WATER

CONSERVATION
The protection, development, and efficient management of water resources for
beneficial purposes. Nearly every human activity—from agriculture to
transportation to daily living—relies on water resources and affects the
availability and quality of those resources. Water resource development has
played a role in flood control, agricultural production, industrial and energy
development, fish and wildlife resource management, navigation, and a host of
other activities. As a result of these impacts, natural hydrologic features have
changed through time, pollution has decreased the quality of remaining water
resources, and global climate change may affect the distribution of water in the
future. See also Hydrology.

Water availability varies substantially between geographic regions, but it is also

affected strongly by the population of the region. Asia, for example, has an
extremely large total runoff but the lowest per-capita water availability. In
addition, nearly 40% of the world's population lives in areas that experience
severe to moderate water stress. Thus the combination of water and population
distribution has resulted in a large difference in per-capita water use between
countries.

Worldwide, nearly 4000 km3 of water is withdrawn every year from surface and
ground waters. This is a sixfold increase from the levels withdrawn in 1900
(since which time population has increased four times). Agriculture accounts for
the greatest proportion of water use, with about two-thirds of water withdrawals
and 85% of water consumption. It also accounts for a great proportion of the
increase in water use, with irrigated cropland more than doubling globally since
1960. However, in Europe and North America particularly, industry consumes a
large proportion of available water; industrial uses for water are anticipated to
grow on other continents as well.

Land development has substantially affected the distribution of water resources.

It is estimated that one-half of the natural wetlands in the world have been lost
in the last century. In some areas, such as California, wetland loss is estimated
to be greater than 90%. The vast majority of wetlands loss has been associated
with agricultural development, but urban and industrial changes have reduced
wetlands as well. River channels have also been altered to enhance irrigation,
navigation, power production, and a variety of other human activities.

Ground-water resources have been depleted in the last century, with many
aquifers or artesian sources being depleted more rapidly than they can be
recharged. This is called ground-water overdraft. In the United States, ground-
water overdraft is a serious problem in the High Plains from Nebraska to Texas
and in parts of California and Arizona. See also Ground-water hydrology.

Streams have traditionally served for waste disposal. Towns and cities,
industries, and mines provide thousands of pollution sources. Pollution dilution
requires large amounts of water. Treatment at the source is safer and less
wasteful than flushing untreated or poorly treated wastes downstream.
However, sufficient flows must be released to permit the streams to dilute,
assimilate, and carry away the treated effluents. See also Water pollution.

The availability of fresh water is also likely to be affected by global climate

change. There is substantial evidence that global temperatures have risen and
will continue to rise. Although the precise effects of this temperature risk on
water distribution are challenging to predict, most models of climate change do
anticipate increased global precipitation. It is likely that some areas, particularly
those at mid to high latitudes, will become wetter, but the increased
precipitation will be more seasonal than current patterns. Other areas are likely
to receive less precipitation than they do currently. In addition, many models
predict increases in the intensity and frequency of severe droughts and floods in
at least some regions. These changes will affect natural stream flow patterns,
soil moisture, ground-water recharge, and thus the timing and intensity of
human demands for fresh-water supplies. See also Global climate change.

Land management vitally influences the distribution and character of runoff.

Inadequate vegetation or surface organic matter; compaction of farm, ranch, or
forest soils by heavy vehicles; frequent crop-harvesting operations; repeated
burning; or excessive trampling by livestock or wild ungulates all expose the soil
to the destructive energy of rainfall or rapid snowmelt. On such lands little
water enters the soil, soil particles are dislodged and quickly washed into
watercourses, and gullies may form. See also Land-use planning; Soil
conservation.

There are a variety of measures that can be taken to reduce water

consumption. In the United States, for example, per-capita water usage dropped
20% from 1980 to 1995. In many cases, improvements to existing systems
would contribute to additional water savings. In the United States, an average
of 15% of the water in public supply systems (for cities with populations greater
than 10,000) is unaccounted for, and presumably lost.

Improvements can also be achieved by changing industrial and agricultural

practices. Agricultural water consumption has an estimated overall water use
efficiency of 40%. More effective use of water in agricultural systems can be
achieved, for example, with more efficient delivery methods such as drip
irrigation. More accurate assessment of soil and plant moisture can allow
targeted delivery of water at appropriate times. In industrial settings, recycling
and more efficient water use has tremendous potential to reduce water
consumption. Overall, industrial water usage dropped by 30% in California
between 1980 and 1990, with some sectors achieving even greater reductions.
Japan has achieved a 25% reduction in industrial water use since the 1970s.
Additional potential to reduce this usage still exists even in locations where
many conservation measures are already in place.

Residential water consumption can also be reduced through conservation

measures. High-efficiency, low-flow toilets can reduce the water required to
flush by 70% or more. Additional savings are possible with efficient faucet
fixtures and appliances.

Water conservation in the United States faces a number of institutional as well

as technological challenges. States must administer the regulatory provisions of
their pollution-control laws, develop water quality standards and waste-
treatment requirements, and supervise construction and maintenance
standards of public service water systems. Some states can also regulate
ground-water use to prevent serious overdrafts. Artesian wells may have to be
capped, permits may be required for drilling new wells, or reasonable use may
have to be demonstrated. Federal responsibilities consist largely of financial
support or other stimulation of state and local water management. Federal
legislation permits court action on suits involving interstate streams where
states fail to take corrective action following persistent failure of a community
or industry to comply with minimum waste-treatment requirements.

The watershed control approach to planning, development, and management

rests on the established interdependence of water, land, and people.
Coordination of structures and land-use practices is sought to prevent erosion,
promote infiltration, and retard high flows (to prevent flooding). The Natural
Resources Conservation and Forest Services of the Department of Agriculture
administer the program. The Natural Resources Conservation Service
cooperates with other federal and state agencies and operates primarily
through the more than 2000 soil conservation districts.

Because watersheds often span political boundaries, many efforts to conserve

and manage water require cooperation between states and countries. Many
countries currently have international treaties addressing water allocation and
utilization. In 1997, the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Law of
the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, which includes an
obligation not to cause significant harm to other watercourse states, as well as
provisions for dispute resolution. In addition, in 1996 the Global Water
Partnership and the World Water Council were formed for the purpose of
addressing ongoing international water concerns.

The increasing utilization of the continental shelf for oil drilling and transport,
siting of nuclear power plants, and various types of planned and inadvertent
waste disposal, as well as for food and recreation, requires careful management
of human activities in this ecosystem. Nearshore waters are presently subject to
both atmospheric and coastal input of pollutants in the form of heavy metals,
synthetic chemicals, petroleum hydrocarbons, radionuclides, and other urban
wastes. Overfishing is an additional human-induced stress. Physical transport of
pollutants, their modification by the coastal food web, and demonstration of
transfer to humans are sequential problems of increasing complexity on the
continental shelf.

One approach to quantitatively assess the above pollutant impacts is to

construct simulation models of the coastal food web in a systems analysis of the
continental shelf. Models of physical transport of pollutants have been the most
successful, for example, as in studies of beach fouling by oil. Incorporation of
additional biological and chemical terms in a simulation model, however,
requires dosage response functions of the natural organisms to each class of
pollutants, as well as a quantitative description of the “normal” food web
interactions of the continental shelf. See also Ecological modeling; Food web.

In addition to toxic materials introduced by oil spills, sewage, and agricultural

and industrial run-off, coastal waters are vulnerable to thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution is caused by the discharge of hot water from power plants or
factories and from desalination plants. A large power installation may pump in
106 gal/min (63 m3/s) of seawater to act as a coolant and discharge it at a
temperature approximately 18°F (10°C) above that of the ambient water. In a
shallow bay with restricted tidal flow, the rise in temperature can cause gross
alterations to the natural ecology. Federal standards prohibit heating of coastal
waters by more than 0.9°F (0.5°C).

Finally, dredging waters to fill wetlands for house lots, parking lots, or industrial
sites destroys the marshes that provide sanctuary for waterfowl and for the
young of estuarine fishes. As the bay bottom is torn up, the loosened sediments
shift about with the current and settle in thick masses on the bottom,
suffocating animals and plants. In this way, the marshes are eliminated and the
adjoining bays are degraded as aquatic life zones. The northeast Atlantic states
have lost 45,000 acres (182 km2) of coastal wetlands in only 10 years, and San
Francisco Bay has been nearly half obliterated by filling. Dredging to remove
sand and gravel has the same disruptive effects as dredging for landfill or other
purposes, whether the sand and gravel are sold for profit or used to replenish
beach sand eroded away by storms. The dredging of boat channels adds to the
siltation problem, and disposal of dredge spoils is being regulated in coastal
areas.

25 ways to save water at

home
1. Use your water meter to check for hidden water leaks
Read the house water meter before and after a two-hour period when no water
is being used. If the meter does not read exactly the same, there is a leak.

2. Check your toilets for leaks

Put a little food coloring in your toilet tank. If, without flushing, the color begins
to appear in the bowl within 30 minutes, you have a leak that should be
repaired immediately. Most replacement parts are inexpensive and easy to
install.

3. Don't use the toilet as an ashtray or wastebasket

Every time you flush a cigarette butt, facial tissue or other small bit of trash,
five to seven gallons of water is wasted.

4. Put plastic bottles or float booster in your toilet tank

To cut down on water waste, put an inch or two of sand or pebbles inside each
of two plastic bottles to weigh them down. Fill the bottles with water, screw the
lids on, and put them in your toilet tank, safely away from the operating
mechanisms. Or, buy an inexpensive tank bank or float booster. This may save
ten or more gallons of water per day. Be sure at least 3 gallons of water remain
in the tank so it will flush properly.
For new installations, consider buying "low flush" toilets, which use 1 to 2
gallons per flush instead of the usual 3 to 5 gallons.

Replacing an 18 liter per flush toilet with an ultra-low volume (ULV) 6 liter flush
model represents a 70% savings in water flushed and will cut indoor water use
by about 30%.

5. Insulate your water pipes.

It's easy and inexpensive to insulate your water pipes with pre-slit foam pipe
insulation. You'll get hot water faster plus avoid wasting water while it heats up.

6. Install water-saving shower heads and low-flow faucet aerators

Inexpensive water-saving shower heads or restrictors are easy for the
homeowner to install. Also, long, hot showers can use five to ten gallons every
unneeded minute. Limit your showers to the time it takes to soap up, wash
down and rinse off.
You can easily install a ShowerStart showerhead, or add a ShowerStart
converter to existing showerheads, which automatically pauses a running
shower once it gets warm.
Also, all household faucets should be fit with aerators. This single best home
water conservation method is also the cheapest!
7. Take shorter showers.
One way to cut down on water use is to turn off the shower after soaping up,
then turn it back on to rinse. A four-minute shower uses approximately 20 to 40
gallons of water.

8. Turn off the water after you wet your toothbrush

There is no need to keep the water running while brushing your teeth. Just wet
your brush and fill a glass for mouth rinsing.

9. Rinse your razor in the sink

Fill the sink with a few inches of warm water. This will rinse your razor just as
well as running water, with far less waste of water.
10. Check faucets and pipes for leaks
A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20 gallons of water per day.
Larger leaks can waste hundreds of gallons.

11. Use your dishwasher and clothes washer for only full loads
Automatic dishwashers and clothes washers should be fully loaded for optimum
water conservation. Most makers of dishwashing soap recomend not pre-rinsing
dishes which is a big water savings.
With clothes washers, avoid the permanent press cycle, which uses an added 20
liters (5 gallons) for the extra rinse. For partial loads, adjust water levels to
match the size of the load. Replace old clothes washers. New Energy Star rated
washers use 35 - 50% less water and 50% less energy per load. If you're in the
market for a new clothes washer, consider buying a water-saving frontload
washer.

12. Minimize use of kitchen sink garbage disposal units

In-sink 'garburators' require lots of water to operate properly, and also add
considerably to the volume of solids in a septic tank which can lead to
maintenance problems. Start a compost pile as an alternate method of
disposing food waste.

13. When washing dishes by hand, don't leave the water running for rinsing
If your have a double-basin, fill one with soapy water and one with rinse water.
If you have a single-basin sink, gather washed dishes in a dish rack and rinse
them with a spray device or a panful of hot water. If using a dishwasher, there is
usually no need to pre-rinse the dishes.

14. Don't let the faucet run while you clean vegetables Just rinse them in a
stoppered sink or a pan of clean water.
15. Keep a bottle of drinking water in the fridge. Running tap water to cool it off
for drinking water is wasteful.