Knight Development Theory

Technology is an ever-present entity in the lives of adult learners of the 21st century. They surf the internet, utilize e-communication through social networking sites and e-mail, listen to MP3 players, and have smart phones. One is never very far from an abundance of technology; therefore it is not surprising that more and more higher education institutes are adopting courses taught exclusively online or in blended formats of online and classroom. As the number of online courses in higher ed increases, so does the need for qualified instructional designers and instructors. Gone need be the days when a classroom professor would take their course to the IT department to have it converted to an online format. Those practices limit the students learning environment which is a world that has limitless possibilities. One must know more that teaching or technology in order to create a rich and interactive online learning experience. Broderick (2001) says that it is the art and science of creating an instructional environment and materials that will bring the learner from the state of not being able to accomplish certain tasks to the state of being able to accomplish those tasks. It is based on theoretical and practical research in the areas of learning theory, educational psychology, and problem solving. Chaundrys (2010) critical review study of over 100 Turkish university courses revealed that there was limited work done in needs assessment prior to creating a class outline, and furthermore, once the objectives were written, they were rarely met. Instructional designers and professors alike need to have a working understanding of adult learning theories and models in order to design and execute a proper class which is informative and dynamic. It is this researchs opinion that the two most important theories that one should familiarize themselves with is the theories of andragogy and Self-Directed Learning (SDL). Existing theories provide frameworks or models, "each of which contributes something to our understanding of adults as learners" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 271)

Knight Development Theory

The concept of SDL is as old as learning, often associated with names like Socrates, Decartes, Caesar, and Michael Angelo. An autodidact, as defined by Websters dictionary, is one who has learned a subject or concept without the assistance of a teacher or formal education setting. Some learners need varying degrees of direction and support, while others are ready to be self-directed. Characteristics of self directed learners include independence, willingness to take initiative, persistence in learning, self-discipline, self-confidence, and the desire to learn more. They are able to organize time, develop plans for completion, enjoy learning, and remain goal-oriented. Self-directed learning has been confined to the informal learning situation until recently. Before the 1980s, learning was mostly believed to occur only in a formal institution. However, there are three theorists known for their support and development of SDL theories as they apply to the adult learner; Houle (1961), Knowles (1975), and Brookfield (1986). And researchers now realize that self-directed learning is worthwhile as well as possible, and educators should encourage this type of learning in the formal classroom (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Houle, Knowles, and Brookfield concluded that, unlike youth or adolescents who see themselves primarily in relation to others, such as their parents, adult family members, teachers, and government authorities etc., adults think and behave as totally independent human beings. Another way of looking at self-directed learning has been provided by Mocker and Spear (1982). Using a 2 X 2 matrix, based on learner vs. institution control over the objectives (purposes) and means (processes) of learning, Mocker and Spear identify four categories of lifelong learning: formal, where "learners have no control over the objectives or means of their learning;" nonformal, where "learners control the objectives but not the means;" informal, where "learners control the means but not the objectives;" and self-directed, where "learners control both the

Knight Development Theory

objectives and the means" (1982, p. 4). Brookfield, specifically, distinguished learning as an individual versus learning in a group setting. He concluded that due to the nature of the selfdirected adult, facilitators need to focus more on learning styles and instructional guidance rather than a didactic instructing format (Guilbaud 2008). In the infancy of the online education boom, in 1997, Guglielmino developed the developed the Self Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS). It is designed to measure the complex of attitudes, skills, and characteristics that comprise an individual's current level of readiness to manage his or her own learning. The most important factor to remember about the SDLRS test score is, that your score can improve with practice and discipline. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) assert that part of the job of educators of adults is to help learners, whether they are learning on their own or in formal learning programs, to be able to plan, carry out, and evaluate their own learning (p. 290). People can improve their self directed learning skills in order to become more proficient autodidactic e-learners if they are being led by content and instruction that has solid theory back ground.

One of the most well known theories is Malcolm S. Knowles(1990) learning theory of andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn; it is based on the idea that there are significant differences in learning characteristics between children and adults. The theory supports the view that learners with different characteristics may not only prefer, but benefit, from different instructional features and goals. It is based on five assumptions of adult learners; self concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation to learn. First is self concept; adult need to know why they need to learn a subject prior to engaging in knowledge acquisition. Second is experience; adult learners bring with them a wide variety of

Knight Development Theory

life experiences that need to be incorporated in their learning because they represent a rich resource of knowledge. Third is relevance; adults are most interested in learning subjects that are relevant or that they perceive to be relevant to their work or personal life. Fourth is orientation to learning; adults are problem-centered and not content-centered like children and adolescent learners. Fifth is motivation to learn; where adults are more greatly motivated by internal factors than external factors. Although Knowles theory of andragogy has been widely accepted and researched as the foundation for differentiating adult learners from childhood learning, it has raised controversy and debate. Some points argued by Merriam & Caffarella (1991) are whether andragogy is actually a theory of learning, or a theory of instruction, and the fundamental differences between pedagogy and andragogy. They questioned whether there was a stop and change in learning between adolescence and adulthood, which Knowles later cleared up and defined it as a learning continuum rather than a dichotomy (Chapman2005). Hartree (1984) raises a further problem. Has Knowles provided us with a theory or a set of guidelines for practice? The assumptions can be read as descriptions of the adult learner... or as prescriptive statements about what the adult learner should be like (Hartree 1984 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1999, p. 250). Disagreeing with Hartrees statement, as quoted, that Knowles theory states what an adult learner should look like; it is rather a framework of what the majority does look like, a stereotype of the adult learner. Just as one must consider the learning styles when designing a course, Knowles considered many factors of many learners and whittled it down to his five basic assumptions, characteristics, or theory points in order to create a framework or stereotype of adult learners.

Knight Development Theory

As a result of the movement to incorporate self-direction in learning as well as Knowles breakthrough work in laying the foundation for an adult oriented approach to teaching adults, instructional designers now have many tools available to allow learners to participate more fully in achieving educational goals. (Terry 2006) This, in turn, should lead to a greater sense of motivation and purpose on the part of learners involved in adult education. Online course design and education brings to the planning table not only the challenges of engagement and motivation, but also interaction and understanding the student and their needs. Research on the SDLRS and instructional technology has shown that a students score on the SDLRS can improve notably in a well designed online course offering with clear obtainable objectives, but that it can also suffer and go down in a poorly designed offering (Fresrickson, 2000; Shinkareva, 2007; Zepke, 2002). Thus concluding that, the proper design of a course can not only effect positively the engagement and motivation of the adult learner, but also their ability and self-efficacy to learn on their own. Knowles thoughts on self-directed learning and his theory of andragogy are intimately intertwined and applicable to the world of online course design and execution. A world where the adult student must be able to conjure up motivation from within, find reason in learning, and persevere to interact dynamically with the online classroom as it is presented. Just as the two theories presented are intimately entwined, so are the need for instructional designer to have knowledge of technology as well as a working understanding of how adults learn and what motivates them; it is the character of a classroom without a face. As the online education community grows, it is the responsibility of higher education institutions to hold to a high standard their online learning environment to include content and character.

Knight Development Theory

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design, AACE Journal, 16(2), 137-159. Chapman, V. (2005). ATTENDING TO THE THEORETICAL LANDSCAPE IN ADULT EDUCATION. Adult Education Quarterly, 55(4), 308-312. CHAUDRY, M. A. (2010). A CRITICAL REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS OF DISTANCE LEARNING SYSTEM. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE), 11(3), 193-205. Guilbaud, P. (2008). Adult Instruction & Online Learning: Towards a Systematic Instruction Framework. International Journal of Learning, 15(2), 111-121. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Chicago: Follett. Merriam, S.B., & Caffarella, R.S. (1999). Learning in adulthood (2nd ed.).San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: Acomprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Shinkareva, O. N. (2007). The Relationship between Adult Students' Instructional Technology Competency and Self-Directed Learning Ability in an Online Course. Human Resource Development International, 417-435. Smith, M.K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy. Retrieved December 15, 2003, from http:// www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm Terry, M. (2006). Self-Directed Learning by Undereducated Adults. Educational Research Quarterly, 29(4), 28-38.

Knight Development Theory

Zepke, N. (2002). Contextualised Meaning Making: one way of rethinking experiential learning and self-directed learning? Studies in Continuing Education, 24(2), 205-217.