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Kumar K 1995 From Post-Industrial to Post-Modern Society: New Theories of the Contemporary World. Blackwell, Oxford, UK Latour B 1988 The Pasteurization of France. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Leonard P 1997 Postmodern Welfare. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA Lyotard J F 1988 Linhumaine Causerie sur le Temps. Galilee, Paris Madison G B 1988 The Hermeneutics of Postmodernity: Figures and Themes. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN Miller J H 1981 The disarticulation of the self in Nietzsche. The Monist 64: 24761 Newman F, Holzman L 1999 Beyond narrative to performed conversation. Journal of Constructi ist Psychology 12: 2340 Norris C 1988 Deconstruction and the Interests of Theory. Pinter, London Richardson L 1988 The collective story: Postmodernism and the writing of sociology. Sociological Focus 21: 199208 Rosenau P M 1992 Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ Todorov T 1984 Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. University of Minneapolis Press, Minneapolis, PA Tyler S 1986 Post-modern ethnography: from document of the occult to occult document. In: Cliord J, Marcus G E (eds.) Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA Young T R 1992 Reinventing sociology. In: Mission and Methods in Postmodern Phenomenology. The Red Feather Institute, Weidman, Michigan
P. V. Rosenau
the meaning of these concepts is equally uncertain, so our understanding of postmodernism will be aected by the particular meaning attached to these related concepts. Second, to the extent that postmodernism is considered a cultural movement alongside others such as romanticism, positivism, or structuralism, then it too will encompass a variety of distinct aesthetic and intellectual strategies. Bertens The Idea of Postmodernism: a History begins with illustrations of the sometimes contradictory ways in which the term has been employed. For example, by 1970 modern painting had long abandoned the idea that representation or narrative were essential to its art. In explicit reaction against modernism understood as the selfreexive exploration of the formal possibilities of painting, postmodern painting involved a reprise of representation and narrative. In a similar fashion, postmodern architecture rejected the formalism of the postwar International style and reembraced historical and vernacular styles. By contrast, at least in some of its manifestations, literary postmodernism involved a move in the opposite direction away from narrative and representation towards a form of radical self-reexivity. Bertens concludes that, depending on the artistic discipline, postmodernism is either a radicalization of the selfreexive moment within modernism, a turning away from narrative and representation, or an explicit return to narrative and representation. And sometimes it is both (Bertens, 1995, p. 5). In view of the many dierent phenomena to which it has been applied, it is common for discussions of postmodernism, to begin, as this one has, with the claim that the term has no clear meaning (Eco 1985, p. 65, Rorty 1999, p. 262).
1. Modernity\Modernism
Just as modernism is often regarded as a response to the process of modernization which transformed the material conditions of European society during the nineteenth century, so postmodernism is often presented as a consequence of the restructuring of capitalism at the end of the twentieth century. The historical period of modernity which extends from the middle of the eighteenth through to the middle of the twentieth century saw the development of industrial capitalist infrastructure and means of production such as railways, automobiles, air transport, electricity, and telegraphic and telephonic communication. It also saw the growth and modernization of cities, the spread of public schools, hospitals, and prisons, and the development of bureaucratic and rational procedures for the government of social life. Modernism is commonly used to refer to an artistic sensibility which embraced innovation and change. In its early stages, modernism involved a positive sense of living at the dawn of a new era. To be modern implied an heroic commitment to action and to revolutionizing oneself
Postmodernism: Philosophical Aspects as well as the means of artistic production, hence the dynamic of successive avant-gardes in the particular arts. During the latter part of the nineteenth and the early years of the twentieth century, modernism meant experimentation with the style and form of the various arts. Theorists of postmodernity assert a parallel connection between the changes associated with the restructuring and globalization of late capitalism and the emergence of a postmodern culture. Two of the leading theorists, Fredric Jameson and David Harvey, argue that changes in technology, urban space, and forms of consumption have created the conditions of a new mode of experience of self and others (Jameson 1991, Harvey 1989). In particular, they argue that the compression of social space and time which results from new electronic and communications technologies is reected in a new cultural sensibility. Moreover, just as the modernist commitment to the destruction of traditional ways of life and thought was often linked to a tragic sense of loss, so some theorists of postmodernity argue that a similar kind of homelessness is generated by the late twentieth century mutations in our experience of space and time. Jameson is among those who take a negative view of the cultural experience of postmodernity on the grounds that it does not sustain a suciently robust sense of self and history. He argues that the rapid evolution of postmodern urban space has overtaken the capacities of the individual human body to locate itself, to organize its immediate surroundings perceptually, and cognitively to map its position in a mappable external world (Jameson 1991, p. 83). On his account, postmodernity is experienced as incapacity in the face of complex and discontinuous social spaces and as disorientation in the absence of a rich sense of the past or future. The result is a widely documented fragmentary and schizophrenic experience of subjectivity, along with a tendency towards aectless repetition or blank parody of past forms of artistic and cultural production. For others, modernist and postmodernist alike, the appropriate aective response to change is much less one of nostalgia for older ways of being at home and more a question of orientation towards the future. Nietzsche, who is in many respects the source of much postmodern philosophy, took the condition of homelessness as a metaphor for the condition of those, like himself, who looked forward to the strengthening and enhancement of the human type: We children of the future, how could we be at home in this today? (Nietzsche 1974, p. 338). In their eorts to make positive sense of the experience of being estranged from the social world in which they must live, postmodernists often have recourse to the concept of irony. Richard Rorty calls ironists those who are conscious of the contingency and mutability of the nal vocabularies employed to make sense of their lives, yet nonetheless committed to the values which those vocabularies embody (Rorty 1989, p. 73). Umberto Eco argues that the postmodern attitude is encapsulated in the irony which acts and speaks in full awareness of the degree to which all our ways of acting and speaking involve repetition of the past: the postmodern reply to the modern consists of recognizing that the past, since it cannot really be destroyed, because its destruction leads to silence, must be revisited, but with irony, not innocently (Eco 1985, p. 67). While postmodernism is supposed to involve rejection of the presuppositions of modern art, philosophy, and social theory, commentators and users of the term hesitate over whether postmodernism is primarily a temporal or a typological concept. The prex and the manner in which the term has been employed in the arts suggest a temporal reference, even though estimates of the beginning of the postmodern era range from the 1860s to the 1980s. But some theorists of postmodernism in the arts and culture treat it as simply the radicalization of tendencies already present in the modern. In philosophy, Rorty argues that, to the extent that postmodernism stands for anything distinctive, it refers to a pluralism shared by a range of modern thinkers such as Nietzsche and William James (Rorty 1999). In similar fashion, Jean-Francois Lyotard argues that postmodernism in painting stands for an aesthetic of the sublime which embraces the ever-renewed attempt to present the unpresentable (Lyotard 1983). For these reasons, Eco suggests that postmodernism should not be chronologically dened but rather treated as an ideal categoryor better still, a Kuntswollen, a way of operating. We could say that every period has its own postmodernism, just as every period would have its own mannerism (Eco 1985, p. 66).
Postmodernism: Philosophical Aspects unity. Modernist thought would be that which tolerated perspectivism only on the assumption that there is a single, intelligible reality to be presented. Even when there is an acceptance of surface incoherence, as in Marxs account of the contradictions of capitalism or Freuds account of conscious behavior, this is balanced by the discovery of an underlying structure which produces such contradictory eects. In this sense, Harvey argues that modernism took on multiple perspectivism and relativism as its epistemology for revealing what it still took to be the true nature of a unied, though complex, underlying reality (Harvey 1989, p. 30). By contrast, postmodernism is associated with the acceptance of plurality in both ways of being and ways of knowing. In opposition to the ideal of unied objects of knowledge, whether texts or artefacts, postmodernism refers instead to networks, open systems, or the dissemination of meaning. In opposition to the modernist ideal of unied science, postmodernism upholds the idea of irreducible dierence and even incommensurability among the varieties of knowledge. the theologicometaphysical belief that Reality and Truth are Onethat there is One True Account of How Things Really Are (Rorty 1999, p. 262). A less negative characterization might say that postmodernism does not so much reject the idea that thought represents reality as embrace more complex views of what representation entails. In this manner, Foucaults genealogies of punishment and sexuality drew attention to the ways in which what passes for truth in the social sciences is bound up with the exercise of power over individuals and populations. More generally, postmodernism has drawn attention to new aspects of social reality, such as the systems of thought and language which condition public discourse. It has also given rise to new kinds of analysis of cultural and social phenomena: genealogical, deconstructive, narratological, and so on. In these ways, postmodernism has given rise to new research methods and new objects of analysis in anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences (Cliord and Marcus 1986, Dickens and Fontana 1994). In addition, postmodernism has been widely taken up in jurisprudence and the philosophy of law, where it has been described as the most inuential trend at the end of the twentieth century (Litowitz 1997, p. 1).
Postmodernism: Philosophical Aspects practices and forms of life. The postmodern condition therefore is the state in which we must accept this plurality of micronarratives and address the conicts that arise other than through the imposition of a single master narrative. In ModernityAn Incomplete Project, Habermas (1983) provided an inuential response to Lyotard and other poststructuralist thinkers. He characterized the philosophical project of modernity as the desire for unication of the three spheres of cultural value distinguished by Kantthe theoretical, the practical, and the aestheticand for the application of the results of these distinct kinds of judgment to the improvement of everyday life. According to this view, the project of modernity consisted in the eort of Enlightenment thinkers to develop objective science, universal morality and law, and autonomous art, according to their inner logic. At the same time, this project intended to release the cognitive potentials of each of these domains to set them free from their esoteric forms. The Enlightenment philosophers wanted to utilize this accumulation of specialized culture for the enrichment of everyday lifethat is to say for the rational organization of everyday social life (Habermas 1983, p. 9). The major obstacle preventing the realization of this project, according to Habermas, lay in the manner in which these spheres have become separated from one another, both institutionally and in their internal logics and forms of argumentation, and in the manner in which they have become increasingly separated from a lifeworld dominated by the instrumental rationality of the theoretical sphere. Habermass solution to this problem appealed to the procedural rationality implicit in language use, or what he calls communicative reason, as a means to restoring the possibility of intersubjective consensus. Both his diagnosis and his solution to the problem of modernity are founded upon the Enlightenment belief that universal standards of judgment are necessary for the development of both reason and moral progress. By contrast, postmodern thinkers reject the idea of progress in human aairs in favor of the idea that there are many ways in which the present diers from the past. In common with Lyotard, they reject the idea of universal standards of judgment, value or legitimation. Although Habermas characterizes French thinkers such as Foucault, Derrida, and Lyotard as young conservatives (Habermas 1983, p. 14), most of them do not wish to abandon the ideals of freedom and emancipation but only the approach which links these to universality, unity, and consensus and does so in the name of the Enlightenment. In response to Habermass criticisms, Foucault presented his practice of genealogy as serving the cause of freedom, while suggesting that it represented a critical ethos or attitude towards the present which had always belonged to the Enlightenment. Genealogical criticism does not seek to identify the universal structures of human knowledge and moral action, but rather takes the form of an historical investigation into the means by which we have been constructed as certain kinds of subject. Against the presumption that human reason is an unchanging and undivided faculty, Foucault views reason as divided among the distinct rationalities embodied in particular systems of thought and practice such as medicine, discipline, or sexuality. The aim of this type of historical investigation, Foucault suggests, is to determine in what is given to us as universal, necessary, obligatory, what place is occupied by whatever is singular, contingent, and the product of arbitrary constraints (Foucault 1984, p. 45). Thus, in contrast to the idea that progress in human freedom depends upon the extension of the sphere in which universal rationality governs social life, Foucault presents progress in human freedom in negative terms as the escape from particular forms of domination. For many poststructuralist theorists, freedom is not linked to the achievement of universal standards of value or to the hope that dissensus will eventually give way to consensus. Rather, it is dissensus and the experience of irreducible dierence which are the conditions of freedom and creativity or change in human aairs.
Postmodernism: Philosophical Aspects itself implies a swarm of dierences, a pluralism of free, wild or untamed dierences (Deleuze 1994, p. 50). Similarly, in Of Grammatology, Derrida (1976) drew upon Heideggers concept of the ontological dierence between being and beings and Saussures concept of the dierentiation which gives rise to units of signication in a sign system to draw attention to the movement of deferral and dierentiation (diffeT rance) which underlies all production of meaning (Derrida 1976, pp. 5665). Both Deleuze and Derrida were concerned with the problem of how to conceive of the identity of objects such as meanings, texts or signs which are subject to continuous variation, or how to envisage a form of unity which is not identical with itself. To this end, Derrida relied upon a series of concepts such as dieT rance, the trace and iterability, while Deleuze relied upon a concept of open or variable multiplicity derived from Bergson. The concept of multiplicity, he and Guattari suggest, was created precisely in order to escape the abstract opposition between the multiple and the one, to escape dialectics, to succeed in conceiving the multiple in the pure state, to cease treating it as a numerical fragment of a lost Unity or Totality or as the organic element of a Unity or Totality yet to come, and instead distinguish between dierent types of multiplicity (Deleuze and Guattari 1987, p. 32). In his collaborative work with Guattari (Deleuze and Guattari 1987), the concept of abstract multiplicities provided the formal structure for the elaboration of a series of philosophical concepts of such things as desire, language use, and forms of social organization. Deleuze and Guattari defend their idiosyncratic practice of philosophy as the invention of new concepts in order to bring about new ways of speaking and acting. A distinction is often drawn between postmodern theorists, such as DeleuzeGuattari, Derrida, and Foucault, and theorists of postmodernity such as Jameson and Harvey. The theorists of postmodernity tend to adopt a broadly Marxist approach to society and culture, and to the cultural phenomena they see as representative of the social totality, in order to pass judgment. Their modernist social theory presupposes that a total picture is possible and that cultural phenomena can be understood as eects of a certain economic logic. They proceed on the assumption that critical distance is possible and that an appropriate interpretative framework will provide such distance. By contrast, the postmodern theorists tend to abandon economic or other forms of historical determinism, along with the idea that a totalizing theory of society and history is possible or desirable, in favor of the idea of multiple, overlapping, and divergent histories written from the distinctive perspective of particular social groups, peoples, or interpretative frameworks (power, desire, the body, etc.). This distinction is not absolute, since there are those such as Baudrillard, Foucault, and Lyotard who might be 11876 included in both camps although at dierent stages of their careers. However, it is characteristic of postmodern theorists that their work involves a selfconscious attempt to theorize in a dierent manner, while also searching for critical strategies which do not rely upon a normative standpoint outside or apart from the object of criticism.
Postsocialist Societies representations do not faithfully represent a prior reality but function in its stead. For practical purposes we live in a hyper-real social world of representations without referents, images without originals. The proliferation of media transmitted information and the speed with which it circulates creates a perpetual cultural present in which contemporary society has begun to lose its capacity to retain its own past.
Cliord J, Marcus G E (eds.) 1986 Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA Deleuze G 1990 The Logic of Sense [trans. Lester M, Stivale C, Boundas C, ed.]. Columbia University Press, New York and Athlone Press, London Deleuze G 1994 Dierence and Repetition [trans. Patton P]. Athlone Press, London and Columbia University Press, New York Deleuze G, Guattari F 1987 A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. [trans. Massumi B]. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN and Athlone Press, London Derrida J 1976 Of Grammatology [trans. Spivak G C]. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD Derrida J 1981 Positions [trans. Bass A]. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Derrida J 1982 Margins of Philosophy [trans. Bass A]. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Descombes V 1980 Modern French Philosophy [trans. Scott-Fox L, Harding J M]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Dickens D R, Fontana A 1994 Postmodernism and Social Inquiry. Guildford Press, New York Eco U 1985 Reections on the Name of the Rose. Secker and Warburg, London Foucault M 1984 What is enlightenment? In: Rabinow P (ed.) The Foucault Reader, 1st edn. Pantheon, New York, pp. 3250 Habermas J 1983 Modernityan incomplete project? In: Foster H (ed.) The Anti-aesthetic: Essays in Postmodern Culture. Bay Press, Port Townsend, WA, pp. 315 [Reprinted 1981 version of Modernity versus postmodernity. New German Critique 22: 314] Habermas J 1987 The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity [trans. Lawrence F G]. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Harvey D 1989 The Condition of Postmodernity: an Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Blackwell, Oxford, UK Jameson F 1991 Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, Durham, NC Litowitz D E 1997 Postmodern Philosophy and Law. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS Lyotard J-F 1983 Answering the question: what is postmodernism? In: Hassan I, Hassan S (eds.) Inno ation\ Reno ation: New Perspecti es on the Humanities. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, pp. 32941 Lyotard J-F 1984 The Postmodern Condition: a Report on Knowledge. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN Lyotard J-F 1988 The Dierend: Phrases in Dispute. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN Nietzsche F 1974 The Gay Science [trans. Kaufmann W]. Vintage Books, New York Rorty R 1989 Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Rorty R 1999 Afterword: pragmatism, pluralism and postmodernism. In: Philosophy and Social Hope. Penguin, London, pp. 26277
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Postsocialist Societies
Postsocialist societies is the general term for the former socialist countries which are in the course of full or partial restructuring of social life. The problem 11877
ISBN: 0-08-043076-7