.5) in soils impair microbial activity and plant growth, decrease organic matter decomposition rate and enhance toxicity of heavy metals. However, rice plants function well in an acid soil (BS 2005). According to IFA (2005) the soils of the humid tropics (as in Vietnam) are often acid and in need of liming. Indeed all the fields had low pH and may be in need of liming in order to reach high crop productivity. High salinity in a soil inhibits the availability of Ca2+ for the rice plants. The combination of high amounts of H+ and low Ca2+ and Mg2+ generally inhibits root growth and plant health. This is probably the case for fields 1 and 2. Even though the health of the roots and plants are questionable in fields 1 and 2, the fields emit high levels of methane. As written in section 5.3.4 it is the fields that may have improper treatment that emit most methane. The organic content of the three fields are pretty low and the second field has the lowest value compared to a soil with normal organic matter content. For the total N (%) measurements a value between 0.1 and 0.2 means that the soil needs moderate amount of N and a value over 0.2 means that there is a low requirement of N fertilizer. Fields 1 and 3 seems to have a healthy amount of N fertilizer added. For the available P a value below 5 needs P fertilizer acutely and between 5 and 10 the requirement of P fertilizer is moderate (IFA 2005). Field 2 acutely needs P fertilizer, field 1 needs a contribution of P fertilizer and field 3 have low acquirement of P fertilizer. There is often a shortage of available P, N, K and Mg in the soils, hence appropriate fertilizer input is relevant for efficient crop productivity and probably also for lowering the methane emission. Section 5.2.3 treats what kind of fertilizers that were added to the fields. CEC is an estimate of soils ability to attract, retain, and exchange cation elements. A soil with low clay content has a CEC value from 1-10 and has fewer positions to hold cations and a soil with high clay content has a CEC value from 11-50 and is more able to hold cations. The third field has the lowest CEC value and the lowest clay content, see figure 17 on soil texture below. Low CEC soils hold fewer nutrients, and will likely be subject to leaching of mobile anion nutrients. Leaching also increases with more coarse grains. None of the soils had a particular high CEC value and a high CEC soil requires a higher soil cation level to provide adequate crop nutrition.

meq=millequivalents

23

110

90

70

% .

50

30

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3

10

<0.002mm -10

0.002-0.02mm

(0.02-0.2mm)

(0.2-2.0mm)

Soil texture

Figure 17. Soil texture of the three fields The soil texture is similar for fields 1 and 2. These fields have higher clay and silt content, which result in an ability to hold small particles and nutrients. The third field has low clay and silt content. The soil of the third field has in spite of this most nutrient availability according to table 3.

5.2 Interviews
As written before in section 4.1.4 the interviews were made 4th 5th and 7th of November. Many of the questions were not answered and the questions asked are found in appendix 1 and the questions not answered are bold.

5.2.1 Farming calendar

The farmers which cultivate the rice fields where the measurements were done have the same farming calendar, one that is characteristic for the area. One spring harvest and one summer harvest is produced from the rice fields. The farming calendar can be seen below in table 4. Fertilizer is added two times; at the transplanting stage and the second weeding stage. During the winter the fields lie fallow. There is no indication of when the land preparation is done for the spring rice. It is probably done during December or January.

24

Table 4. The farming calendar for the three rice fields.

Cropping systems Spring rice 1. Land preparation 2. Transplanting+ Fertilizer 3. Weeding 1 4. Weeding 2 +Fertilizer 5. Harvest Summer rice 1. Land preparation 2. Transplanting+ Fertilizer 3. Weeding 1 4. Weeding 2 +Fertilizer 5. Harvest Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

5.2.2 Water management

The water management of the first two fields are the same; water all year round. During the time of measurement the second rice field had a lower water level than the first rice field. At the third field the water was drained at the time of measurement. At the third field the farmer irrigates the field when the rice seems to need it and when there is a supply of water. This is a kind of intermittent irrigation.

5.2.3 Fertilizer usage

As can be seen in table 4, the fertilizer was applied to the fields during transplanting and second weeding time. How the fertilizer was applied and what kind of fertilizer e.g. pig manure, rice straw etc it was is unknown. The interviewees have answered how they have tried to improve the fields. The application of N, P and K fertilizer is shown in table 5 and 6. Unfortunately the application is only known in kg fertilizer per owner not in kg/m2 or equivalent. The areas of the fields are not known. Therefore it is difficult to compare the fertilizer application rate with other areas. After the second crop season the farmers leave 50 % the crop residue on the fields. Table 5. Fertilizer application to spring rice fields.
Owner of field 1 (total application of all the owners fields) High water level Owner of field 2 (total application of all the owners fields) Medium water level Owner of field 3 (total application of all the owners fields) Low water level Nitrogen (kg) 9-12 Phosphorus (kg) 10-14 Potassium (kg) 2-7

5-12

10-15

4-8

10

25

Table 6. Fertilizer application to summer rice fields.

Owner of field 1 (total application of all the owners fields) High water level Owner of field 2 (total application of all the owners fields) Medium water level Owner of field 3 (total application of all the owners fields) Low water level Nitrogen (kg) 8-9 Phosphorus (kg) 10-11 Potassium (kg) 2-7

5-10

10-15

4-8

15

5.2.4 Rice variety and mitigation options

The rice variety is not known, either because the farmers do not know what they use or the question wasnt asked. The farmers could be unaware of what kind of rice they grow. None of the questions about mitigation options were answered or asked.

5.3 Methane emission

The methane emissions were measured in situ (table 7) and in a laboratory (figure 18). The measurements in the laboratory have higher accuracy.

5.3.1 Methane emission measured in situ

Table 7. Methane emission (ME) rates in ppm and temperature (C) in situ.
Time (LT) 8.30 10.30 12.30 14.30 16.30 Field 1 ME (High Temperature water level) (HWL) 3 29 3 34 3 36 3 34 3 30 ME (Medium water level) 2 2 3 3 3 Field 2 Temperature (MWL) 28 32 34.5 34 29 ME (Low water level) 0 1 1 1 1 Field 3 Temperature (LWL) 32.5 32 33 34 29

The measurements of methane emission in situ show only small changes. But as can be seen in table 7 there is a difference between the water levels. As expected the highest water level has the highest emission and the lowest water level has the lowest emission of methane. The measurements of the methane emission of the medium water level and low water level were done with heavy trampling of the soil, the effects of this is discussed in chapter 6.2. Even though this was done, the emission from the paddy fields was pretty low.

26

5.3.2 Methane emission measured in situ and in laboratory

4 3.5 Methane emission (ppm) 3 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 8.30 10.30 12.30 Time 14.30 16.30 Temperature (oC)

2.5 2

Methane HWL Methane MWL Methane LWL Temperature HWL Temperature MWL Temperature LWL

1.5 1

0.5 0

Figure 18. Methane emission rates from three rice fields. Measurements made in situ and laboratory. As can be seen in figure 18 the methane emissions follow the temperature pretty well. There are some accuracy problems with the temperature measurements. The measurements were made without a professional shelter from incoming solar radiation or reflection effects, this is discussed in section 6.2. These effects could not be corrected since the only measurements to correct them with are from central Hanoi, which is an urban area characterized by an urban climate. The thermometer was kept in shade during the measurements but reflection from the water was not obstructed. The same pattern as the in situ measurements can be seen in these measurements. The highest methane emission comes from the field with the highest water level.

5.3.3 Diurnal methane emission

The diurnal methane emission was calculated from a polynomial equation of the second degree (see figure 19 below). For the emissions of methane from the rice growing in a low water level paddy two values were excluded in order to fit into the polynomial equation. The nighttime emission, from 8 pm to 6 am is excluded in the diurnal emission calculation. In table 8 a summary of the results are found.

27

4 2 y = -0.0005x + 0.0431x + 2.4381 3.5

Methane emission (mg m-2 h-1)

MWL HWL

3
LWL

2.5 2 y = -0.0007x + 0.0465x + 1.8355

2

1.5 1 y = -0.0005x + 0.0481x + 0.3111

2

Values from LWL ignored to fit the curve Poly. (MWL) Poly. (HWL) Poly. (LWL)

0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 x10

Time (minutes after 6 am)

Figure 19. Polynomial equations used to calculate methane emissions during a day.

5.3.4 Seasonal methane emission

The equation 4 described earlier in section 2.1.1.2 could not be used, since the rice straw application rate at the three fields could not be found out. The seasonal emission was therefore calculated from the measurements made by Corton et al. (2000). Corton et al. have measured on a silty clay soil with pH = 6.1, Organic content = 1.3 and total N = 0.09 %. These soil properties are not close to the three fields, see table 8. The measurement were made on soil prepared with fresh rice straw and urea (90 kg/ha) during the dry season of 1996 and the mean temperature was 26.3C. Central Luzon is situated close to the latitude of North Vietnam and therefore the climate is similar. However, Central Luzon is on an island in the Pacific Ocean, which makes the climate a bit different. The water management is the same as for the first two fields in this project, but as remarked in section 4.3.1 no measurements from rainfed paddies could be found in similar climate area. From table 8 one can see that the highest emissions of methane were from the rice fields with high water level. The lowest methane emissions came from field 3 with low water level and the healthiest soil of the three fields. This is as expected, since a well kept soil results in low emissions of methane. It is probably a combination of the healthy soil and the low water level that results in a low emission of methane from field 3.

28

Table 8. Summary of results of the methane emission.

Field Water management Irrigated (HWL) Irrigated (MWL) Intermittent irrigation (LWL) Soil texture Clayey, silty sand Clayey, silty sand Silty, clayey fine sand Soil pH (KCl) Org C (%) 2.14 Total N (%) Total methane emission 2 (mg/m and day) 228.0 Total methane 2 emission (mg/m and season) 22081 57947 16174 42443 8329 21857

4.2

0.23

4.2

1.56

0.19

167.1

4.6

2.18

0.21

86.0

5.3.5. Future methane emission

The future methane emission was calculated from the studies by Sandin (2005) using a climate model called CGCM2 based on the IPCC IS92a scenario. The relationship between temperature and methane emission found by Xu et al. (PU 2005) is used in the calculation. For more detailed information see section 4.3.2 and table 2. The future methane emission (from 2019 to 2095) can be seen in figure 20. This example is done with the emissions of point 1, but since the same relationship would create the same curve only at different starting points. The highest emission changes is during 2060 to 2070 and this is due to the temperature patterns during these years.
0,9366 3,5 0,942238889 0,946417222 0,991551111 3 0,99197 1,0311 2,5 1,053469444 1,041818333 2 1,087273889 1,07054 1,071098333 1,5 1,090002222 1,105241667 1 1,131399444 1,146128889 1,130032778 0,5 1,177578889 1,159525556 0 1,162145 1,136181111 1,181536667 18,70833912 18,82256991 18,90729528 19,82694055 19,83551396 20,63948442 21,10184157 20,86077338 21,80434819 21,45602178 21,46762578 21,86124636 22,17960578 22,72822024 23,03834953 22,69948899 23,70343575 23,32117069 23,3765545 22,82880337 23,78741279 1,187083 1,188226 1,189073 1,198269 1,198355 1,206395 1,211018 1,208608 1,218043 1,21456 1,214676 1,218612 1,221796 1,227282 1,230383 1,226995 1,237034 1,233212 1,233766 1,228288 1,237874 Year 270,6550132 42,65501 270,9154594 42,91546 271,1086332 43,10863 273,2054244 45,20542 273,2249718 45,22497 275,0580245 47,05802 276,1121988 48,1122 275,5625633 47,56256 277,7139139 49,71391 276,9197297 48,91973 276,9461868 48,94619 277,8436417 49,84364 278,5695012 50,5695 279,8203421 51,82034 280,5274369 52,52744 279,7548349 Floating mean value 51,75483 282,0438335 ME anomaly 54,04383 281,1722692 53,17227 281,2985443 53,29854 280,0496717 52,04967 282,2353012 54,2353 180 Methane emisison increase (mg Methane emission increase CH4/m2 and day) 2 (mg CH4 /m and day) 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Temperatureanomaly (C) ( C) Temperature

Figure 20. Future change in methane emission calculated from the floating mean value 2019-2095 in North Vietnam during the autumn (SON).

The crop variety used for this calculation is IR72 The crop variety used for this calculation is IR64

20 19 20 23 20 27 20 31 20 35 20 39 20 43 20 47 20 51 20 55 20 59 20 63 20 67 20 71 20 75 20 79 20 83 20 87 20 91

29

6. Discussion
6.1 Field studies
The laboratory measurements (with a sampling plastic container) have higher accuracy. The in situ measurements were zero, but with heavy trampling of the soil (as when the crop is harvested) 1 ppm (low water level) and 2-3 ppm (medium water level) was measured. Since the measurements got higher during trampling, there is a possibility that during the flowering and ripening stages of the rice the emissions comes mainly from the soil, thus from ebullition. If this is the case, then the emissions during harvest could be large. According to Schtz et al. (1989) 90 % of the methane emitted originates from the rice plant itself. If this would be the case then the emissions from the measurement field would be very high indeed. However, when the methane was measured in this project nothing but trampling gave higher methane emission. According to Wassmann et al. (2000) the aerenchyma (where it emits methane) formation of the plant is affected by nutrient availability, physical impedance and soil redox potential. The nutrient availability values were low, perhaps explaining the low emissions from the rice plant. Field 3 had the highest Ca2+ and Mg2+ and could leak these nutrients due to the low CEC-value. Acid conditions impair microbial activity and plant growth, which could be a reason for the low ppm methane emissions. If a soil properties profile had been established it would be easier to draw a conclusion on this subject. The soil properties were only sampled at 5 cm depth and a soil profile with different measured parameters at different levels would increase the accuracy of the measured parameters. The high measurements from the first field were received without trampling. These high methane emissions could have been induced by the heavy rains a few days earlier. The in situ measurements need high emissions to be correct. Only 1 to 3 ppm has been measured and that is low values. There are several parameters that should have been measured in Hanoi, and two of the parameters are soil temperature, water temperature and wind speed. It would have been interesting to see how well the methane emissions correlated with the other temperatures as well as air temperature. A correction of the air temperature is needed, because no professional shelter from reflection of rays from the water or shelter for incoming radiation was used and this could have increased the temperature measurements. On the other hand, a correction is hard to do, because the closest air temperature measurements are done in central Hanoi, where other parameters affect the local climate, such as the urban heat island and different building materials. The wind speed was low during the measurements. If the wind speed would have been large the measurements could have been affected. Instead of measuring the methane emission, emissions from roads or factories could have been measured. However, a low wind speed increases the reflection effect of the water. There are also several questions that were not answered in the questionnaire. It would have been preferable for me to accompany the interviewer and be able to read the body language of both the interviewer and interviewee first hand. There is a risk that the answers will be improved if they are not asked with care. However, there is little chance that this was the case, since the interviewer and the assistant on the fields were not the same person. There were some difficulties regarding the interviews. Many of the questions were not asked (see appendix 1) and some were poorly answered. This could be due to many reasons; badly formulated questions, absence of author and the fact that the interviewer and the author of this project never met. This resulted in difficulties to interpret the results. Questions such as fertilizer values were not received in per square meter, the rice sort is not known, water management is not known in detail and so forth. The rice variety may not have been known, even by the farmer and there are many different rice species. The water

30

management would be preferable to know, since Wassmann et al. (2000) have concluded that a drainage period of 7-10 days is adequate.

6.2 Calculations
The diurnal variations of methane for the three fields are high, at least when compared to measurements in Jakenan, Prachinburi and Los Baos, as seen in table 9. The model is based upon daytime emissions only. The educated guess is that the diurnal emissions will be a bit higher if the nighttime emissions could be calculated. The difficulty was to figure out how high the emissions were during the nighttime. Several different scenarios could be plausible. If the methane emission follows temperature, it could be lower during the night and rise early morning when the sun rises. The emissions could be quite low during the nighttime hours and stay low during the early morning. According to Yang & Chang (1999) the emissions are highest at 2 pm and lowest at 6 am, but in a Beijing rice field methane emission had two peaks, one between noon and 2 pm and one between midnight to 1 am (Wang & Shangguan 1995). It is therefore difficult to know the emissions during nighttime in Hanoi, due to the lack of measurements. From table 8 it is clear that the highest emission is connected to the paddy with the highest water level (15 cm) and the lowest emission comes from the intermittent irrigated paddy. When these measurements are compared to other measurements made in Southeast Asia it is also clear that they are higher (table 9). The three areas which are compared with the measurements from Vietnam, namely Jakenan (in Indonesia), Los Baos (in the Philippines) and Prachinburi (in Thailand) have been measured the same way, with the closed chamber method. The average emission per day is including nighttime emissions. Table 9. Emissions of methane in different areas in Southeast Asia.
Geographical area Soil properties Water management Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed/ intermittent irrigation Rainfed Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Deepwater Irrigated Average CH4 1 emission -2 -1 (mg CH4 m d ) 228 167 86 CH4 emission -1 -1 (kg CH4 ha season ) 220 579 162 424 83 219 58 137 40 76 81 99

Hanoi, Vietnam Field 1 Hanoi, Vietnam Field 2 Hanoi, Vietnam Field 3 Jakenan, Indonesia Jakenan, Indonesia Los Baos, Philippines Los Baos, Philippines Prachinburi, Thailand Prachinburi, Thailand

pH=4.2, Org C=2.14% pH=4.17, Org C=1.56% pH=4.56, Org C=2.18% pH=4.2, Org C=0.33% pH=4.2, Org C=0.33% pH=6.3, Org C=1.46% pH=6.3, Org C=1.46% pH=3.9, Org C=1.22% pH=3.9, Org C=1.22%

60 (52) 145 (72) 19 (8) 76 (18) 50 (36) 75 (111)

Source: Wassmann et al. 2000 (excluding the first three rows from Hanoi, Vietnam) The values in parenthesis are the average standard deviation.
1

The average emission from Hanoi, Vietnam was measured during a short period and during a period when the methane emissions was especially high. The other measurements were made during 1994-1998. See text for more. The crop variety used for this calculation is IR72 The crop variety used for this calculation is IR64

31

The measurements of Wassmann et al. (2000) were subdued to strong day-to-day fluctuations in methane emission. The seasonal emissions also varied within a year during different crop seasons and between annual cycles. This makes it more important with continuous measurements over a long time period. The methane emission was measured during 1994-1998 and the figures in table 9 above are a mean of the measurements. The high organic compound in Los Baos did not result in higher emissions, compared to Jakenan. This is also confirmed by the measurements made in this project. Field 1 has as high organic content as field 3 but higher emissions of methane than field 3. This is instead probably due to the differences in water management. Field 3 has the lowest methane emission, where intermittent irrigation is applied. Even though it is a low value it means taking a risk as a poor farmer. The farmer cannot store water so there is a risk to loose the yield if there is a lack in precipitation. In these tropical areas the precipitation can sometimes become heavy, and then the crop can be destroyed. The seasonal calculations of methane are under strong influence of Corton et al. (2000) measurements. Those measurements were chosen due to the similarities in water management (of the two first points) and the climate. However, the soils are different. There were no measurements to be found that were easily comparable to the measurements made in this project. Therefore it was of importance to find measurements that was as comparable as possible and since many scientists have propagated for the influence of climate and water management on methane emission, the measurements of Corton et al. was selected. However the climate is not the same in Hanoi as in Central Luzon. Luzon has a tropical marine climate, but with a rainy season (May to October) and a dry season (December to February) similar to Vietnam. The temperature patterns are not similar; Luzon has two peaks; one in April-May and one lower peak in September. Vietnam has one peak during the summer months. The precipitation patterns are similar, but the maximum value is later in Luzon. The measurements are made on irrigated paddy fields. If the measurements were made on rainfed paddies the differences between the Hanoi values and Central Luzon would have been greater. As described earlier the maximum value was tried to be pinpointed and this was thought to be during the reproductive stage of the rice. The maximum could have been during the transplanting stage. However, the values measured correspond to the measurements of Corton et al. The seasonal emissions are difficult to compare to other measurements due to different measuring methods. The research of seasonal emissions of methane has shown different patterns. According to Bharati et al. (2001) the highest methane emissions were emitted during the reproduction and ripening stages of rice. According to Liu & Wu (2004) the highest emissions are emitted during the transplanting stage of the second crop season. It is therefore difficult to calculate the seasonal emissions with high accuracy. To calculate an annual value is even harder because the second and first crop season differs in many areas. It is also difficult to know how much methane is emitted during the fallow season. According to Liu & Wu (2004) there is no difference between paddy soil (without rice plants) and paddy rice. Holzapfel-Pschorn et al. (1986) concludes that rice plants stimulate the formation of methane. Therefore only a seasonal mean value is calculated in this project. After the second crop season the rice residue is left on the field which could result in higher emissions during the first crop season than during the second crop season. Since no measurements were made during the first crop season or during fallow season it is difficult to calculate the emissions during a whole year. The calculations of the future methane emissions are connected to great uncertainties. The measurements, where the relationship between temperature and methane were established, were measured with other equipment in two provinces in China more than five years ago. The climate 32

patterns are different in the provinces and so are the soils. The water management is however similar. The important thing is not the figures, but the patterns. It can be established that with increasing temperature the methane emissions from rice paddies will increase.

6.3 Mitigation options for Vietnam

The demand on rice has increased and to meet this demand the yield must increase and the irrigated land must expand. Rice production must increase world wide from 608 million tons (FAO 2005) to 800 million tons in 2025 to meet the demand, according to IRRI (2004). This could, but hopefully will not, mean increased methane emission rates. If the irrigated areas expand on the expense of valuable land areas such as forests, the net methane emission will increase. High-yielding crops and increased use of fertilizer are other options to increase the yield. This also increases the emission of methane. According to Rath & Swain et al. (1999) application of nitrification inhibitors retarded methane emission from paddy fields without lowering yield. This could be an option for wealthy farmers. Draining the field before the heading stage lowers the methane emission without lowering yield according to Singh et al. (2003), but this is also hard for poor farmers in tropical regions to implement due to the irregular precipitation in those areas. The water could be collected in ponds, but still it is cheaper and easier to use the precipitation directly. Another strategy proposed by Sing et al. (2003) is to select the right type of rice cultivar and fertilizer. This may be a problem to Vietnamese farmers, because new crops are often more expensive and need special fertilizer and soil to grow. In North Vietnam there is a possibility that the farmers do not know what rice variety they use. This could not be confirmed nor contradicted when the interviews were made. If this is the case, then closer contact between advisors and farmers need to be established. Yang & Chang (1999) propagated for increased use of intermittent irrigation, while Wassmann et al. (2000) believed that more research was needed on the subject. From the research done in this project one can conclude that the paddy field that had been exposed to intermittent irrigation had lower methane emission levels. However the data is insufficient to draw firm conclusions. Intermittent irrigation is a cheap way to lower methane emissions compared to use new rice cultivars and special fertilizer. Wassmann et al. (2000) proposes direct seeded rice instead of transplanting. Direct seeding lowered the emissions by 16-54 %. The purpose of transplanting is to grow the rice in especially fertile soil with fertilizer, so that the crop is ensured to grow and live on. It is also an effective way to start the second crop season while the first is not yet harvested. This is of course of importance to poor farmers. Accentuated methane oxidation is also proposed by Wassmann et al. (2000) but more studies are needed on the subject to start implementing it. Liu & Wu (2004) recommend the farmers to not leave the rice straw on the fields after harvest, because this increases the methane emission. This is on the other hand an excellent way for poor farmers to enhance the fertility of the soil without applying manufactured fertilizer. The burning of the fields after harvest is commonly used in the measurement area. This increases the emissions of carbon dioxide and aerosols. However it also can increase the fertility of the soils. In Vietnam the rice area has increased with 18.5 % from 1991 to 2002. If the same increase were to happen 2002-2013 it is probably hard to keep the methane emission rates low even with intermittent irrigation and changed water management patterns. There is probably a need to use low emitting crops and examine the soils further to know what type of fertilizer should be used. This is no doubt expensive, but with proper help from developed countries this could probably be achieved. Projects have already been started to evaluate the soil in North Vietnam so that the correct fertilizer composition could be used on the soil. Even though the main purpose of the projects is not to decrease methane emissions, it is a welcome side effect. The yield has increased 33

more than the rice area from 1991 to 2002, namely 47.4 % (FAO 2004). This indicates that the areas have been made higher yielding. One can only speculate what kind of methods have been used, if a more high yielding rice variety has been used, there is a risk that there is also higher methane emissions. According to NISF there are two kinds of policies for farming rice. The government wants the farmers to use the right kind of fertilizer so that the soil status is kept in balance. Using appropriate fertilizer is also important for lowering the methane emissions from the rice fields. This policy therefore inhibits methane emissions even though it is not its primary goal. The other policy focuses on high yielding rice varieties for exporting some part of the rice yield. This policy is mainly for farmers with larger areas of rice paddies, not the ones that this study has focused on. There is a clear need for the government of Vietnam to take the emission of greenhouse gases from paddy field seriously. The Vietnam Initial Communication showed that methane is the most emitted greenhouse gas in Vietnam (in carbon dioxide equivalents) and agriculture was responsible for the largest emissions. Rice cultivation is responsible for 62.5 % of the methane emissions from agriculture. One way is to start projects to find out how high the emissions of methane are in different areas of Vietnam. South of Hue three crop seasons per year is possible and in the southernmost parts of the Mekong four crop seasons per year is possible. This probably means even larger emissions of methane. The Environmental Protection Agency of Vietnam could continue their work with the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to find out more on how they could decrease the emissions from paddy fields. There have been problems finding out more about the project mentioned earlier, that had started in the Mekong delta in 2001 and finished recently. It would have been interesting to see what conclusions had been reached during the project. However I believe it is important to do similar projects in other areas of Vietnam to truly get a picture of where the efforts to lower methane emissions are needed. Some parts of the Mekong have four crop seasons and therefore it could be wise to start the project there, since it could be the most methane emitting area. However according to Liu & Wu (2004) deepwater rice, which is the main crop cultivated in the Mekong, emits low levels of methane. If the water level is higher than 25 cm then the emissions of methane are quite low. Therefore it would be better to investigate the methane emissions in different parts of Vietnam. It can also be discussed how well the measurement areas are suitable for rice cultivation. According to Mekonginfo (2005) rice is suitable to not suitable to grow on land that has the nutrient availability values as table 10 shows. According to Mekonginfo the three soils that the methane was measured from are medium to intermediate suitable for rice growing. On the other hand the soil properties were only measured at 5 cm level and not a complete profile, which could increase the suitability to grow rice on the soils. Table 10. Nutrient availability preferred to grow rice.
High suitability % Organic matter P (available) K2O (available) Soil pH >3 >25 >6 5.5-7-5 Intermediate suitability 1-3 10-25 3-6 7.5-8 5.0-5.5 Medium suitability <1 <10 <3 8.0-8.5 4.0-5.0 Low suitability

>8.5 <4.0

Source: Mekonginfo, 2005

34

7. Conclusions
The methane emission were 228 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with high water level, 167 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with medium water level and 86 mg CH4 /m2 and day from the field with low water level. From this small amount of data it is difficult to draw any definite conclusion, but it seems as the water level is important for the methane emission rate, as other research also has concluded. The emissions measurements are high in the Hanoi area in relation to measurements done in Thailand (deepwater rice and irrigated rice), the Philippines (irrigated rice and rainfed rice) and Indonesia (irrigated rice and rainfed rice). However it is difficult to put the measurements in Asia in relation to the measurements in Vietnam due to the fact that the nighttime emissions were not included in the diurnal emissions. Even though the nighttime emissions were not included in the measurements, the methane emissions of Vietnam are higher than the emissions from the fields in Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia. A plausible scenario is that the methane emissions will increase with increased temperature due to global warming. According to a scenario made with the climate model CGCM2 the methane emission in North Vietnam will increase 60 mg CH4 /m2 and day 2050 and 170 mg CH4 /m2 and day in the year 2095. According to Sandin (2005) the precipitation is expected to remain stable in North Vietnam. If the precipitation were also to increase then the emissions of methane would likely increase even more. Then the rainfed paddies would have higher water levels and the methane emissions would therefore increase. The emission of methane could be reduced in many ways. Better water management, a suitable selection of rice cultivars and fertilizer are some of the suggestions made in this report. On the third measurement field, intermittent irrigation was used. This is an excellent way to lower methane emission. However, this sort of water management is difficult to use in humid tropics, like Vietnam, because the precipitation and high water level in canals and ditches is not reliable. Drainage of water before the heading stage of the rice, which is a good way to lower methane emissions, cannot be used in north Vietnam because the shortage of water during that season. Leaving the rice straw after harvest is a practise used on the measurement paddy fields. This is not recommended, because it enhances the emissions of methane from the fields according to many scientists. It is better to use the correct amount of fertilizer especially worked out for that field. However, this is a cheap way to better the organic content in the soil during the fallow season. Some scientists also suggest planting the rice seeds directly in the soil instead of transplanting. No policies exist today in Vietnam to lower the methane emissions from rice fields. There is one policy to make the farmers use the right sort of fertilizer on their fields. The secondary effect of this may be lower methane emissions from the fields.

35

8. References
8.1 Articles and books
Banker, B.C. Kludze, H.K. Alford, D.P. DeLaune, R.D. & Lindau, C.W. (1995) Methane sources and sinks in paddy rice soils: relationship to emissions. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 53, 243-251. Bharati, K. Mohanty, S.R. Rao, V.R. & Adhya, T.K. (2001) Influence of flooded and non-flooded conditions on methane efflux from two soils planted to rice. Chemosphere Global Change Science 3, 25-32. Cole, V. (Lead author), (1995) Agricultural options for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. pp 745-771. In: Watson, R.T. Zinyowera, M.C. & Moss, R.H. (Eds.), Climate Change 1995 Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific Technical Analyses. Cambridge University Press, New York, 878 pp. Corton et al. (2000) Methane emissions from irrigated and intensively managed rice fields in Central Luzon (Philippines). Nutrient cycling in Agroecosystems 58, 37-53. Fullen, M.A. & Catt, J.A, (2004) Soil management Problems and solutions. Arnold, London, 269 pp. Goudie A. (2002) Encyclopedia of Global Change Volume 1 and 2. Oxford University Press, New York, vol 1: 710 pp, vol 2: 669 pp. Holzapfel-Pschorn A. Conrad R. & Seiler W. (1986) Effects of vegetation on the emission of methane from submerged paddy soil. Plant soil 92, 223-233. IPCC (1996a) Climate Change 1995. The Science of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Houghton, J.T. Meira Filho, L.G. Callander, B.A. Harris, N, Kattenberg, A. & Maskell, A.K. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 584 pp. IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis: contribution of Working Group I to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / edited by J.T. Houghton ... [et al.]. Cambridge University Press, New York, 881 pp. Liping, G. & Lin, E. (2001) Carbon sink in cropland soils and the emission of the greenhouse gases from paddy soils: a review of work in China. Chemosphere Global Change Science 3, 413-418. Liou, R-M. Huang, S-N & Lin, C-W. (2003) Methane emission from fields with differences in nitrogen fertilizers and rice varieties in Taiwan paddy soils. Chemosphere 50, 237-246 Liu, C-W. & Wu, C-Y. (2004) Evaluation of methane emissions from Taiwanese paddies. Science of the total Environment 333, 195-207. MARD, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development - B nng nghip v pht tri`n nng thn (1999) Laboratory guidance 10TCN 368-99, 10TCN 369-99, 10TCN 371-99, 10TCN 372-99, 10TCN 373-99, 10TCN 374-99, 10TCN 376-99, 10TCN 377-99, 10TCN 378-99, Hanoi. 36

Ministry of natural resources and environment (2003) Vietnam Initial National Communication under the UNFCCC. Mishra, S. Rath, A.K. Adhya, T.K. Rao, V.R. & Sethunathan, N. (1997) Effect of continuous and alternate water regimes on methane efflux from rice under greenhouse conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils 24, 399-405. Moores E. M. & Faibridge R.W. (ed) (1997) Encyclopaedia of European and Asian Regional Geology. Chapman & Hall, London, 804 pp. NISF, National Institute of Soils and Fertilizers (2002) The Basic Information of Main Soil Units of Vietnam. Thegioi Publishers, Hanoi, 146 pp. NISF, National Institute of Soils and Fertilizers (2004) Methodology for measurement Methane content in the paddy field. Laboratory guidance, Hanoi. Rath, A.K. Mohanty, S.R. Mishra, S. Kumaraswamy, S. Ramakrishnan, B. & Sethunathan, N. (1999) Methane production in unamended and rice-straw amended soil at different moisture levels. Biology and Fertility of Soils 28, 145-149. Rath, A.K. Swain, B. Ramakrishnan, B. Panda, D. Adhya, T.K. Rao, V.R. & Sethunathan, N. (1999) Influence of fertilizer management and water regime on methane emission from rice fields. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 76, 99-107. Rath, A.K, Ramakrishnan, B. & Sethunathan, N. (2002) Effect of application of ammonium thiosulphate on production and emission of methane in a tropical rice soil. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90, 319-325. Satpathy, S.N. Mishra, S. Adhya, T.K. Ramakrishnan, B. Rao, VR, & Sethunathan, N. (1998) Cultivar variation in methane efflux from tropical rice. Plant Soil 202, 223-229. Schimel J. (2000) Global Change: Rice, microbes and methane. Nature 403, 375-377. Schutz H. Seiler W. & Conrad R. (1989) Processes involved in formation and emission of methane in rice paddies. Biogeochemistry 7, 33-53. Singh, S.N. Verma, A. & Tyagi, L. (2003) Investigating options for attenuating methane emission from Indian rice fields. Environment International 29, 547-553. Sommer et al. (2004) First estimates of regional (Allgu, Germany) and global CH4 fluxes from wet colluvial margins of closed depressions in glacial drift areas. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 103, 251-257. Statistical Yearbook 2003 (2004). Statistical Publisher House, Hanoi, 698 pp. Wang, M.X. & Shangguan, X.J. (1995) Methane emission from rice fields in China. In: Peng, S. Ingram, K.T. Neue, H.U. Ziska, L.H. (Eds.) Climate Change and Rice. Springer Ferlag, Berlin, 6979 pp.

37

Wassmann R. Lantin S.R. & Neue, H-U (ed) (2000) Methane Emissions from Major Rice Ecosystems in Asia. Kluwer academic publishers, Dordrecht, 394 pp. Watanabe, K. Yamada, H. & Kimura, M. (2005) Analysis of temperature effects on seasonal and interannual variation in CH4 emission from rice planted pots. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 105, 439-443. Wuebbles D. J. & Hayhoe K. (2002) Atmospheric methane and global change. Earth-Science Reviews 57, 177-210. Yagi K & Minami K. (1990) Effect of organic matter application on methane emission from some Japanese paddy fields. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 36, 599-610. Yang S-S. & Chang H-L (1999) Diurnal variation of methane emission from paddy fields at different growth stages of rice cultivation in Taiwan. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 76, 75-84. Yang S-S. & Chang H-L. (2001) Effect of green manure amendment and flooding on methane emission from paddy soils. Chemosphere Global Change Science 3, 41-49. Yang S-S. Liu C-M. Lai C-M. & Liu Y-L. (2003) Estimation of methane and nitrous oxide emission from paddy fields and uplands during 1990-2000 in Taiwan. Chemosphere 52, 12951305.

8.2 Internet addresses

BS, Better Soils http://www.bettersoils.com.au/module5/5_3.htm, 2005-03-02 CCCma, Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis http://www.cccma.bc.ec.gc.ca/models/cgcm2.shtml, 2005-03-23 CDIAC, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/meth/methane.gif, 2004-12-20 FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/collections?subset=agriclture, 2004-10-15 FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations http://apps.fao.org/faostat/servlet/XteServlet3?OutputLanguage=english&Areas=237&Items=ALL &Years=2002&Domain=FBS&ItemTypes=FBS&language=EN&Codes=ShowCodes, 2005-03-02 The rice production 2004 was taken from http://apps.fao.org/faostat/servlet/XteServlet3?Areas=862&Items=27&Elements=51&Years=2004 &Format=Table&Xaxis=Years&Yaxis=Countries&Aggregate=&Calculate=&Domain=SUA&Ite mTypes=Production.Crops.Primary&language=EN, 2005-03-23 IFA, International Fertilizer Industry Association http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/publicat/html/pubman/rice.htm, 2005-01-20 IPCC, Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change Revised 1996b IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories The reference manual (vol 3): 38

http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs1.htm, 2004-09-27 IRRI, International Rice Research Institute: http://www.irri.org/publications/irrn/pdfs/vol29no1/minirev1.pdf, 2004-09-15 For information on rice growth stages: http://www.irri.org/about/faq.asp, 2004-09-30 Map of Asia http://geography.about.com/library/blank/blxasia.htm, 2004-12-28 Map of Vietnam http://geography.about.com/library/cia/blcvietnam.htm, 2004-12-28 Mekonginfo http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/87FE88C624F03E6B472568CD0015AC86/$FIL E/7LS_Inthavong_Final.html, 2005-01-20 NC-1003, Impact Analysis and Decision Strategies for Agricultural Research http://ag.arizona.edu/arec/nc1003/pubs/2004nortonetal.pdf, 2005-01-12 Princeton University (PU), unpublished work http://www.wws.princeton.edu/mauzerall/Methane%20Emiss.%20Xu%20et%20al.11-24.pdf, 2005-02-01 Sandin S. (2005) Home page of Sara Sandin, project on the climate change and impact course: http://www.gvc.gu.se/ngeo/deliang/sara/Sara_projektarbete.pdf, 2005-01-31 Sunrise and sunset in Hanoi http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/astronomy.html?n=95&obj=sun&month=10&year=2004 &day=1, 2005-01-28 UNDP, United Nations Development Programme http://www.undp.org/gef/index.html, 2005-01-13 UNDP-SGP, United Nations Development Programme Small Grants Programme http://sgp.undp.org/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&s=EligibilityCriteria 200501-13 VBF, Vietnam Business Forum the magazine of the Vietnam Chamber of Commerce an Industry: http://www.vnn.vn/chuyenmuc/vb_forum/No20_03/Focus.htm, 2004-09-16 VEPA, Vietnam Environment Protection Agency http://www.nea.gov.vn/html/Quy_MT/GEF/Gef_ta/GEF_VN/Strategy_Program/climate_program. htm#Short-Term%20Programme%20(2001-2002), 2005-01-13

8.3 Other references

Personal communication: Msc Tran Duc Toan (2004) Vice director of National Institute of soils and fertilizers (NISF), Hanoi, Vietnam, telephone number: + 844 8388958.

39

9. Appendix 1
Interviews in situ with all farmers The questions in bold have not been asked/answered. Fertilizer use What kind of fertilizer do you use on the measuring field? When do you apply the fertilizer? (Write in Vietnamese calendar) How do you apply the fertilizer? How much fertilizer do you use on the measuring field? (In kg/m2) Have you left the crop residue since the earlier crop season on the field? Or did you collect the crop residue and burnt it? Did you use the burnt material as fertilizer? Have you composted the crop residue and then used it as fertilizer? Have you composted any other material (like pig manure) to use for fertilizer? Rice Which rice variety/cultivar do you use? Is this the second time you grow rice this year? How did you plant the rice? Directly, transplanting or in some other way? When did you plant the crops? - (Write in Vietnamese calendar) Have you done anything more with the crops since you planted them? (If so, write in Vietnamese calendar) When do you expect to harvest? How long have you been farming rice on the spot? If the farming is changed: What did you grow earlier? How high is the yield from the field? Water management Has the field been flooded all crop season? (Write dates in Vietnamese water management calendar) How high has the water been? (Write dates that water has been higher than 0.7-2m in Vietnamese water management calendar) Is water scarce at times and abundant in times? (Write dates in Vietnamese water management calendar) Fallow season What did you do with the measuring field during the fallow season? Mitigation options - Questions depends on how the farmer cultivates the crops Idea of changing their farming: Would you like to -change the time of harvest? -not leave the leftovers of the rice on the field between first and second crop season? -pick up the crop residue and compost it before spreading it on the field? -compost the manure before spreading it to the field? -drain the field more often? / Use intermittent irrigation? -change rice variety? -use a different kind of fertilizer (even if it is more expensive)? If the answer is no ask why not.

40