Telecom Basics By Lawrence Harte.

Table of Contents Telecom Basics, Second Edition Preface Chapter 1-Introduction to Telecommunications Chapter-Signal Fundamentals Chapter-Signal Processing Chapter-Transmission Systems Chapter- S w i t c h i n g Chapter- S i g n a l i n g Chapter- P r o t o c o l s Chapter- N e t w o r k s Chapter- S y s t e m s Chapter10-Voice over Data Networks Chapter11- S e r v i c e s Chapter12-Call Processing Chapter 1: Introduction to Telecommunications Overview Telecommunication systems and services involve the transfer of some type of information from one point to another. Telecommunication may consist of the transfer of voice, data, video media and telecommunication systems may combine and control this media in many ways. Telecommunications technologies and systems are designed to reliably transfer information between the originating source of the information and the intended destination(s). Certain types of communication systems are designed to effectively transfer specific types of information. Although these systems may be capable of other types of telecommunications services (e.g. Voice and data), other types of communication systems may be better choices. For example, mobile telephone system is very good at transferring voice information, but not very capable of handling video. Telecommunications systems are characterized as being made up of end user equipment, access lines, interconnection equipment, and a coordinating (controlling) structure. Examples offend user equipment are telephone handsets, computer terminals, or pagers. These devices communicate with a telecommunication network through access lines and/or access points. Access systems can be interconnected with each other to form large networks. Control systems are responsible for authorizing access to the system, managing network resources, and measuring usage for billing and accounting purposes. Some communication networks that have been traditionally used for non-telecommunication services have evolved to provide voice services. For example, cable television systems now offer high-speed Internet services and it is relatively simple to upgrade these two-way data networks to offer voice services.

Key Telecommunications Services Telecommunications services can be divided into three key categories; voice, data, and video. Each of these categories has specific characteristics such as maximum transmission delay time, minimum and maximum transmission rates, and acceptable transmission error types and rates. Voice services involves the receiving of audio signals, processing audio signals into various formats (analog and digital), storing and transporting these signals, and converting the signals back into a form that is similar to its original

form. The characteristics of voice networks are very small transmission delay (below 100 sec typical), maximum of 64 kbps for each digital voice channel, and reasonable tolerance to errors. Examples of voice services are Telephony, Voice Messaging, Call Processing, and Computer and Telephony Integration, CTI.Data services provide transport of digital information from one point to one or more points. The characteristics of data networks are moderate transmission delays (above 1 sec may be acceptable), minimum of 28 kbps for each dial-up digital customer and 1 Mbps for each broadband customer, and very low tolerance to errors. Examples of data services include switched connections (circuit switched channels / dial-up), dedicated lines (leased lines/circuits),packet switching (e.g. Internet), and multicast and broadcast (one to many) data transfer. Video services transport high information content signals (video) from one point to one or more points. The characteristics of video networks are very long transmission delay (above 15 seconds for digital broadcast acceptable), minimum of 1 Mbps for each digital video channel (3.2 Mbps forded), and reasonable tolerance to errors. Examples of video services include television, closed-circuit TV (CCTV), and video on demand (VOD), videoconferencing, and interactive multimedia.

Basic Communications Systems A basic communications system consists of end user equipment, network access connections, network interconnection devices (e.g. switches) and a control system that coordinates the network. A carrier or service provider is company that is engaged in transferring electrical signals or messages for hire through one or more telecommunications systems. Customers (users) request and may receive telecommunications services from the telecommunications network. Because customers request and receive services, a customer is sometimes called a service subscriber or end user. A telecommunications service provider offers communications for a fee directly to the public, or to such classes of users as to be effectively available directly to the public, regardless of the facilities used. A network operator is a provider of telecommunication services. A network operator manages the network equipment parts of a communications system to allow authorized customers to transfer and/or process information via the network. The network operator may provide services directly toned customers or may only manage network equipment and another company (service provider) may manage the provision of services to customers. Figure shows a basic telecommunications system. This diagram shows various types of enduser equipment that allow customers to access one or more communication systems via an access network. The access network links the customer (usually by copper wire, coax or fiber) toe communication network. Communication networks connect end-users to other end-users or information services. Different types of networks may be interconnected to each other. Each network must have some form of intelligence that controls the network.

Figure 1.1: Basic Telecommunication System End-user equipment converts various types of information from a user (such as audio or computer data) into a signal that can be transferred via a communications system. Since the late1800s, different types of systems had very specific types of end user devices. For example, public telephone systems have a telephone, data communication systems have a channel service unit (CSU), and wireless systems have a mobile telephone. As technology has evolved, end user equipment devices began to combine functionality. This can be found in voice telephone systems that can transfer digital data by using a modulator/demodulator (modem).Access connections are the link between the end user equipment and the wide area network, WAN, owned by the service provider.

Access connections can be provided via pairs of copper wires, radio links, or fiber connections. Twisted pairs of copper wires can carry low frequency audio signals such as voice and high-speed digital signals (e.g., 11 Mbps DSL). Radio access can carry low speed information signals (such as wide area cellular) or can be high-speed data transmission (such as microwave directional signals). Each strand of fiberopitic cable (and there may be several hundred fibers per cable) can carry more than 1 Terabit per second of data (1,000,000 million bits per second).Interconnection systems connect of all the various types of equipment. Interconnection systems may include signal taps, splitters, bridges, gateways, switches, and routers to move the information from one part of the network to another along its path between originating and destination points. The interconnection can be completely dumb such as the form of signal taps and splitters that only direct part of the signal energy to multiple points. Some interconnection devices such as bridges and gateways adapt the format of the information to another form (e.g. different packet length or type of packet) between dissimilar networks. Active devices such as switches and routers can direct signals from one source to various other paths depending on call setup information (e.g., telephone number) or an address contained in a data packet (such as signal router that transfers Internet packets of data).System control and coordination functions ensure that the various resources of the network are coordinated in their actions by detecting equipment and network status. Commands are issued to direct the various network elements in order to configure the network parts and to maintain a high level of network service. Network operators can centrally coordinate system control or multiple network operators can independently and dynamically control it. An example of a centrally managed control system is the signaling system number 7 (SS7) packet control system that coordinates the public telephone network. The SS7 network contains packet switching points and databases that are controlled by the public telephone network operators. Distributed network control is demonstrated by how the Internet is dynamically managed. The Internet is composed of thousands of independent networks that use intelligent routing devices within each network to forward packets throughout the Internet. End User Equipment End user equipment, (often called terminals) is the interface between the customer and the network. Terminals may translate electrical or optical signals to forms understandable by people or may be translation devices for other electronic equipment (such as computers).

Most telephone equipment converts electrical analog (audio signals) or digital (digitized voice)into acoustic energy that the customer can hear. The basic function of analog telephone serviceis called plain old telephone service (POTS). The standard telephone (also known as a 2500series phone,) continuously monitors the voltage on the telephone line to determine if anincoming ring signal (high voltage tone) is present. When the ring signal is received, thetelephone alerts the user through an audio tone (on the ringer).Figure 1.2shows a block diagram of a standard POTS telephone (also known as a 2500 seriesphone). This telephone continuously monitors the voltage on the telephone line to determine if anincoming ring signal (high voltage tone) is present. When the ring signal is received, thetelephone alerts the user through an audio tone (on the ringer). After the customer has picked upthe phone, the hook switch is connected. This reduces the line connection resistance (through thehybrid) and this results in a drop in line voltage (typically from 48 VDC to a few volts). Thischange in voltage is sensed by the telephone switching system and the call is connected. Whenthe customer hangs up the phone, the hook switch is opened increasing the resistance to the lineconnection. This

results in an increase in the line voltage. The increased line voltage is thensensed by the telephone switching system and the call is disconnected. Figure 1.2: POTS Telephone Block Diagram Network Access Lines Copper telephone lines are a primary method of connecting customers to the telephone systems.Copper wire pairs typically use twisted pairs of copper. The twisting of wires reduces the effectsof electrical noise from distorting the desired audio signals. In essence, when the noise isreceived on one twist, the same noise is received on the other twist. The voltage goes positive onone line while it also goes positive on the other. Basically, the two noise signals are at the samelevel and they cancel each other (balance). Coax lines use one wire (a shield) to surround theother wire to help contain electrical energy from leaking out.Telephone lines usually start from the central offices switching center in the form of bundles ofmany wire pairs (trunks). These trunks connect the central switching office to distribution cables(cables with a reduced number of wire pairs) that eventually are connected to individual homes orbusinesses. Trunks may contain thousands of pairs of wires while local distribution cables onlycontain 25 to 100.

Cables are produced in rolls with a limited length (often 500 feet long). The installation oftelephone cables requires several splices points as the large trunk cables connect to thedistribution cables that connect to the drop cables to the home.Figure 1.3shows a typical layout of a telephone wiring between the central office and the home.This diagram shows that 600 pairs of copper line start from the central office (CO) switch. Theswitch wires are connected to the local loop lines in a main distribution frame (MDF). This trunkcable is connected to three 200 pair distribution cables that supply circuits to nearbyneighborhoods. As the cables enter into a neighborhood, they are connected at splice points tosmaller distribution cables until it is connected to a final distribution cable that only holds 25 pairsreaches a telephone pole located near a house. At the telephone pole, usually 2 pairs of wiresare tapped to the drop line that enters into the house (to allow up to 2 separate phone lines).These 2 pairs of wire are attached to a network interface device (NID) that protects (isolates) the wiring in the home from the telephone network wiring. Once in the home, twisted pairs of wiresare looped from the NID to telephone jacks within the house. This illustration also shows thatthere is significant potential for different types and sizes of wire and many splice points. Thisinconsistency can dramatically affect the

ability to transfer high-speed digital signals.

Figure 1.3: Access Telephone Line Wiring Interconnection Networks Local access networks often connect to other networks (such as the PSTN, PTT or Internet) viaswitching systems or gateway connection. Various types of gateway connections can connect thelocal telephone switching system (often called the End Office or Central Office) to other public(e.g. Internet) or private (e.g. corporate) networks. A gateway transforms data that is receivedfrom one network into a format that can be used by a different network. It usually has moreintelligence (processing function) than a bridge as it can adjust the protocols and timing betweentwo dissimilar computer systems or data networks. A gateway can also be a router when its keyfunction is to switch data between network points.Interconnections to other public telephone networks are classified by the type of connection.Basically, the lower the connection type number, the more simple (and more limited) theconnection is. The connection types include the basic customer type POTS (type 1) and inter-switch types 2. Type 1 POTS connection provides for basic signaling and low speed (audio)connection. The higher types of connection include various capabilities such as types ofinformation services available (operator assist, emergency number support). In the United States,the typical interconnection types include those designated as type 2A, 2B and other variants oftype 2, each serving a specific purpose. Type 2 interconnections link the LEC into a tandem(standard local switch interconnect) office. When using the type 2 connections, the CO appearsas a standard end office switching facility.Networks commonly increase their data transmission capacity or quality levels as you movetowards the top of the network (away from the endpoints). For cable networks, this is called

feeders and for telephone networks, these are called high-speed backbone interconnects. High-speed interconnection lines between switches and tie lines are called trunks.Figure 1.4shows some of the different types of interconnection networks. These vary fromdistribution networks (no switching functions such as cable television), centrally controllednetworks (such as the public telephone system), and packet switching networks (such as theInternet).

Figure 1.4: Interconnection Networks Network Control Network control is the transmission of signaling messages that perform call-control functions suchas supervision, call setup routing, provisioning (authorizing) of services, and call processingcontrol. Networks are either common to all users or privately leased by a customer for somespecific application. The term network also refers to a group of two or more broadcast stationsor cable systems interconnected physically and organizationally so as to broadcast the sameprogram schedule simultaneously without any switching functions.In the early telephone systems, network control routing of a telephone connection was manuallymonitored and processed by human operators. Human operators would supervise the call bylistening for request tones (ringing sounds) and manually coordinate the connection by talking toend customers (who originate calls) and other operators (for cross-connections). When the callsetup process had been agreed (all the switching points established), the connection was madethrough physical connections (patch panels).

To provide for more efficient network control, telephone control signals (tones) were created toallow the transfer or call control information on the same audio lines as the voice signals for callsetup. These control tones would either be mixed with the audio or temporarily replace the audiosignals. This type of audio signal control is called in-band signaling.As the design of telephone networks advanced, it was necessary to add more intelligence to thecall setup (e.g., automatic forwarding of telephone calls), it became necessary to shift the controlsignaling to circuits outside the audio path. This allowed more rapid call setup and better overallcontrol over the communications connection. When the control signals are separated from theactual communication channel, these are called out-of-band signaling.Provisioning of a network is a process within a company that allows for establishment of

newaccounts, activation and termination of features within these accounts, and coordinating anddispatching the resources necessary to fill those service orders. Provisioning involves customercare and billing systems.Figure 1.5shows how different types of networks can be controlled. This diagram shows that anetwork can have no control (distribution only), can use intelligent databases to control dumbswitches, or it can use intelligent switches to route information through a dumb network.

Figure 1.5: Network Control Telephone and Device Numbering Each device within a network must have its own unique address. Some of the different types ofaddresses that are available include telephone numbers and data network addresses. International Numbering Plan (ITU) The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a division of the United Nations, has defineda world numbering plan recommendation, E.164. The E.164 numbering plan defines the use ofa country code (CC), national destination code (NDC), and subscriber number (SN) for telephonenumbering. The CC consists of one, two or three digits. The first digit identifies the world zone.The number of digits used for telephone numbers throughout the world varies. However, noportion of a telephone number can exceed 15 digits. There are several E series of ITU.

numbering recommendations that assist in providing unique identifying numbers for telephonedevices around the world. North American Numbering Plan (NANP)

An 11 digit-dialing plan is used within North America. It contains 5 parts: international code,optional intersystem code (1 +), geographic numbering plan area (NPA), central office code(NXX), and station number (XXXX). The NPA code defines a geographic area for the servingtelephone system (such as a city). The NXX defines a particular switch that is located within thetelephone system. Finally, the station code identifies a particular line (station) that the switchprovides service to.Figure 1.6shows the telephone numbering systems.

Figure 1.6: Telephone Numbering Systems Internet and Data Network Numbering Most data network addresses are hierarchical where the beginning of the address identifies theentire network and each progressive address number (or group of numbers) identifies morespecific parts within the network.Data networks are usually composed of several interconnected links. These links can be ofdifferent technologies with each of their end points identified by a unique numbering system.Figure 1.7shows how different types of data network addressing systems can co-exist. Thisdiagram shows a data connection that is composed of several parts. An end-user is connected toan application server through a company Ethernet network. The computers network interfacecard (NIC) has an address unique to the Ethernet hub. The Internet address is included as part ofthe data message after the Ethernet address. The companys network is connected to an ISP bya high-speed frame relay connection. The

frame relay access device (FRAD) has a uniqueidentifier to the ISP. The ISP connects the data connection via asynchronous transfer mode(ATM) to the ASP.

Figure 1.7: Internet and Network Numbering Systems

Number Portability Number portability involves the ability for a telephone number to be transferred between differentservice providers. This allows customers to change service providers without having to changetelephone numbers. Number portability involves three key elements: local number portability,service portability and geographic portability.The first part of the telephone number (NPA-NXX) usually identifies a specific geographic areaand specific switch where the customer subscribes to telephone service. If a telephone number isassigned to another system (different NXX) in the same geographic area (same NPA), theinterconnecting carriers (IXCs) connecting to that system must know which local system to routethe calls based on the selected local service providers. In this case, the IXC must look up thelocal telephone number in a database (called a database dip) prior to delivering the call to the endcustomer.

Figure 1.8shows an example of how local number portability (LNP) can be used to redirecttelephone numbers as customers move their telephone number to different geographic areas ortransfer the phone number to different system operators (e.g. transfer from wired to wirelessoperators). In this diagram, a caller in Los Angeles is calling to someone in Chicago. The call isrouted through the LEC in Los Angeles and routed through a long distance provider who needs toconnect the call into a local telephone company in Chicago. Because there are several localproviders in Chicago, the IXC must look into a database to see if the number has been ported toa different service provider. This is the next to last switch before the call reaches the end officeswitch (called N-1). This switch uses the dialed digits to find which local carrier is providingservice in the Chicago area. When the IXC finds which exchange is serving the number, the callis routed to the correct local switching office and the call is completed.

Figure 1.8: Service portability allows a customer to take their telephone number to a different type of serviceprovider. Service portability involves determination of the type of service provider (e.g., wirelessor wired) who is responsible for completing the call using the area code and NXX. Theinterconnection and call processing for different types of service providers varies. Geographic portability involves the transfer of telephone numbers outside the normal geographicboundaries of the service providers area. Geographic portability allows a customer to keep theirsame area code when they move to new cities or other distant geographic regions.

Chapter 2: Signal Fundamentals Telecommunication technology involves the transfer of information signals through wires, fiber, orthrough the air by the means of electrical or optical signals. Communication signals are usuallycharacterized by their intensity (voltage and current) and frequency (cycles per second). To allowinformation to be transferred using communication signals, an information source (audio, data orvideo) is either represented by the signal itself (called the baseband signal) or the informationslightly changes the wave shape of the communication signal (called the broadband signal). Theinformation is imposed on the carrying signal (called the carrier) by varying the signal level or timechanges (frequency shift). Signal Types There are two basic types of signals: analog and digital. Many communication systems receiveanalog signals (e.g., audio signals), convert them to a digital format, transport the digital signalsthrough a network, and reconvert the digital signals back to their analog form when they reachtheir destination. Analog An analog signal can vary continuously between a maximum and minimum value and it canassume an infinite number of values between the two extremes. Analog information can berepresented by a continuous and smoothly varying amplitude or frequency over a certain rangesuch as voice or music. Analog communication lines allow the representation of information toclosely resemble the original information. Figure 2.1shows a sample analog signal created by sound pressure waves. In this example, asthe sound pressure from a persons voice is detected by a microphone, it is converted to itsequivalent electrical signal. Also, the analog audio signal continuously varies in amplitude (height,loudness, or energy) as time progresses.

Figure 2.1: Analog Audio Signal Processing Frequency The frequency of an electrical or optical wave is the number of complete cycles or wavelengthsthat the wave has in a given unit of time (second). The standard measurement for this is numberof cycles per second, also known as Hertz (the scientist, not the car company), abbreviated Hz.

Figure 2.2displays how frequency is measured. In this example, there three cycles of a wave thatare transmitted over a 1 second time period. This equals a frequency of 3 Hertz.

Figure 2.2: Frequency Figure 2.3: Digital Signal Digital Digital signals have a limited number of discrete states, usually two, that transfer signal levels atpredetermined time intervals. The two levels of most digital signals are on (logic 1) and off (logic0). The information contained in a single time period is called a bit. The number of bits that aretransferred in one second is called the data transfer rate or bits per second (bps). Because manybits are typically transferred in 1 second, the data rate is typically preceded by a multiplier k(thousand) or M (million). For example, if the data transfer rate is 3 million bits per second, 3Mbps would indicate this.Bits are typically combined into groups of 8 bits to form a byte. When the reference is made tobytes instead of bits, the b is capitalized. For example, 10 thousand bytes is represented by kB.Figure 2.3shows a sample digital signal. In this example, the bits 01011010 are transferred in 1second. This results in a bit rate of 8 bps. The earliest form of digital radio communication was Morse Code. To send Morse Code, the radiotransmitter was simply turned on and off to form dots and dashes. The receiver would sense(detect) the radio carrier to reproduce the dots and dashes. A code book of dots and

dashes wasused to decode the message into symbols or letters. The on and off pulses or bits that comprise amodern digital signal is sent in a similar way.The trend in communication systems, just as in other types of electronics products such ascompact discs, is to change from analog systems to digital systems. Digital systems have anumber of important advantages including the fact that digital signals are more immune to noise.Unlike analog systems, even when noise has been introduced, any resulting errors in the digitalbit stream can be detected and corrected. Also, digital signals can be easily manipulated orprocessed in useful ways using modern computer techniques.

Baud Rate Baud rate is the number of the signaling elements (symbols) per second on a transmissionmedium. For some communication line transmission systems (called line codes), the baud rate isthe same as bit rate. However, in many applications, the baud rate is below the bit rate. Forexample, in 2B1Q coding, each quaternary (4 level) signaling element conveys 2 bits ofinformation, so the baud rate is one-half the bit rate. The spectral characteristics of a line signaldepend on the baud rate, not the bit rate. For high-speed digital communications systems, onestate change can be made to represent more than one data bit.Figure 2.4shows that the baud rate is not always the same as the bit rate as each baud (symbol)can have several states that represent multiple binary bits. Figure 2.4: Baud Rate Radio Frequency (RF) The radio frequency spectrum is divided into frequency bands that are authorized for use inspecific geographic regions. Globally, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) specifiesthe typical use for radio frequency bands. Within each country, government agencies create andenforce the rules for which specific types of systems and services are used in specific frequencybands and which companies will be able (will be licensed) to own and operate these systems. RF Channels and Bandwidth An RF channel is a communication link that use radio signals to transfer information between twoor more points. To transfer this information, a radio wave (typically called a radio carrier) ismodulated (modified) within an authorized frequency band to carry the information. Themodulation of the radio wave forces the radio frequency to shift above and below the reference(center) frequency. Typically, the more the modification of frequency, the more information can becarried on the radio wave. This results in RF channels typically defined by their frequency andbandwidth allocation.Bandwidth allocation is the frequency width of a radio channel in Hertz (high and low limits) thatcan be modulated to transfer information. The amount type of information being sent determinesthe amount of bandwidth used and the method of modulation used to impose the information onthe radio signal.A government regulation agency (such as the FCC in the United States) defines a total frequencyrange (upper and lower frequency limits) that a radio service provider can use to transmitinformation. In some systems (such as AM or FM radio station broadcasting), this is a single radiochannel. For other systems (such as cellular, PCS, or PCN), this is a range of frequencies thatcan be sub divided into smaller radio channels as determined by the radio carrier. When theallocated

frequency range is further subdivided into smaller allowable bands, these subdividedareas are referred to as channels.

Modulation Signal modulation is the process of modifying the characteristics of a carrier wave signal using aninformation signal (such as voice or data). The characteristics that can be changed includeamplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM). A pureelectrical, radio, or optical carrier signal carries no information aside from either being in on or offstate. When the carrier signal is modified from a normalized state, it is called a modulated signal.This modulated signal is the carrier of the information that is used to modify the carrier signal.When the carrier signal is received, its signal is compared to an unmodulated signal to reversethe process (called demodulation). This allows the extraction of the original information signal. Acarrier wave signal can be carried by wire, fiber, or electromagnetic waves transmitted throughthe air (radio).When a carrier signal is modulated, the frequency changes above and below its referencefrequency. The difference between the upper and lower maximum frequency changes is calledthe bandwidth. The relationship between the amount of frequency bandwidth of an informationsignal (the baseband) and the channel bandwidth of the modulated carrier determines if thesystem is a narrowband or wideband system. Narrowband systems have a relatively smallcommunications channel bandwidth, typically below 100 kbps. When the bandwidth of thebroadband carrier is much higher than the bandwidth of the information source, it is called a wideband system.The device that modifies the carrier signal with the information source (baseband signal) is calleda modulator. An assembly or device that combines the function of modulating and demodulatingsignals is called a Modulator/DEModulator (MODEM). Amplitude Modulation (AM) Amplitude modulation involves the transferring of information onto a carrier signal by varying theamplitude (intensity) of the carrier signal.Figure 2.5shows an example of an AM modulated radiosignal (on bottom) where the high of the radio carrier signal is change by using the signalamplitude or voltage of the audio signal (on top). Figure 2.5: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Operation

AM was one of the first and simplest forms of modulation. Unfortunately, in addition to changes inintensity caused by an AM modulator, electrical noise that may be on the communication circuitmay appear as part of the modulating signal. This can cause distortion in the received signal. Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency modulation involves the transferring of information onto a radio wave by varying theinstantaneous frequency of the radio carrier signal. In 1936, the inventor Armstrong demonstratedthat a frequency modulated (FM) transmission system was much less

susceptible to noise signalsthan AM modulation systems.Figure 2.6is a process known as frequency modulation (FM). In this diagram, as the modulationsignal (audio wave) increases in voltage, the frequency of the radio carrier signal increases. Asthe voltage decreases, the frequency of the carrier signal also decreases. Figure 2.6: Frequency ModulationWhen frequency modulation is used to transmit digital information, it is called frequency shiftkeying (FSK). To represent a digital signal, the FSK modulator transmits on one frequency tosignify an on signal (usually a logic level 1) and a different frequency to signify an off signal(usually a logic level 0). Phase Modulation (PM) Phase modulation is a modulation process where the phase (relative time shift) of the carriersignal is modified by the amplitude of the information (e.g., audio or data) signal. Changes froman input source is reflected by correspondingly varying the phase (or relative timing) of the carrier wave signal.Figure 2.7shows a sample of phase modulation (PM). In this diagram, a digital signal (on top)creates a phase modulated carrier signal (on bottom). As the digital signal voltage is increased,the frequency of the radio signal changes briefly so the phase (relative timing) of the transmittedsignal advances compared to the unmodulated radio carrier signal. This results in a phase-shiftedsignal (solid line) compared to an unmodulated reference radio signal (dashed lines). When thevoltage of the digital signal is decreased, the frequency changes again so the phase of thetransmitted signal retards compared to the unmodulated radio carrier signal.

Figure 2.7: Phase ModulationWhen used to transfer digital information, a phase shift that occurs over a specific amount timerepresents one or more bits. This is called phase shift keying (PSK) modulation. When theamount of phase shift is 180 degrees (out of a 360 degree cycle), it is called binary phase shiftkeying (BPSK). Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) is when the number of possible amount ofphase shifts is four (90 degrees each).

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) is a specific form of frequency modulation in which the modulatingsignal shifts the output frequency between predetermined values to represent a digital signal.One frequency shift is used to represent a digital one (sometimes called a mark) and the otherfrequency shift represents a digital zero (sometimes called a space).Figure 2.8shows a sample of frequency shift keying (FSK). In this diagram, each pulse from thedigital signal (on top) creates a change in carrier signal frequency (on bottom). As the digitalsignal voltage is increased, the frequency of the radio signal changes above the center(unmodulated) carrier frequency. When the voltage of the digital signal is decreased, thefrequency changes again so the frequency of the transmitted signal is below the center(unmodulated) carrier frequency.

Figure 2.8: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) QAM is a combination of amplitude modulation (changing the amplitude or voltage of a sine waveto convey information) together with phase modulation. There are several ways to build a QAMmodulator. In one process, two modulating signals are derived by special pre-processing from theinformation bit stream. Two replicas of the carrier frequency sine wave are generated; one is adirect replica and the other is delayed by a quarter of a cycle (90 degrees). Each of the twodifferent derived modulating signals are then used to amplitude modulate one of the two replicacarrier sinewaves, respectively. The resultant two modulated signals can be added together. Theresult is a sine wave having a constant unchanging frequency, but having an amplitude andphase that both vary to convey the information. At the detector or decoder, the originalinformation bit stream can be reconstructed. QAM conveys a higher information bit rate (bits persecond) than a BPSK or QPSK signal of the same bandwidth, but is also more affected byinterference and noise as well.Figure 2.9shows that amplitude and phase modulation (QAM) can be combined to form anefficient modulation system. In this example,

one digital signal changes the phase and anotherdigital signal changes the amplitude. In some commercial systems, a single digital signal is usedto change both the phase and the amplitude of the RF signal. This allows a much higher datatransfer rate as compared to a single modulation type