SomePossibilities for Relationship Inter-Population Estimating Traits on theBasisofContinuous

byTadeusz Bielicki

isticsdisplayingcontinuousvariability(skin color,eye has color,facial length),but none of thesehypotheses been verified far.Consequently, a singlemetrical so not teristics. or descriptive traitin man is knownto have a fullyexA In the past decade both the anthropologicaluseful- plained genetic background. great majorityof such so ness of polygenic traits,and the idea of employing traits lack even tentativegenetic interpretations, that practicallynothingis known about them-apart complexesof traitsinstead of single traits,have been exposed to sharp criticism.Much of the controversy fromthe ratherobvious factthat,in each case, at least (notably between the traditional and the modern, genetic- two loci mustbe at work.Hence, some writers evolutionary approach in racial anthropology cen- Boyd, 1950) hold that metricaland descriptivecharhas teredaround thesetwoissues.In thisconnection, may it acteristics, widelyused in traditionalracial anthropolnot be amiss to precede the descriptionof the method ogy,have verylimitedusefulness, any rate as long as at by some introductory remarks. remainsobscure. theirgeneticbackground It cannot be denied that geneticallycomplex traits MONOGENICVERSUS POLYGENICCHARACTERISTICS about constitutea ratherpoor source of information mutation,and geneticdrift. The emphasis in modern anthropologicalwritings the operationof selection, of on the usefulness characteristics displayingthe sim- This is so, not onlybecause theycannotbe expressedin stemsfrom efforts incorpo- terms gene frequencies, also because-as follows to but plestmode of inheritance of of rate racial anthropologyinto the framework the inheritance-the fromtheverynatureof multifactorial modern evolutionarytheorybased on population ge- action of the above-mentioned forceson such traitsis netics.The general argumentruns roughlyas follows: eitherveryslow or, in the case of drift,almost nonis The crucial problem in racial ant-hropology race existent. However,as Birdsell (1951, 1952) has pointed formation. the Race formation to low sensitivity the action of those represents operationof out, thisrelatively evolution at the sub-specieslevel. Since evolution es- forces muchmorestable makespolygenic characteristics consists changesoccurring thegene pools of in sentially throughtime,and hence far bettermarkers populaof of Mendelian populations,it can be mosteasilyinvesti- tion affinities. Thus, the aspectof multifactorial inhergated and understoodby using traitswhose inode of itance that constitutes seriouslimitationin one kind a inheritanceis exactlyknown,and which thus offer a of analysisturnsout to be a veryimportant assetin anpossibilityof translating phenotypicfrequenciesinto other. Polygenic traitsofferthe best opportunityto gene frequencies. sortout the geneticeffects population mixturefrom of In man, the few traitsthat have been found so far of the combinedeffect all forcesactingupon the gene which fulfillthis requirementbelong to the category pool, because any changein the metricalor descriptive and of monogeniccharacteristics exhibit a sharplydetraits a population is-in view of the factor stabilof of fined phenotypic segregation.Tentative genetic hy- ityindicatedabove-more likelyto resultfrom hybridifor potheses have been suggested some of the character- zation than fromany other genetic agency (provided
IN Vol. 3 -No. 1 *February1962 3

THE PRESENT article a method of estimating interpopulation relationship will be described.The method is based on the concept of clustersof metricalcharac-

thatrelatively shortperiods of timeare involved,and that the plasticityof the charactersin question is knownto be low). This is not the case withmonogenictraits, whichare much more likely to be subject to rapid changes.Examples are known in which blood group isogenesfail to reveal any affinity between populations,whereas a traits comparison based upon genetically-complex gives conclusiveevidenceof relationship-infull accordance with historical, archeological, geographicdata. The or Mongoloid originof theAmericanIndians, or even of some Eskimo groups, could hardly have been establishedhad theirracial analysisbeen based solelyon the presentdistribution blood group genes. The latter of give a picturethatis distorted drift, selection, by or or both; so that the actual affinity has been entirely blurred. Many polygeniccharacteristics the Amerin ican Indians, however, have retaineddistincttracesof Asiatic ancestry:thus,in spite of theirobscure mode of inheritance and theirunavailable gene frequencies, have clearly they servedas farbetter markers populaof tion relationship than characteristics determinedby singleloci. The opinion thatblood group isogenescan oftengive a misleadingpicture of such relationships has recently been emphatically expressedby Oschinsky (1959), who based his discussion of this problem on concreteanthropological materials.' to It seems,then, justified draw thefollowing general or conclusion:Similarities dissimilarities betweenpopulations,expressedin polygenictraits,can usually be regardedas more reliable indicatorsof racial affinities or in than similarities dissimilarities gene frequencies forsingle loci. Anotherasset inherentin genetically-complex traits is theease and accuracywithwhichmanycan be measured on fossilmaterials. extensionof analysisfrom An space into timebecomespossible; and the whole study ofracial history reinforced, is sincehypotheses deduced from the present spatial distributionof racial characteristics be verified corrected directhistorican or by cal evidence.
SINGLE CHARACTERISTICS VERSUS COMPLEXES OF CHARACTERISTICS

Objectionsraisedagainstthe idea of usingcomplexes

1 The present writer, however, finds it difficultto agree with Oschinsky's general view that monogenic traitshave lower "racialbetaxonomicvalue." It should be emphasized that any difference tween two Mendelian populations is, by definition,racial (i.e., trait,and taxonomic) if it (1) refersto a genetically-determined Whethersuch a difference recentor is (2) is statistically significant. ancient-whether two or 2,000 generationswere required to produce it-is of secondaryimportance; in either case, the difference is taxonomic in nature only if it fulfillsthe two above-specified conditions. This is why any trait with a genetic backgroundstriking whetherpolygenicor monogenic; whetherphenotypically or inconspicuous; and no matter to which one of the four evolusensitive-has a potential taxotionary forcesit may be particularly nomic value, since this trait may always turn out to display an inter-populationvariability;and then it immediatelydeservesthe anthropologist'smost careful attention. Oschinsky'sreasoning is reminiscent the old conception of "diagnostic" versus "undiagof nostic" features.Such a distinctionwas inevitable in a typologinterested primarilyin classification; ically-oriented anthropology, but it is no longerjustifiedin the light of what is now known about the nature of racial differences. Attemptsto belittle the taxonomic validityof monogenic traitsare as unjustifiedas the equally onesided approach of certain "genetical extremists" who tend to discard as anthropologicallyuseless any trait that does not obey the simplestMendelian ratios.
4

of traits instead of single traits have resulted from of criticisms the conceptof "pure" and "mixed" racial used to maintaintypes.Traditional anthropologists and thisview is still held by manyEuropean students, notably by Czekanowski and his followers-thatthe procedureof "typing"is not only acceptable as a condevice,but thatit also has a more venientclassificatory biological justification.These writers deeply-rooted, diclaim thata breedingpopulation can be objectively vided into morphologicaltypes.This is said to be so because certaintraits-suchas thefacialindex,cephalic do index, eye and hair color, etc.-reportedly not apsome combinations randomcombinations; pear in fully and tend to occur muchmore frequently, othersmuch than would be expectedif purelyranless frequently, was at work. In other words,despite dom assortment do thefactthatsingletraits showa continuousvariability in a breeding population, complexes of some of which is to thesetraitsare said to displaya variability some extent discontinuous.This phenomenon is allegedlydue to the fact that the traitsin question are not inherited independentlyof each other, but are in somehow transmitted sets. The geneticmechanism as suggested an explanation is eitherpleiotropy(Czekanowski 1930, 1948) or linkage (Mydlarski1939; Wiercinski 1958). aspect of this problemis As far as the mathematical showed that the concerned,Waliszko (1959) recently association of certain morphological traits, which by Wanke (1952) had previouslydemonstrated means analysis,is spuriousbecause it of a multiplechi-square disappearsas soon as Pearsonian (linearor curvilinear) correlationis removedfromthe data. As for criticism it fromthegeneticstandpoint, has been shownthatthe of frequencies "types"in a population are never in a law; accordancewith the Hardy-Weinberg satisfactory e.g. the sum of the square roots of the frequenciesof "pure" individuals (i.e., those who are typologically supposed to be homozygous)turns out to be much expected value of 1.00 smaller than the theoretically invalidate Czeka(Miszkiewicz1960b). These findings that the type of an individual is nowski'shypothesis determined a singlelocus havinga pleiotropiceffect; by thereseem to be no singlegenes fortypes.To be sure, head affecting such a pleiotropicgene, simultaneously faceform, color,etc.,mayreallyexist.But the eye form, effect point is that even if it does exist,its phenotypic mustbe relatively weak, and totallyblurredby the aceach of these traitsindetion of polygenescontrolling pendently-so that the general picturewhich emerges fromindependentmultifactorial is not distinguishable It withno traceof pleiotropy. has also been inheritance, to indicatedthattheattempt salvage thegeneticreality linkageforpleioof theconceptof typeby substituting sinceit overlooks is tropy based on a misunderstanding, genes eventuallybethe fact that even closely-linked (Boyd 1950; Strandcome randomizedby crossing-over skov 1951; Hunt 1959a); in other words,linkage can in resultonlyin theassociationof traits lineages,rather than in populations. Many writershave pointed out that the whole idea of "typing"is totallyfallacious, in of assortment chromosomes inheritThe independent over...are that ance and thepossibility genescan cross
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

attempt sortout theoriginal to characteristicstheorigi- and so are pronouncedbrowridges.But a combination of nally pureracialcomponents (evenifthey everexisted), of dark skin,wavy hair, and heavy brow ridgesas an had through phenotypical a study modern of mixtures, bound is over-allpopulation characteristic unique: it occurs is to be fruitless. onlyin Australia; and it is thisparticularcombination theseAustralianpopulaThis criticism undoubtedly is sound. In fact,a multi- of featuresthat distinguishes tude of concreteexamples could be cited which show tions fromall otherlivingpopulations. It is, in short, in or obvious that similarities dissimilarities type are how the idea of individual typing, meant to detectanrelationmore significant markersof inter-population cient relationshipsand admixtures, has led the whole in or shipsthanare similarities dissimilarities anysingle anthropologicalanalysisastray.A classical example is trait. provided by the results obtained by Kapica (1958). It oughtto be keptin mind thattheconceptof typeso Kapica found,in a large sample of Poles, a few indidoes warrantthe belief in the existenceof viduals whom-on thebasis of theirindicesand several interpreted If of descriptive features-heassigned to the so-called "ber- clusters associatedtraits. populations,ratherthan beric" type that is common in MediterraneanAfrica, individuals, are taken as elementaryunits of infraused for thus implyingthat actual tracesof old "berberic"in- specificvariation, then many characteristics typologicalclassifications may really be regarded as filtrations into Poland have been retainedand are delinked with one another,although the nature of this tectable.Even more surprising discoverieswere made ratherthan genetic.One may preby Michalski (1957) who, by means of individual typ- linkageis statistical ing, found individuals with "australoid," "berberic" dict thata chi-squaretestmade forseveraltraditional, and coveringall mankind, "raciallydiagnostic"traits, and "mediterranean" admixtures among the nativesof show a significant the Congo. Such a line of reasoningis obviouslyfalla- would certainly departurefromranspace which cious. Althoughthe genes possessedby thesefew indi- domness; i.e., in the multi-dimensional complexesof viduals really happened to be combined in constella- such a chi-squaretable would represent, tionsthatmoreor less resembledsome "type" common continuous characterswould display a discontinuous in another-often (which is preciselywhat the typologists remote-population,each gene might distributio'n for have actually been drawn froma different have tried,and failed,to demonstrate singlebreedgene pool, thus producinga purelycoincidentalphenotypicalre- ing populations). In otherwords,morphologicaltypes semblance.In otherwords,the methodof "individual would emerge-and one may even expect that at least detaxonomicdiagnosis"is actuallycapable of detecting a someof themwould provequite similarto the types racial admixturewhere such an admixturehas never scribedin textbooks traditionalphysicalanthropolof takenplace. ogy. Such typeswould obviously owe their existence neitherto pleiotropy nor to geneticlinkage,but simply modernwriters, thefervor their to the fact that the materialanalyzed does not constiin of However,some attack against the fallaciesof a typologically-oriented tute a single panmicticpopulation, but ratheran ashave carriedtheircriticism anthropology, unnecessarily semblageof isolates(or of groupsof relatedisolates). From the fact that traitsare "linked" (in the sense far,completely rejectingthe verynotion of type.It is, above), it followsthat,in the case of populaof course,farbeyondthe scope of thisarticleto discuss specified traits carriedin clusters, are even though the general scientific validity of the concept of type tionmixture, maybe carriedquite independently It foundations. should be noted, in individualsthey and itsmethodological no ofeach otherso thatin pedigrees types If persist. two however,that this concept is widely used as an adx traits, and y,are commonin populationA, and rareor abstractbut oftenhighlyusefulanalyticaldemittedly absentin population B, and if B thenreceives some adthe vice, in both social and natural sciences,wherever of problemconsists comparingobjectsin regardto sev- mixturefromA, it seems sensible to expect that both traits, and y, should increasetheirfrequencies B, x in eral characteristics exhibiting graded variability.In racial anthropology, concepthas been bothmisused and thatthisincreaseshould be proportionalto (1) the this and abused; but thisdoes not automatically mean that frequencies x and y in A, and (2) the amount of adof it is devoid of exploratory a value or that it should be mixture(assuming thattheimmigrants constitute ranremovedfromthe anthropologist's completely vocabu- dom sample of A). In other words, wherevertrait x lary.The point is thattheconceptof typecan regainits moves,it is as a rule accompanied(in groupsof people, in biological validityif it is applied to populations rather not necessarily particular individuals) by y. Introthan to individuals. ductionof a Negro admixture into a White population If one conceivesof a type as a set of averages (e.g. of not is bound toresult, onlyin a darkening theaverage arithmetic someparticularpopuskin color, but also in simultaneousshiftsin a whole means) characterizing lation, then it becomes evident that human populanasal breadth, hairform, form, etc. complexoftraits: lip in tions do differ type,and that these differences In the presentpopulation of North Poland, ancient are often racial (i.e.,genetical). very What is more,theracial Scandinavian and German admixtures, rehistorically of itselfin clustersof specificity populations manifests not only in a lighterpigcorded,manifestthemselves traits, ratherthanin singletraits:In otherwords, mentation, but also in slightly longerheads, narrower populations not only differ type,but theydiffer type faces,and taller staturethan occursin the population in in ratherthan in any other way. Dark skin occurs fre- of otherpartsof Poland. Such examples can be multiquentlyin Africa, Australia,and Melanesia; wavyhair plied. is commonin Europe, Australia,and among the Ainu, This scheme-traitstransported clustersand in in
Vol. 3 -No. 1 -February1962 5

remote ancestral typesin a modern population. .

alone sufficient showthe futility trying recognize to of to

.

. [A]ny

Bielicki:

ESTIMATING

RELATIONSHIPS

not work certainmore or less stable proportions-may because selectionand/or simple traits, withgenetically (after drift may come into play. In a new environment admixturehas taken place) the adaptive values of the mayact morerapidly traits maychangeso thatselection whereasin the otherpopon one traitthanon another, ulation the reversemight have been true. Thus, the action of selectiveforcesmay considerably differential change the ratio of the newly introduced characteristics, blurring the original relationship. Drift may since one of the newlyintroduced have similareffects, decreased, drastically genesmaybe lost,or itsfrequency markwhileanothergene maybe fixedor its frequency edly increased. Here again, it must be recalled that complexesof polygenictraitsare usually well-buffered are and therefore against such distortinginfluences, morelikelyto retaintheoriginalpattern.

(Sim) in a simpleway: into similarities Simpx=

px

and Sim

PY

of The finalstep is to sum up the similarities P to what to and subsequently determine both components, taken sepapercentageof this sum is each similarity accordingto Wanke, indicate rately.Such percentages, are the sharesin whichtheparticularcomponents present in themixture.They are computedas follows: Sim Sim
Simpx + simpy

Such calculations,of course, can also be (and as a rule have been) applied to more complex situations ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY METHOD COMPONENT WANKE'S where a greaternumber (N > 2) of componentsare the methodsof estimating degreeof Severalstatistical involved. The amount in which some componentX1 betweenpopulations have been proposed. relationship is presentin the mixed population P is then given by is The simplestand one of the best-known probably the general formula: of by thatoffered Clark's (1952) coefficient divergence. deA verysimilar technique has been independently Sim1p So Xl N vised by Wanke (1953); it is based on an identical E Sim, D geometricalmodel-distance between points in multii=1 fromClark's method dimensionalspace-but it differs denotesthe sum of all similarirelationship wherethe denominator inter-group in thatit is designedto estimate in terms ties betweenP and all N consideredcomponents. ratherthan in terms structure (composition) of Thus the anthropologicalmake-up of any populaof over-all divergence.The procedure proposed by tion in regard to a certainchosen set of traitscan be outlinedas follows: Wanke maybe briefly Suppose thata certainpopulation P can be character- quantitativelydescribed in termsof percentages(or whichare supposed of proportions) severalcomponents ized by a seriesof n averagesof certaintraits: tl t2, the to have formed mixture. tn where t1 denotes,e.g. the cephalic index; t2, The methoditselfmay be subject to certainmathescale), matical corrections. instance, hair color (expressedin units of some arbitrary having characteristics For etc. Let us further the distancesexamsuppose thatpopulation P is a prod- greaterstandarddeviationsaffect X uct of the mixtureof two racial components, and ined-and hencethe ultimatecomposition-toa greater each of which,with regard to the traitst1, t2, . . . Y92 degree than do othersexhibitingsmaller variability; it tn1 can be definedin a similar way by a set of values therefore, seems advisable to use normalizedrather respectively. than absolute figures. t2, * * * t3, and t1, t2, . . . t3, tl, x xx y y y The problem is to calculate the compositionof the DISCUSSION in population P; i.e., the proportions which the comRacial compositionobtained by Wanke's method is ponentsX and Y had enteredthemixture. or of frequencies" "type in Having the above listed data, one can, by represent- expressed terms "component resembear a superficial Such expressions frequencies." an construct ing each traitas a Cartesian co-ordinate, numberof dimen- blance to the results of a gene frequencyanalysis. n-dimensional space (the imaginary sions being equal to the number of traitsconsidered) Wanke himself,to some extent,and more explicitly some of his followers(Czekanowski1954, Kocka 1958, and visualize P. X, Y as threepoints whose location in character- Miszkiewicz 1960, Wiercinski 1958) are inclined to space is determinedby theircorresponding believe that this analogy exists. For example, if the istics. calculationsindicate thata certainpopulation consists Let Dpxand Dpydenote the distancesbetweenP and a of a 50% "Nordic component," 40% "Laponoid comThese distances X and between P and Y respectively. ponent," and a 10% "Armenoid component," these can be computedby meansof thesimpleequations: writersinterpretsuch results as if certain alleles or in + (tn - tn )2 wereactuallypresent thepopu=\ (tI -tI )2 + (t2 - t2 ) 2 + certainchromosomes Dpx (alleles if the lation in the above indicatedproportions by "type"of an individual is believed to be determined if a singlepair ofgenes;or chromosomes theconceptof a seriesof closelylinked loci is adopted as an explanaand Since distanceshere are measuresof differences, tion). can be conceivedof as the reciprocalof difsimilarity It has alreadybeen pointedout thatboth interpretathe ference, values D obtained above can be converted tions are incorrect.The question then arises: How 2 The possible meanings of this term will be discussed below. In be should suchpercentages understood? otherwords:
y p y p y p

CURRENT

ANTHROPOLOGY

What biological meaning,if any,can be attribuited to theterm"racial component"? can Apparentlytwo different interpretations be suggested: (1) In some situationsindependentevidence,based on archeological, historical, linguisticdata, strongly or suggests thata certainpopulation was actuallyformed as a mixture of two or more parental populations, whose racial characteristics are available. Here, empirically-ascertained values, i.e., sets of averagesreferring the parental populations,can be adopted as to racial components.Results of the computationscould then be interpreted approximationsof the actual as proportionsin which the ancestralstockshave been blended in the analyzedmixture. should be strongly It emphasizedthatthisproceduredoes not,by anymeans, implyany idea of "pure types,"since it is entirely sensible to use a component-frequency analysisand stillbe fullyaware thatnot only the mixture, but also each of the components(i.e., each of the contributing populations)has alwaysbeen morphologically heterogeneous. The racial history Australiacan be cited hereas a of good example of a problem on which some new light mightbe shed by the application of Wanke's method. Birdsell (1949, 1951) has convincingly argued that the contemporary aboriginalpopulationofAustraliais "an uneven blending of threemajor racial elements"-the and Carpentarians-and thusis Negritoes, Murrayians, in trihybrid nature.If at least some of the morphological characteristics those original racial stockswere of available (whichseemsto be the case), the application of Wanke's method to concretetribal populations of Australiacould yield interesting quantitativeinformation about the geographicaldistributionof all three racial elements, theirrelative"densities"in various or regionsof the continent. Such "densities"would probablydisplaya moreor lessregularpattern-e.g.a southnorthgradientin the distribution the Carpentarian of element,and an opposite gradientin the distribution of the Negriticelement.For an anthropologist interestedin racial history, especiallyin tracingancient and migrationroutes,such a patterncould reveal details of considerable significance. anyrate,it would probAt ably possessa much greatertime-depth than maps of blood group isogenes,which in Australia often show irregular, patchydistributions probablyattributable to the action of geneticdrift(Birdsell 1951). (2) Let us now suppose that we have to deal with a situation where it is impossible to ascertain,with a reasonable degree of reliability, what ancestralstocks, if any, have contributedto the formation the anaof lyzedpopulation. In such a case, the conceptof racial componentscan still prove useful if the investigator realizes that it now becomes more detached fromthe biological realityand can serveonly as an abstractexploratory device. It is possible to establish, a given for group of populations,several arbitrarily-defined components,each characterized a clusterof traits;and by subsequentlyto calculate compositionsin the abovedescribedmanner, usingin each case thesame,fixedset of components. For thesake of clarity is advisable to it use "polar types,"i.e., to devise these componentsin such a way that each is definedby a combinationof
Vol. 3 -No. 1 -February1962

Bielicki:

ESTIMATING

RELATIONSHIPS

so extreme values of traits, that-using the geometrical model of n-dimensional space-any point representing inside the block a real population will fall somewhere ratherthan of space enclosedbetweenthe components, outsideof it. It should be noted that the mathematical of structure Wanke's equations requiresthat the number of components one greaterthan the numberof be characteristics considered.Thus, if four characteristics must be are taken into consideration, fivecomponents devised.If thisis not the case,Wanke's set of equations becomes ambiguous-i.e., populations with different mean values of traits may-theoretically-revealthe same composition(Perkal 1955). The componentsso devised do not representanyas thingreal; theyare supposed to servemerely "points "component frequencies" of reference." Accordingly, calculated in such a mannermustnot be conceivedof as biological compositionsin the previously-indicated meaning. They do not tell what actual racial stocks and in what proportionsformedthe population-for it has been assumedin advance thatnothingis known howabout those stocks.Such fictitious compositions, informative value, because as long ever,are notwithout as thesame setofpointsofreference (and, of course,the same method of calculation) is being consistently applied to each population fromthe analyzed area, it is possible to compare populations in regard to their Such comparisonshave the morphologicalstructure. undeniable advantage of being both quantitativeand picobjective;and providea clearerand moresynthetic tureofinter-population than resemblance phenotypical or comparisonsbased on verbal descriptions, even on meanvalues ofparticular traits. theracial historian, For theconceptof "racial composition" can, of course,have validityonly insofaras phenotypicalresemblancereflects actual geneticaffinity. the The presentwriteris fullyaware of serious limitain and thatit can yield tionsinherent Wanke's method, misleading results if used without adequate precaution. If a component-frequency analysis is to be retwo garded as a valid researchtool in racial history, simplifying assumptionsmustbe tacitlymade: in determined (1) The traits questionare genetically and are immuneto environmentally induced modificabetween tions,so that thereis a strictcorrespondence phenotypicaland geneticallikeness. (2) Hybridizationhas been the only forcemolding of thecharacteristics theanalyzedgroupofpopulations, whichimpliesthatotherevolutionary mechanisms have not been at workfora considerableperiod of time. The applicabilityof the component-frequency analysismustthenbe limitedto situationswherethesetwo assumptionscan be regardedas admissible simplifications.There can be no doubt thatsuch situationsexist. traits(e.g. hair First,numerousgenetically-complex form, eye and hair color,facial and nasal indices,certain body dimensionsand proportions) seem to display a veryhigh degreeof heritability, that theyusually so provide a sufficiently basis forinferences concernsafe ing intergroup geneticalafinities.On the otherhand, attentionshould be drawn to the existenceof areas in whichbiological and culturalconditions(climate,diet,
7

type of technology)are essentiallyuniform,so that is there is good reason to suppose that environment likelyto exertan equalizing,ratherthan a differentiaton ing, effect all populations inhabitingsuch an area. even traitsthat are known Under such circumstances, (e.g. stature, plasticity to have appreciablephenotypical devoid ofgeneticalcometc.)are not completely weight, parability. Secondly, as regards the possible action of evolutionaryforcesother than population mixture,it has alreadybeen indicated that traitscontrolledby many genes are relativelyresistantboth to random genetic and to natural selection. It must be refluctuations scrap of direct memberedthat thereis not the faintest evidencefor the action of selectionupon such human traits e.g. faciallengthor hair form;it has even been as, impossibleto guesswhyit should act upon themat allmaypossess. i.e.,whatkind of adaptive rolessuch traits To be sure,the mere fact that human populations do in markedly thosetraitsis, accordingto the now differ prevalentline of reasoning,taken as almost sufficient proofthatselectionmusthave been at work,afterallin because, it is argued,the differences question could not have been produced in any otherway. It would be hard indeed to challengethisview.But thepointis that traitsin man are selectionratesof mostmorphological probably so low, that when placed on the time scale they used bytheracial anthropologist, can be practically regarded as equal to zero-and such an assumption would not constitute serious departurefromfact. It a should be kept in mind that the time scale coveredby almost never exceeds the investigator racial history of to whichcorresponds about 350 to 400 hu10,000years, man generations;and in mostcases,it is several times shorter. There is good reason to believe that, during those relativelyshort periods of time, the polygenic of characteristics human populationshave been molded to a far greaterextentby mixturethan by selection, or drift, mutation. This rule may, of course, have exceptions.One of themis probably head form.Comparativecraniological studiesreveal thatin manyhuman groupsa distinct has been at trend toward increasingbrachycephaly work for some time. This processseems to have been rapid in the populationsof North Central particularly Europe (Poland, Byelo-Russia,and the Baltic States), where only the last 1,000 yearshave witnessedan increase in the mean values of the cephalic index by up to 10 units. Now, what makes thisshiftso puzzling is just the fact that it seems impossible to attributeit between solely to hybridization-i.e.,to interbreeding the local population and round-headedimmigrantssince the area in question has during the last 10 centuries exhibited relativelyhigh ethnic stability.Constudents even themosttypologically-oriented sequently, 1930,Kocka 1958)concedethatin this (e.g.Czekanowski case some other explanation must be looked for. The conjecture has been repeatedlyexpressed (e.g. Garn may be 1957, Hunt 1959b) that brachycephalization favouring-incertainenvirondue to naturalselection, ments-round heads over long heads. A recent study and demomade on a large body of anthropometric collected35 yearsago in ruraldistricts graphicmaterial, of northeasternPoland (now western Byelo-Russia
8

USSR), showed that sibs of long headed individuals than do sibs of indihighermortality displaya slightly viduals possessinground heads3 (Bielicki and Welon seem to suggestthat some selec1961). These findings directedagainst dolichocephalyis (or, at tive pressure least,was at thattime)at workin the analyzedpopulaproves correct,the process tion. If this interpretation could then be regarded as an brachycephalization of example of a precipitous somatic alteration which, a though affecting polygenictrait,has been brought about by a geneticagencyotherthan population mixanalysis ture. It follows that a component-frequency utilizing data on head form and applied to Central European craniological series would show gradually increasingfrequenciesof "round-headed racial components." Such shiftsmight very easily be misinteror"admixtures," pretedeitheras caused by recurrent at best-as evidenceforthe action of selectiondirected against some morphological"type" or "types." (It is evidentthatthe latterconclusionwould be groundless, too, since what we may expect to be actually selected of ratherthan a whole cluster againstis dolichocephaly by lumped together the investigator traitsarbitrarily of in orderto set up the definition a "type.")It can be derivedfrom of seen thatestimates population affinities analysis may become unrelia component-frequency wheneversuch estiable, or even quite meaningless, mates are based on traitsin which the operation of mechanismsother than gene flow micro-evolutionary felt. makes itselfdistinctly Head form,however,seems to constitutean exceptional case. As regardsthe majorityof other human including most of the morphologicalcharacteristics, and indices (such as nose-, traditionalmeasurements and orbit-form, the like) thereis good reason to face-, suppose that,duringthe last severalthousandyearsof population mixturehas been by far the man's history, and forceof race formation, mostintenseand efficient can threeforces in many thattherolesof theremaining cases be considerednegligible. model has alreadyproved The component-frequency a helpfulresearchtool in certainconcreteproblemsof The resultsobtained have in severalinracial history. corroborated independent by stancesbeen spectacularly archaeologicaland otherevidence (Kocka 1958). This has been so despite the fact that among some students to therehas been a tendency use thismodel rathermein witha naive confidence its allegedlyunichanically, groundforhope There is,therefore, versalapplicability. thatifa moreelasticand cautiousapproachis observed, of and reliability the methodcan be furtheusefulness The problemmaybe summedup thus: theraugmented. analysis Everyapplicationof the component-frequency must alwaysbe precededby a carefuland many-sided situationto whichit is to be evaluationof the concrete whetheror not the two applied-i.e., by determining basic assumptionswhich the method requires can be adopted as a reasonable approximationof the actual The danger of "discovering"spurious state of affairs. reduced, and will then be substantially relationships researchinthe methodcan serveas a solid subsidiary for strument revealingthepathsof man'sracial history.
3This was the only kind of approach that the material allowed, since data on the parents' head-formhad not been collected.
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY