YOUNGS MODULUS Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and

is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds. In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. In anisotropic materials, Young's modulus may have different values depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the material's structure. It is also commonly called the elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity, because Young's modulus is the most common elastic modulus used, but there are other elastic module measured, too, such as the bulk modulus and the shear modulus. Young's modulus is named after Thomas Young, the 19th century British scientist. However, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler, and the first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, predating Young's work by 25 years

Units
Young's modulus is the ratio of stress, which has units of pressure, to strain, which is dimensionless; therefore, Young's modulus has units of pressure. The SI unit of modulus of elasticity (E, or less commonly Y) is the pascal (Pa or N/m or m1kgs2). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm). In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force) per square inch (psi). The abbreviation ksi refers to thousands of psi.

Usage
The Young's modulus calculates the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. Young's modulus is used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically determinatebeam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports. Some calculations also require the use of other material properties, such as the shear modulus, density, or Poisson's ratio.

Linear versus non-linear

For many materials, Young's modulus is essentially constant over a range of strains. Such materials are called linear, and are said to obey Hooke's law. Examples of linear materials are steel, carbon fiber and glass. Non-linear materials include rubber and soils, except under very small strains.

Directional materials
Young's modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are isotropic, and their mechanical properties are the same in all orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then become anisotropic, and Young's modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector. Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, carbon fiber has much higher Young's modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this directional phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures

Calculation
Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the stress-strain curve:

where E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) F is the force exerted on an object under tension; A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied; L is the amount by which the length of the object changes; L0 is the original length of the object.

Force exerted by stretched or compressed material

The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.

where F is the force exerted by the material when compressed or stretched by L. Hooke's law can be derived from this formula, which describes the stiffness of an ideal spring:

where

Elastic potential energy

The elastic potential energy stored is given by the integral of this expression with respect to L:

where Ue is the elastic potential energy. The elastic potential energy per unit volume is given by:

, where

is the strain in the material.

This formula can also be expressed as the integral of Hooke's law:

Relation among elastic constants

For homogeneous isotropic materials simple relations exist between elastic constants (Young's modulus E, shear modulusG, bulk modulusK, and Poisson's ratio) that allow calculating them all as long as two are known:

Approximate values
Young's modulus can vary somewhat due to differences in sample composition and test method. The rate of deformation has the greatest impact on the data collected, especially in polymers. The values here are approximate and only meant for relative comparison.

Approximate Young's modulus for various materials Material GPa Rubber (small strain) 0.010.1 PTFE (Teflon) Low density polyethylene HDPE Polypropylene Bacteriophage capsids Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polystyrene Nylon Diatomfrustules (largely silicic acid) Medium-density fiberboard Pine wood (along grain) Oak wood (along grain) Human Cortical Bone High-strength concrete Hemp fiber [9] Magnesiummetal (Mg) Flax fiber Aluminium Stinging nettle fiber Glass (see chart) Aramid Mother-of-pearl (nacre, largely calcium carbonate) Tooth enamel (largely calcium phosphate) Brass Bronze Titanium (Ti) Titanium alloys Copper (Cu) Glass-reinforced plastic (70/30 by weight fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along grain) Glass-reinforced polyester matrix Carbon fiber reinforced plastic Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (70/30 fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along grain) Silicon single crystal, different directions Wrought iron Steel (ASTM-A36) 0.5 0.238 0.8 1.5-2 13 2-2.7 3-3.5 24 0.35 2.77 4 9 11 14 30 35 45 58 69 87 5090 70.5 112.4 70 83 100125 96-120 105120 117 4045 17.2 150[ 181 130-185 190210 200

lbf/in (psi)

75,000 34,000

150,000435,000

290,000580,000 50,000400,000 580,000 1,300,000 2,030,000

10,000,000

10,000,000 12,000,000 16,000,000[3] 15,000,000 17,500,000 17,000,000 5,800,0006,500,000 2,500,000

26,300,000

29,000,000

polycrystalline Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) single-crystal Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) Beryllium (Be) Molybdenum (Mo) Tungsten (W) Sapphire (Al2O3) along C-axis Silicon carbide (SiC) Osmium (Os) Tungsten carbide (WC) Single-walled carbon nanotube Graphene Diamond (C)

193 200 287 329 400410 435 450 550 450650 1,000+ 1000 1220

28,000,000 30,000,000 42,000,000

63,000,000 79,800,000 145,000,000+ 150,000,000 175,000,000

SHEAR MODULUS In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:

where = shear stress; F is the force which acts A is the area on which the force acts in engineering, x is the transverse displacement l is the initial length = shear strain. Elsewhere, xy =

Shear modulus is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or in thousands of pounds per square inch (kpsi). The shear modulus is always positive

Shear modulus
SI symbol: SI unit: Derivations from other quantities: G gigapascal G=/

Explanation
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law:

Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain (like pulling on the ends of a wire), the bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure, and the shear modulus describes the material's response to shearing strains.

The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to stress or strain when tested in different directions. In this case one may need to use the full tensor-expression of the elastic constants, rather than a single scalar value. The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law: Material Diamond Steel Copper Titanium Glass Aluminium Polyethylene Rubber Typical values for shear modulus (GPa)
(at room temperature)

Waves
In homogeneous and isotropic solids, there are two kinds of waves, pressure waves and shear waves. The velocity of a shear wave, (vs) is controlled by the shear modulus,

478. 79.3 44.7 41.4 26.2 25.5 0.117 0.0006

where G is the shear modulus is the solid's density.

Shear modulus of metals

shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease with increasing temperature. At high pressures, the shear modulus also appears to increase with the applied pressure. Correlations between the melting temperature, vacancy formation energy, and the shear modulus have been observed in many metals. Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear modulus of metals (and possibly that of alloys). Shear modulus models that have been used in plastic flow computations include: 1. The MTS shear modulus model developed by and used in conjunction with the Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) plastic flow stress modelthe Steinberg-CochranGuinan (SCG) shear modulus model developed by and used in conjunction with the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan-Lund (SCGL) flow stress model. 2. The Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus model that uses Lindemann theory to determine the temperature dependence and the SCG model for pressure dependence of the shear modulus.

MTS shear modulus model

The MTS shear modulus model has the form:

where 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K, and D and T0 are material constants.

SCG shear modulus model

The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus model is pressure dependent and has the form

where, 0 is the shear modulus at the reference state (T = 300 K, p = 0, = 1), p is the pressure, and T is the temperature.

NP shear modulus model

The Nadal-Le Poac (NP) shear modulus model is a modified version of the SCG model. The empirical temperature dependence of the shear modulus in the SCG model is replaced with an equation based on Lindemann melting theory. The NP shear modulus model has the form:

where

and 0 is the shear modulus at 0 K and ambient pressure, is a material parameter, kb is the Boltzmann constant, m is the atomic mass, and f is the Lindemann constant.

Bulk modulus
The bulk modulus (K) of a substance measures the substance's resistance to uniform compression. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimalpressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume. Its base unit is the pascal.

Definition
The bulk modulus K>0 can be formally defined by the equation:

where P is pressure, V is volume, and P/V denotes the partial derivative of pressure with respect to volume. The inverse of the bulk modulus gives a substance's compressibility. Other moduli describe the material's response (strain) to other kinds of stress: the shear modulus describes the response to shear, and Young's modulus describes the response to linear stress. For a fluid, only the bulk modulus is meaningful. For an anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law.

Thermodynamic relation
Strictly speaking, the bulk modulus is a thermodynamic quantity, and it is necessary to specify how the temperature varies in order to specify a bulk modulus: constant-temperature (isothermal

KT), constant-entropy (adiabaticKS), and other variations are possible. In practice, such distinctions are usually only relevant for gases. For a gas, the adiabatic bulk modulus KS is approximately given by

and the isothermal bulk modulus KT is approximately given by

where is the adiabatic index, sometimes called . P is the pressure. In a fluid, the bulk modulus K and the density determine the speed of soundc (pressure waves), according to the Newton-Laplace formula

Solids can also sustain transverse waves: for these materials one additional elastic modulus, for example the shear modulus, is needed to determine wave speeds.

Measurement
It is possible to measure the bulk modulus using powder diffraction under applied pressure.

Approximate bulk modulus (K) for common materials Material Bulk modulus in Pa Bulk modulus in ksi Glass (see also diagram below table) 3.51010 to 5.51010 5.8103 Steel 1.61011 23103 11 Diamond 4.4210 64103 Material with bulk modulus value of 35GPa needs external pressure of 0.35 GPa (~3500Bar) to reduce the volume by one percent. Approximate bulk modulus (K) for other substances Water 2.2109 Pa (value increases at higher pressures) Air 1.42105 Pa (adiabatic bulk modulus) Air 1.01105 Pa (constant temperature bulk modulus) Solid helium 5107 Pa (approximate)

TABLE OF YOUNGS MODULUS SHEAR MODULUS BULK MODULUS

Material

Modulus of Elasticity, E (lb/in2 x 106)

Shear Modulus of Elasticity, G (lb/in2 x 106)

Poisson's Ratio u

Weight Density (lb/in3)

Aluminum Alloys Beryllium Copper Carbon Steel Cast Iron Inconel Magnesium Molybdenum Monel Metal Nickel Silver Nickel Steel Nylon Phosphor Bronze Stainless Steel Titanium

10.2 18.0 29.0 14.5 31.0 6.5 48.0 26.0 18.5 29.0 1.5 16.1 27.6 16.5

3.9 7.0 11.5 6.0 11.5 2.4 17.1 9.5 7.0 11.0 0.6 6.0 10.6 6.5

0.33 0.29 0.29 0.21 0.29 0.35 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.29 0.35 0.31 -

0.098 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.31 0.07 0.37 0.32 0.32 0.28 0.04 0.30 0.28 0.16

YOUNGS MODULUS Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium 70.GPa N/A 55.GPa N/A 8.GPa N/A 13.GPa N/A 287.GPa 32.GPa N/A N/A N/A 50.GPa 20.GPa N/A N/A 34.GPa 1.7GPa N/A 279.GPa 209.GPa 130.GPa N/A N/A N/A 61.GPa N/A 70.GPa 18.GPa N/A N/A N/A 55.GPa N/A N/A 78.GPa 78.GPa N/A Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium 65.GPa N/A 11.GPa N/A 528.GPa 211.GPa N/A 37.GPa N/A 16.GPa 4.9GPa 69.GPa 45.GPa 198.GPa N/A N/A N/A 329.GPa 41.GPa N/A N/A 200.GPa 105.GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A 121.GPa N/A 168.GPa 96.GPa N/A N/A 37.GPa 46.GPa N/A N/A N/A 463.GPa Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununbium Ununhexium Ununoctium Ununpentium Ununquadium Ununseptium Ununtrium Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium N/A 2.4GPa 447.GPa N/A 50.GPa 74.GPa N/A 10.GPa 47.GPa 83.GPa 10.GPa N/A N/A 186.GPa N/A 43.GPa 56.GPa 8.GPa 79.GPa 74.GPa 50.GPa 116.GPa 411.GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 208.GPa 128.GPa N/A 24.GPa 64.GPa 108.GPa 68.GPa

SHEAR MODULUS Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium N/A 26.GPa N/A 20.GPa N/A N/A N/A 4.9GPa N/A 132.GPa 12.GPa N/A N/A N/A 19.GPa 7.4GPa N/A N/A 14.GPa N/A N/A 115.GPa 75.GPa 48.GPa N/A N/A N/A 25.GPa N/A 28.GPa 7.9GPa N/A N/A N/A 22.GPa N/A N/A 27.GPa 30.GPa N/A Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium N/A 26.GPa N/A N/A N/A 210.GPa 82.GPa N/A 14.GPa N/A 5.6GPa 4.2GPa 27.GPa 17.GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A 20.GPa 16.GPa N/A N/A 76.GPa 38.GPa N/A N/A 222.GPa N/A 44.GPa N/A 61.GPa 43.GPa N/A 1.3GPa 15.GPa 18.GPa N/A N/A N/A 178.GPa Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununbium Ununhexium Ununoctium Ununpentium Ununquadium Ununseptium Ununtrium Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium 150.GPa N/A N/A 173.GPa N/A 20.GPa 29.GPa N/A 3.7GPa N/A 30.GPa 3.3GPa 6.1GPa N/A 69.GPa N/A 16.GPa 22.GPa 2.8GPa 31.GPa 31.GPa 18.GPa 44.GPa 161.GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 111.GPa 47.GPa N/A 9.9GPa 26.GPa 43.GPa 33.GPa

BULK MODULUS Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium N/A 76 GPa N/A 42 GPa N/A 22 GPa N/A 9.6 GPa N/A 130 GPa 31 GPa N/A 320 GPa 1.9 GPa 42 GPa 17 GPa N/A 33 GPa 22 GPa 1.6 GPa 1.1 GPa 160 GPa 180 GPa 140 GPa N/A N/A N/A 41 GPa N/A 44 GPa 8.3 GPa N/A N/A N/A 38 GPa N/A N/A 220 GPa 110 GPa N/A Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium N/A 40 GPa N/A N/A 7.7 GPa 320 GPa 170 GPa N/A 28 GPa N/A 46 GPa 11 GPa 48 GPa 45 GPa 120 GPa N/A N/A 25 GPa 230 GPa 32 GPa N/A N/A 180 GPa 170 GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A 180 GPa 11 GPa 230 GPa N/A N/A 3.1 GPa 29 GPa 33 GPa N/A N/A N/A 370 GPa Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Ununbium Ununhexium Ununoctium Ununpentium Ununquadium Ununseptium Ununtrium Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium 380 GPa N/A 2.5 GPa 220 GPa N/A 38 GPa 57 GPa N/A 8.3 GPa 100 GPa 100 GPa 6.3 GPa N/A 7.7 GPa 200 GPa N/A 65 GPa 38.7 GPa 43 GPa 54 GPa 45 GPa 58 GPa 110 GPa 310 GPa N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 100 GPa 160 GPa N/A 31 GPa 41 GPa 70 GPa N/A

ASSIGNMENT IN PHYSICS

SUB BY: ALI ISMAEILI SECTION I-A

SUB TO: Engr. ARNI BULSECO INSTRUCTOR