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Industrial Polymers 1.Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET, PETE) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) exists both as an amorphous (transparent) and a semicrystalline (opaque and white) thermoplastic, and can be made into either a resin, film or fibre. The semi-crystalline PET has good strength, ductility, stiffness and hardness while the amorphous PET has better ductility. PET also has good processability and can be recycled for other applications or returned to its constituent monomers. The largest outlet for PET is for the production of synthetic fibres with bottle resin production the next largest application. In textile applications, PET is often referred to as polyester while PET is used often to refer to the packaging resins. Polyester is the largest synthetic fiber used in the world with production split roughly 60/40 between polyester filament and polyester staple. Filament yarns are used in clothing, furnishings, tyre cord and technical textiles. Staple fibres are employed in knitted and woven textiles for clothing and furnishings such as bed sheets, bedspreads, curtains and draperies. Polyester fibrefill can be used to stuff pillows and cushion padding. Polyester fabrics can have a synthetic feel when compared to fabrics made from natural materials. However, polyester does have the advantage of better wrinkle resistance and is often spun together with natural fibers such as cotton and wool to produce a fabric with blended properties. PET packaging resin markets have seen very strong growth over the last 20 years. It first penetrated the carbonated soft drinks market because it is lightweight and strong. PET bottles are virtually unbreakable while a typical 1.5 liter bottle weighs about 40-45gm, about one-tenth the weight of glass. PET has taken market share in the bottled water market due to its good clarity and not leaving any taste in the water. It has also found applications in more niche markets such as sports drinks and fruit juices, and is used to make bottles for cooking and salad oils, sauces and dressings. The crystalline form of PET is used for trays containing pre-cooked meals that are reheated in either microwave or conventional ovens. Other uses for PET include thick-walled containers for cosmetic and personal care products as well as pharmaceuticals. PET film is utilized in electrical applications such as dielectric metal foil capacitors and for packaging. Packaging applications Plastic soft drink, water, sports drink, beer, mouthwash, catsup and salad dressing bottles. Peanut butter, pickle, jelly and jam jars. Ovenable film and ovenable prepared food trays.

Recycled products

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Fiber, tote bags, clothing, film and sheet, food and beverage containers, carpet, strapping, fleece wear, luggage and bottles 2.High Density Poly (ethylene)

Description After its experimental preparation in the 1930s, the application in high frequency radar cables during World War II, gave impetus to its commercial production. This thermoplastic is available in a range of flexibilities depending on the production process. High density materials are the most rigid. The polymer can be formed by a wide variety of thermoplastic processing methods and is particularly useful where moisture resistance and low cost are required. Polyethylene is limited by a rather low temperature capability (200-250 F) but is manufactured in billions of pounds per year. Vinyl acetate can be copolymerized with ethylene. The resulting product has improved transparency over homopolymerized polyethylene because of a reduction of crystallinity in the copolymer. ADVANTAGES: Low cost Impact resistant from -40 C to 90 C Moisture resistance Good chemical resistance Food grades available Readily processed by all thermoplastic methods

DISADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS: High thermal expansion Poor weathering resistance Subject to stress cracking Difficult to bond Flammable Poor temperature capability In general, high density grades of polyethylene have densities up to 0.97 g/cm3. Low density grades are as low as 0.91 g/cm3. Typically, the high-density material is more linear and consequently more crystalline. As might be expected, this higher crystallinity permits use at temperatures up to 1300 C with somewhat better creep resistance below that temperature. Low density polyethylene has less stiffness than the high density type. Blends of the two types are common. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). HDPE is used to make bottles for milk, juice, water and laundry products. Unpigmented bottles are translucent, have good barrier properties and stiffness, and are well suited to packaging products with a short shelf life such as milk. Because HDPE has good chemical resistance, it is used for packaging many household and

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industrial chemicals such as detergents and bleach. Pigmented HDPE bottles have better stress crack resistance than unpigmented HDPE bottles. High density poly(ethylene) is used for bullet proof vests and pipes, it has a higher molecular weight than low density poly(ethylene). Properties "Stiffness, strength, toughness, resistance to chemicals and moisture, permeability to gas, ease of processing, and ease of forming. Packaging applications Milk, water, juice, cosmetic, shampoo, dish and laundry detergent bottles; yogurt and margarine tubs; cereal box liners; grocery, trash and retail packaging Recycled products Liquid laundry detergent, shampoo, conditioner and motor oil bottles; pipe, buckets, crates, flower pots, garden edging, film and sheet, recycling bins, benches, dog houses, plastic lumber, floor tiles, picnic tables, fencing.

3. Low Density Poly(ethylene) Low density poly(ethylene) has a lower molecular weight than HDPE and its uses are more generally for materials that need to bend and stretch such as shampoo bottles, toys, and grocery bags. Chemically resistant fittings, bowls, lids, gaskets, toys, containers, packaging film, film liners, squeeze bottles. Heat-seal films for metal laminates. Pipe, cable covering. Thermoplastic 4. Poly (vinyl chloride): PVC Currently PVC is most of the most widespread plastics in the world but its use in manufacturing objects dated back to the first half of the 1990's. The variety of possible formulations, PVC is a highly versatile plastic. Hence it is suitable for application in many sectors due to the use of special PVC working machines. Main characteristics of PVC: Very good thermal and acoustic insulation; The multi-groove PVC profiles exhibit very low thermal conductivity which means greater thermal insulation. Hence PVC is particularly suitable for fabrication of French windows and windows and doors. No maintenance: coating or surface treatment; PVC is not altered by atmospheric agents. Flexibility in design; PVC can safely be used in all contexts. PVC is self-extinguishing or flame retardant;

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therefore it is very safe for all types of application and construction. Moreover PVC does not pollute the environment and can be fully recycled. Uses of PVC Regarding mechanical-physical properties, there are essentially two types of PVC: RIGID PVC, without plasticizers, it exhibits high surface strength and very good rigidity. It is used mainly for extrusion of profiles for windows, piping and other applications in widely differing sectors. PLASTICIZED PVC added with plasticizers thanks to which a flexible material is obtained used in manufacture of films, gaskets, expanded products, sheets, jacketing for electrical cables, etc. Above all PVC is used: in building and construction; PVC windows and doors, besides windows, doors and frames, also shutters, panels, piping for drinking water distribution and exhaust, flooring, sheeting for waterproofing of roofing and swimming pools, wall cladding, electrical ductwork, plumbing, etc. in packaging, above all foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals. in cars: panels for car doors, dashboards, trimming profiles, electrical cabinets, window gasketing, matting, various accessories, etc. in electricity and electronics: jacketing of electrical cables for domestic use (electrical household appliances, telephones, control panels, etc.) and industrial use (electrical power stations, substations etc.), distribution boxes, electrical ducting, pipes, sockets, etc. However building is the sector consuming most of the PVC production (about 53 %). The appreciation and continuous development of this material in the building and construction sector is thanks to the performance that PVC is able to offer: strength, cost-effectiveness, long life, recyclability, plasticity. PVC windows, which are gaining more and more acceptance, represent the most effective way to save in both money and the environment. Moreover the ability of PVC to isolate the interior of the home from cold, rain, humidity and wind allows longer retention of the warmth while in the town PVC doors and windows can also protect against noise pollution. It should also be remembered that the winter energy saving considerations are also applicable to summer air conditioning. Moreover this material has a long life, it does not require maintenance and is easy to recycle. PVC is most commonly known for pipes, but it also present in linoleum, vinyl siding, and vinyl car tops. Thermoplastic

5.Poly(propylene) Packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer banknotes. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Some of poly(propylene)'s main uses are dishwasher safe containers and indoor/outdoor carpet.

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Thermoplastic 6.Poly(styrene) Polystyrene applications Include products such as kids toys, clear disposable cups, disposable cutlery, computer housing, take away containers, egg cartons and so much more. It is easily noted that it has a major role in the food packaging industry. It does not matter if you are looking to purchase polystyrene to package groceries, take away foods or other produce you are guaranteed to find it a versatile and somewhat rigid packaging option. Of course polystyrene is used in the medical industry too, to enclose medications. It is also used to manufacture housings for appliances such as ovens, microwaves, air conditioners, fridges and more. In the consumer electronics industry it can be found used for media enclosures, DVD cases, CD cases and cassette tape housings. It is also often used in the construction industry as insulation foam, siding, bath units, shower units, roofing and various lighting and plumbing fixtures. You would probably be quite surprised to learn that many of the accessories in your office or home are actually made from a form of polystyrene such as lawn mowers, garden equipment, staplers, rulers and even some toys to name but a few. Probably the easiest visualization for the use of poly(styrene) is the colorful computer casings for the popular IMac computers. Some of the other uses are drinking cups, model cars, and of course styrofoam. Thermosett 7.Nylon 6 Polyamides or nylons are the first engineering plastics and still represent the biggest and most important class of these types of material. The development of polyamide began with the first publications describing polycondensation which is the basic principle of nylon synthesis in 1929. The development of nylon production continued with the synthesis of poly (hexamethylene adipamide), the original nylon which was conducted by Wallace H. Carothers in a DuPont Laboratory in 1935. This invention resulted in the first patent for the production of synthetic polyamides in 1937 and the subsequent commercial production of nylon 6,6 for toothbrush filaments by DuPont in 1938. In 1941, DuPont introduced the first moldable nylon grades. The other commercially important polyamide, nylon 6 based on caprolactam was first produced at IG Farbenindustrie in Germany by P. Schlack in 1938 and the patent for nylon 6 was subsequently issued in 1941. Although the large markets of polyamides were traditionally for fiber applications, the use of polyamides as plastics grew gradually since the 1950s. Polyamides comprise a wide range of materials, depending on the monomers employed. Commonly used products are designated as nylon 6; 6,6; 6,12; 11 and 12 with the nomenclature designating the number of carbon atoms that separate the repeating amide group. Nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 continue to be the most popular types among polyamide commercial products, still accounting for more than 90 percent of nylon used in the global market. Two basic reactions are used to synthesize polyamide engineering polymers: (1) polycondensation of a dibasic acid and a diamine or (2) polymerization of an amino acid or lactam. The most widely used nylon polymers are semicrytalline products with molecular

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weight of 10-40 thousand and chemical structures in which amide linkages connect aliphatic chain segments. Polyamides are a versatile family of thermoplastics that have a broad range of properties ranging from relative flexibility to significant stiffness, strength, and toughness. Major properties such as resistance to chemicals, toughness, thermal stability, good appearance, and good processability are key considerations that make nylon suitable for engineering plastics applications. Traditionally, the majority of nylon produced was used in the fiber application. This consumption trend has changed substantially over the past decade with increasing proportion of nylon going into the engineering thermoplastics market. This is due to the fact that nylons have particular utility in performing mechanical duties that traditionally relied on metal parts. In terms of properties, nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 appear to be comparatively similar although nylon 6 has better toughness and processability. On the other hand, nylon 6,6 has superior mechanical properties and higher heat resistance. For engineering plastics, both nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 can be used over an extensive range of applications including automotive, consumer, industrial, electrical and electronics segments. Overall, automotive applications have been the major driver for this positive growth in recent years in the trend towards replacing metal parts with plastics, in order to reduce weight and costs as well as meet vehicle emission standards. Market outlook for nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 varies extensively depending on domestic demand and current market conditions in each country. Overall, developed markets of North America and Europe will experience sluggish growth over the foreseeable future as a result of the global economic downturn and movement of several manufacturing activities into lower-cost base countries. One of Japans very mature markets (automotive industry) will likely suffer low growth over the next coming years due to saturated market conditions and steady erosion of the Japanese manufacturing base. China is expected to be one of the fastest growing countries for ETP nylon, largely driven by phenomenal growth in the automotive and electrical/electronics markets. CHEMISTRY Nylon 6 is the linear addition polymer of caprolactam (6-amino-caproic acid). The polymerization process for nylon 6 can be batch or continuous, however, the state-of-theart process for its manufacture is continuous polymerization. Three reversible reactions, hydrolysis, polycondensation, and polyaddition are the main steps in nylon 6 production. The overall reaction is illustrated as follows: + Click image to enlarge The first step is a hydrolysis reaction to open the caprolactam ring, forming -aminocaproic acid: + Click image to enlarge This reaction proceeds in molten caprolactam in the presence of a small weight percent water. Although the reaction will proceed with only caprolactam and water present, a material such as phosphoric acid is added at low concentration to act as a chain stabilizer and help achieve the desired final viscosity (molecular weight). Polyaddition is the reaction which is mainly responsible for the growth of the linear polymer chains. It is the most important reaction as soon as a certain amount of end groups has been made available by the hydrolysis of caprolactam. Thus, final polymerization occurs by the following caprolactam addition reaction: + Click image to enlarge

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The polymer dissolves in the unreacted caprolactam. The polymer end groups affect the stability and final molecular weight of the polyamide. Organic acids (such as acetic acid) can be added as chain stabilizers. Monofunctional organic amines can also be added. The linear polymer chain formed in the polyaddition reaction can further increase its molecular weight via a polycondensation reaction. The reactive end groups polycondensate forming linear chain molecules and byproduct water. Thus, two linear chain molecules condense producing a longer chain molecule with higher molecular weight. In other words, the polycondensation is regarded as the most important reaction in the last phase of nylon 6 formation in which the distribution of polymer chain lengths is adjusted. Caprolactam can also be polymerized in-situ in a mold. A typical procedure uses the sodium salt of caprolactam as a catalyst. A brief discussion of the raw materials caprolactam, additives, initiators, catalysts, and chain stabilizers and additional ingredients used during production of nylon 6 is given. Nylon 6,6 chemistry and raw materials are also discussed PRODUCTION PROCESSES Nylon 6 Batch & Continuous Processes Commercially, the ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam to nylon 6 can be accomplished by both hydrolytic and anionic mechanisms. However, nylon 6 is produced almost exclusively by hydrolytic polymerization of caprolactam because it is easier to control and better adapted for large-scale operation. The polymerization process for nylon via the hydrolytic mechanism can be batch or continuous. The hydrolytic process for nylon 6 contains the following steps: caprolactam and additives addition, hydrolysis, addition, condensation, pelletizing, leaching/extraction of monomers, drying, and packaging. Process flow diagrams and process descriptions for both the batch and continuous process are given in the report. Nylon 6,6 Continuous Process To solve the limitations inherent in the batch process, the continuous polymerization process was developed. The main steps of the continuous process include salt preparation, and polymerization. Solid phase polymerization is an additional step used to increase molecular weight of the polymer without damaging properties of the polymer. A conceptual process design for the Salt Preparation process is schematically illustrated, coupled with a brief description. The concentrated nylon salt solution is pumped from storage into the first-stage polymerization reactor, and this is schematically illustrated along with a brief description. A brief description of solid-phase polymerization (SPP) is given. Major commercial licensors for polymer production process includes Zimmer AG and Uhde Inventa-Fischer. Lurgi Zimmer Gmbh process flow diagram and process description are given. Uhde Inventa-Fischer process is described along with schematic illustrations. PRODUCT AND END-USE Resins and Compounds The usefulness of nylons rests upon their combination of properties and their susceptibility to modification. The key properties of nylon include resistance to oil and solvents, toughness, fatigue and abrasion resistance, low friction and creep resistance, high tensile strength, thermal stability, fire resistance, drawability, good appearance and good processability. Resins properties and additives and fillers are discussed; recycling, storage, and compounding are mentioned in brief Fabrication Methods Process ability is another advantage that nylon has over thermosets and other engineering plastics. Nylon can be processed via a variety of techniques including injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, monomer casting, solution coating, fluidized-bed or electrostatic

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coating, or forming. The large proportion of nylon is processed by injection molding, extrusion and blow molding. Injection Molding and Extrusion are briefly discussed; Blow Molding, Rotomolding, Reaction Injection Molding, Assembly Techniques are also mentioned in brief. Nylon Major Markets Polyamide 6 and 6,6 are highly versatile materials that are consumed in a host of applications including fibers, films, and molded articles. This section in the report focuses only on the technical, or engineering polymer applications of polyamide 6 and 6,6. Automotive, electronics and electrical, consumer & other applications are briefly discussed; new developments in Nylon 6 and 6,6 products are mentioned in brief.Nylon 6 is used mainly as a molding and extrusion compound. It is very useful also when as fabric, of as high pressure molds. Nylon 6 is one of the n\most valuable polyamides that are used today because of their cost and strength after cold rolling. Thermoplastic 8.Nylon 66 Nylon 66 is a very important polyamide in use today. Because of it excellent cold drawing properties it can have a very high elastic modulus or, on the other side of toughness, a very high ductility. Nylon 6,6, because it is an excellent molding compound, is used for many things including, but not limited to, fabric for clothing, shock absorbers at high temperatures, and very intricate pieces of Thermosett 9.Lexan Lexan, also known as polycarbonate is approximately 250 times stronger than plate glass and 30 times stronger than acrylic of equal thickness. . Polycarbonate sheet provides lasting protection against vandalism and burglary, as well as against natural occurrences, such as high winds, snow loads, and hailstorms. It is not unlikely to break, shatter or chip when bombarded with thrown objects such as rocks, bricks, and bottles, nor is it likely that the material will break when hammered, twisted or bent. Thermosett

10.Poly(tetra fluoro ethylene): Teflon PTFE has rapidly become the material choice where low friction, high durability, excellent thermal resistance and chemical inertness characteristics are required. Owing to its low friction, it is used for applications where sliding action of parts is needed: plain bearings, gears, slide plates, etc. In these applications, it performs significantly better than nylon In optical radiometry, sheets made from PTFE are used as measuring heads in spectroradiometers and broadband radiometers (e.g.,illuminance meters

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and UV radiometers) due to its capability to diffuse a transmitting light nearly perfectly. Moreover, optical properties of PTFE stay constant over a wide range of wavelengths, from UV up to near infrared. PTFE is also used to coat certain types of hardened, armor-piercing bullets, so as to prevent the increased wear on the firearm's rifling that would result from the harder projectile, however it is not the PTFE itself that gives the bullet its armor-piercing property.[17] High corrosion resistance favors the use of PTFE in laboratory environments as containers, as magnetic stirrer coatings, and as tubing for highly corrosive chemicals such as hydrofluoric acid, which will dissolve glass containers. It is used in containers for PTFE tubes are used in gas-gas heat exchangers in gas cleaning of waste incinerators. Unit power capacity is typically several megawatts. PTFE is also widely used as a thread seal tape in plumbing applications, largely replacing paste thread dope. PTFE membrane filters are among the most efficient used in industrial air filtration applications. Filter coated with a PTFE membrane are often used within a dust collection system to collect particulate matter from air streams in applications involving high temperatures and high particulate loads such as coal-fired power plants, cement production, and steel foundries. PTFE grafts can be used to bypass stenotic arteries in peripheral vascular disease, if a suitable autologous vein graft is not available. PTFE can be used to prevent insects climbing up surfaces painted with the material. PTFE is so slippery that insects cannot get a grip and tend to fall off. For example, PTFE is used to prevent ants climbing out of formicaria. PTFE is also sometimes used as feet forcomputer mice, to reduce the friction with a mousepad or other tracking surface. Cabling Solutions With so much invested in your datacommunications network, you want to protect it as best you can. In a fire, cables can be a significant source of fire load and smoke, and smoke can be a leading cause of IT system damage and personal injury,cables have the most advanced fire safety performance technology available. Flue Gas Heat Exchangers The power generation and waste incineration industries need new developments to meet the demand for sustainability and to achieve their energy efficiency, carbon emission reduction and heat recovery targets. Fluoroplastics pressure tubing in flue gas heat exchangers provide proven long-term hydrostatic pressure performance, and offer the high temperature resistance and corrosion resistance necessary for flue gas desulphurization in fossil fuelled power plants. Food Processing Introducing a new way to fight problems with plugging, corrosion, and sticking during food processing. Components and linings made with Teflon fluoropolymers can help cut

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equipment maintenance costs, increase uptime, increase throughput, and safeguard product purity. Industrial Coatings Teflon fluoropolymer industrial coatings are available in both powder and liquid. The versatility of these coatings allow almost unlimited application to a wide variety of part sizes and configurations, always adding value far beyond the inherent nonstick qualities. Pharmaceuticals and Biopharma Manufacturing Teflon PTFE and Teflon PFA are strong candidates for pharmaceutical and biopharma processing equipment because they have excellent chemical and thermal resistance. Teflon PFA HP Plus is the newest member of our family of fluoropolymers, offering improved performance in semiconductor manufacturing applications. Fluoroadditives are used as additives in inks for lithographic printing, for improved scuff resistance and high temperature drying; thermoplastics in moulded gears, for improved wear resistance and low coefficient of friction; elastomers in dynamic seals and coated rollers, for improved abrasion and tear resistance; coatings for protective industrial, for improved abrasion and tear resistance; and lubricants in oil and aerosols as a very effective grease thickener.

Structure: Thermoplastic 11.Poly(methyl methacrylate): Plexiglass Poly(methyl methacrylate), which lazy scientists call PMMA, is a clear plastic, used as a shatterproof replacement for glass. The barrier at the ice rink which keeps hockey pucks from flying in the faces of fans is made of PMMA. The chemical company Rohm and Haas makes windows out of it and calls it Plexiglas. When it comes to making windows, PMMA has another advantage over glass. PMMA is more transparent than glass. When glass windows are made too thick, they become difficult to see through. But PMMA windows can be made as much as 13 inches (33 cm) thick, and they're still perfectly transparent. This makes PMMA a wonderful material for making large aquariums, whose windows must be thick in order to contain the high pressure millions of gallons of water. In fact, the largest single window in the world, an observation window at California's Monterrey Bay Aquarium, is made of one big piece of PMMA which is 54 feet long, 18 feet high, and 13 inches thick (16.6 m long, 5.5 m high, and 33 cm thick). Structure:

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Thermoplastic