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COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

1. Introduction
1.1 CAD/CAM: In Engg. Practice, CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by different people. Same utilize it to produce drawing & document designs other may employ it as a visual tool by generating shaded images & animated display. A third group may perform Engg. analysis of some sort on geometric model such as finite element analysis. A fourth group may use it to perform process planning & generate NC part programs in order to establish the scope & definition of CAD/CAM in an Engg environment & identify existing and future related tools, a study of a typical product life cycle is necessary.[2] Fig shows flow chart of such cycle.

Typical Product Life Cycle


Design needs Design definitions, specifications, and requirements Collecting relevant design information and feasibility study

The Design Process

Analysis
Design documentation and communication Design evaluation Design optimization

The CAD Process


Design analysis Design modeling and simulation

Synthesis
Design conceptualization

The Manufacturing Process


Production planning Design and procurement of new tools Order materials NC, CNC, DNC programming Marketing

The CAM Process


Production Quality control Packaging Shipping

Process planning

The main phases of the manufacturing process are shown in fig. It begins with the process planning & ends with the actual product. Process planning is the backbone of the manufacturing process since it attempts to determine the most efficient sequencing to produce the product. The outcome of process planning is a production plan, tools procurement,

COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

material order & machine programming. However CAPP (computer Aided Process Planning) has progressed significantly. The phases of the design & manufacturing process shown in the fig serve as the basis to define the design & manufacturing content & consequently the tools that a CAD/CAM system must provide for engineers. The CAD process is subset of the design process. Similarly, the CAM process is a subset of the manufacturing process. CAPP technique include variant, generative & hybrid approaches. Various part programming languages are supported by most CAM software. These include APT, COMPACT II, SPLIT etc. inspection software utilizes CMMs (Coordinate Measuring Machine). Table 1: CAM Tolls required to support the manufacturing process. Manufacturing phase Process planning Part Programming Inspection Assembly Required CAM Tools CAPP Techniques, Cost Analysis NC Programming Inspection Software Robotic simulation & programming

1.2 THE COMPUTER IN QC:Computer Aided Inspection (CAI) & Computer Aided Testing (CAT) are performed automatically using the latest computer & sensor technology. CAI & CAT methods from only part of Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC). CAI & CAT are example of what have been called Island of Automation. The implication of the use of computer aided quality control are important. The automated methods of CAQC will result in significant changes from the traditional concepts & methods describe above. The following list will summarize the important effect likely to result from CAQC. 1) With CAI & CAT, inspection & Testing will typically be accomplish on a 100% basis rather than by the sampling procedures normally used in traditionally QC.

COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

2) Inspection during production will be integrated into manufacturing process rather than requiring that the part to be taken to some inspection area. This will reduce the elapsed time to a complete the part. 3) The use of non contact sensor will become much more widely used with CAI. 4) The online noncontact sensors will be utilized as the measurement component of computerized feedback control system. 5) Because of 100% inspection & online quality control system will become prevalent; a basic assumption in statistical QC must be challenged. Inspection during the process of manufacture was also impossible. There are several factor to be considered. They are, 1. Expensive inspection cost. 2. Delay in production scheduling & delivery of finished components. 3. Customer demands for high quality product. 4. Need for automatic inspection procedure. All the above factor lead to the introduction & implementation of what is known as CAQC. To achieve the objective CAQC is considered essential. 1. To improve the quality of the product. 2. To increase productivity in the inspection process. 3. To increase productivity & reduce manufacturing lead time. Hence it is necessary to automate the inspection process using computers & some sensing devices. The common situations that require inspection area. Incoming raw material During process of manufacturing. After production of component. Before shipping the component to the customer.

CAI & CAT are performed automatically using the latest computer & sensors. The advantages of CAQC are, 1. Inspection & testing will be accomplished in100%.

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2. Inspection area will be an integral part of processing area, hence reduction in inspection time. 3. Inspection rate will be high. 4. Manual inspection activity is eliminated. 5. Besides CAI & CAT, computers can also be used in other areas of quality control[3] 1.3 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM ENGG: The future success of manufacturing enterprises is likely to be determined by the speed & efficiency with which it incorporates new technologies into its operations. The process which is currently used to engineer, manufacturing system is often ad hoc. Computerized tools are used on a very limited basis. Given the cost & resources involved in the construction & operation of manufacturing system. The Engg process must be made more scientific. Powerful new computing environment for Engg manufacturing system could help achieve that objective. In much of the same way that product designer needs CAD system, manufacturing & industrial engineer needs, sophisticated computing capabilities to solve the complex problem & manage the vast data associated with the design of manufacturing system.[8] Type of manufacturing system: 1. Transfer line 2. Special manufacturing system 3. Flexible manufacturing system 4. Manufacturing cell 5. Stand-alone & NC machines[2]

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2. CONTACT INSPECTION TECHNIQUES:


Contact inspection involves the use of a mechanical probe that makes contact with the object being inspected. The purpose of the probe is to measure the object in some way. But its nature contact inspection is often concerned with some physical dimension of the part. The principal contact inspection technologies are Conventional measuring &gauging instrument. Co-ordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) to measure mechanical dimension Stylus type surface texture measuring machine. Electrical contact probe for testing IC & PCB

Conventional techniques & CMMs complete with each other in the measurement & inspection of part dimension. Fig shows PQ chart indicating most appropriates measurement equipment as a function of parts variety & quantity.

Direct computer

controlled CMM
Motor-driven & manual CMM Manual measurement & gauging Flexible Inspection System

Part variety

Manual & semiautomatic measurement & gauging

Dedication Automatic measurement Machine vision

Part Quantity

Reasons there contact inspection methods are technologically & commercially important include the following: They are the most widely used inspection technologies today. They are accurate & reliable. In many cases, they represent the only methods available to accomplish the inspection.

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3. NONCONTACT INSPECTION TECHNOLOGY:


Non contact inspection method utilize a sensor located at a certain distance from the object to measure the desired features. The noncontact inspection technologies can be classified into two categories, 1. Optical 2. Non optical
Optical Inspection Technology:- Use light to accomplish the measurement cycle. The most

important optical technology is machine vision however, other optical techniques are important in certain industries.
Non optical inspection technology:- utilizes energies form other than light to perform the

inspection, these other energies include various electrical fields, radiation & ultrasonic. Advantages of Non - contact Inspection Technology over Contact inspection: They avoid damage to the surface that might result from contact inspection Inspection cycle time are inherently faster. Contact inspection procedure require the contacting probe to be positioned against the part, which take time. Most of the non contact methods use a stationary probe that does not need repositioning for each part. Non contact methods can often be accomplished on the production line without the need for any additional handling of the part, whereas contact inspection usually requires special handling & positioning of the parts. It is more feasible to conduct 100% automated inspection, since non contact methods have faster inspection cycle time & reduced need for special handling.

COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

4. AUTOMATED INSPECTION:
Automated inspection can be defined as the automation of one or more of the steps involved in the inspection procedure. There are a number of alternative ways in which automated or semi automated inspection can be implemented: 1) Automated presentation of parts by an automatic handling system with a human operator still performing the examination & decision step. 2) Automated examination & decision by an automatic inspection machine with manual loading of parts into the machine 3) Completely automated inspection system in which parts presentation examination & decision are all performed automatically. The full potential of automated inspection is best achieved when it is integrated in to the manufacturing process, when 100% inspection is used & when the result of the procedure leads to some positive action. The positive action can take either or both of the two possible forms illustrated in fig. 1. Feed back control:Manufacturing process Incoming work parts Automated inspection Outgoing parts

Feedback process control 2. Part sortation:-

Manufacturing process Incoming work parts

Automated inspection
Acceptable parts

Part sortation Defects

COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

4.1 Timing of Inspection


An important consideration in quality control is the determination of timings of the inspection procedure. Three different options can be identified as which are : (a) (b) (c) Off-line inspection, On-line/in-process, and On-line/post process inspection.

Off-line Inspection Methods In off-line inspection, the inspection equipment is usually dedicated and does not make any physical contact with machine tools. There is always a time delay between production and inspection. Manual inspection is common that tend to promote the use of offline inspection that include: (i) variability of the process is well within the design tolerance,

(ii) processing conditions are stable and the risk of significant deviation in the process is small, and (iii) cost incurred during inspection is high in comparison to the cost of few defective parts. The disadvantage of offline inspection is that the parts have already been made by the time poor quality is detected. Sometimes by default a defective part may not be included into the sample. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is an example of off-line inspection. On-line/In-process and On-line/Post-process Inspection Methods:- If the task of inspection is done as the parts are manufactured, then it is called as online inspection. There are two variations of on-line inspection. If the inspection is performed during the manufacturing operation, it is called on-line/in-process inspection. If the inspection is performed immediately following the production process, it is called on-line/post-process inspection. The classical examples of online inspection are inspection probes. These probes can be used in a large variety of ways. For example, they can be mounted in holders, inserted into machine-tool spindles, or stored in a tool magazine to be exchanged by an automatic tool exchanger just as tools are handled. In flexible manufacturing system machine tools spindle mounted probes are commonly used. The primary inspection elements of the probes are sensors. Signals are transmitted to the controller as the contact is made with the part surface. Numerous technologies are available for transmitting the signals. Some of them are direct electrical connection, induction coil, infrared data transmission. The task of the data processing and interpretation is facilitated through the controller.

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4.2 APPLICATION OF AUTOMATED INSPECTION 1. Automated Ultrasonic Inspection System 2. Automated Robot Inspection 3. Automated Visual Inspection System (AVIS)

4.2.1 Automated Robot Inspection :


Cell for Quality Control on Sheet Metal Components The press shop at BMWs Dingolfing plant relies on optical metrology systems including automation and standardization for inspection of sheet metal components. Here, 3D coordinate measuring technology from GOM sets completely new standards, offering high time-saving potential since sensor, automation and inspection software all come from a single-source provider. The automation processes in particular, have been subjected to continuous development in close collaboration with BMW.

Optical + automated + standardized: Customers place very stringent demands on models from BMWs high-end 5, 6 and 7 Series manufactured at the Dingolfing plant. In order to satisfy these requirements, BMW deploys state-of-the-art metrology as well as special manufacturing standards. For example, when the current BMW 7 Series rolled out in 2008, the tactile measuring technology in use at the Dingolfing press shop until that time was largely replaced with optical metrology systems. Proven suppliers for this new technology to BMW include GOM (Gesellschaft fr Optische Messtechnik) from Braunschweig. Numerous systems from GOM in addition to those in the Dingolfing press shop have been in use at BMW

COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

plants since 2003, at all departments such as design, tool manufacture, press shop and car body construction. Robot inspection cells: Shape and Dimension Control in Manufacturing The inspection cell used in the Dingolfing press shop is a highly innovative GOM solution. The robotic automated metrology inspection cell is positioned alongside Europes biggest suction transfer sheet metal press. The 24 hour automated cell enables BMW to inspect sheet metal components of various sizes from small lock plates to complete side panels (Fig. 1).

Six different components can be mounted at once in this process. A smart system for handling the mounting plans enables workers to complete assembly at speed. The main advantage of the automated inspection cell is that it achieves higher throughput rates in industrial manufacturing since a higher unit volume is handled in a shorter time and planning improves as does reproducibility and, with it, process accuracy, emphasizes Dr. Carsten Reich, head of GOMs Automated Inspection Solutions team. Optical 3D Metrology: time-saving, reliable, transparent In the Dingolfing press shop, the automated inspection solution from GOM has already been used to support the launch of series production and manufacturing for over six vehicle types. The robot inspection cell is used during the product development process (PDP) as well as during production process (PP). This brings several advantages, including fast root cause analysis, targeted correction measures and also analysis of the

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impact correction have on adjacent areas. This broad range of analysis options can be done without the need to take new measurements all thanks to the full surface database that optical metrology supplies. Other valuable aspects are shorter component evaluation discussions and a clear overview of the results, with eventual divergences shown as a color chart. Another interesting aspect is the time-saving compared with tactile measuring technology: optical metrology collects more data in a shorter time. In addition optical metrology supplies full surface measurements instead of just probing a few single points like tactile a CMM. This means that components are fully inspected, leaving no areas of the component blind or unchecked (Fig. 2).

Full surface measurement: flexible evaluation, clear inspection reports. There is also impressive benefit to be gained in series measurements. Using the optical metrology system leads to increased measurement capacity, independence of inspection plans and dispenses the need for program adjustments in case of component changes. This results in a significant improvement in component inspection throughput. Vital advantages are also reported for batch analysis measurements. With the full surface database allowing additional evaluations to be carried out whenever needed, component series can be analyzed right down to their original status. Components can therefore be inspected at any surface point independently of inspection plans, without the need to take new measurements. This helps to minimize time also for complex evaluations, thanks to tools like inspection sections. With its integrated evaluation software, the inspection cell also offers various additional features that make workers lives much easier: For example, any deviations in measurement results are visualized as clear color plots rather than reams of 2D digits, one receives from tactile CMM. Thus, inspection reports that used to be several hundred pages long are now reduced to a single image. These color plots make it possible to ascertain any deviations from CAD at a glance:

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While green reflects the optimal state, the other colors red, yellow and blue indicate deviations. This makes it possible to immediately identify components that are less than perfect as well as to quickly clarify where and why. It is also easy to import inspection plans for direct CAD data based measurement planning for inspection of features such as surface, trim & spring, hole pattern.

4.2.2 Automated Ultrasonic Inspection System: This system supports a variety of ultrasonic inspection techniques in-line with todays demand for quality, pre-service or in-service inspections: Projection scans (weld inspection) Corrosion mapping (parent metal inspection) TOFD (quickdetection and accurate sizing) Through transmission A-scan (recorded for post-processing) Projection Scans:
Projection scan is a projection of comprehensive B-scan data, which gives the side view of the inspected component. It is used for weld inspection with angle probes, where the scan results is shown in projection of top, side and end view, thus provides a three-dimensional visualization of the defect or corrosion. Different colour codes are used to indicate the origin of each signal, together with its amplitude to facilitate analysis of the scans.

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COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

5. INSPECTION MEDIA:
When Data Media or electronic transferred data are used for inspection purposes, any data extracted that is used for product acceptance, must have visible evidence of QA acceptance and be under configuration control. In addition, any output data generated From CMS inspection processes must have evidence of QA acceptance and be under configuration control. Extracted data and CMS data shall be traceable back to original Data Media or electronic transferred data.[6] Media that may be authorized for part inspection will include, but is not limited to, Limited Dimension Engineering Drawings (LDDS), supplier generated dimensioned drawings, CMM with appropriate inspection planning software, and inspection checking fixtures. Any data extracted from datasets used for product acceptance, must have visible evidence of Suppliers Quality Assurance acceptance and be under configuration control. In addition, any data generated from CMS inspection processes must have evidence of Suppliers Quality Assurance acceptance, be dated, and be under configuration control. Traceability of data back to the original dataset is required. Data Media or electronic transferred data identified as REFERENCE /UNCONTROLLED DATA shall not be used for inspection purposes. When Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems supplied Datasets are translated for the purpose of CAI (IGES, DXF, DWG, etc.), the supplier must provide a system that supports verification (through comparison) of the translated data to the original Model. The supplier may use an appropriate sampling plan to verify points. The CAI data shall be certified and approved by the Supplier's Quality Assurance process. Translations that deviate .0005inches or less from the base geometry shall be deemed acceptable. [7]

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6. COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION PLANNING :( CAIP)


CAIP system for OMI &CMM:- automatic inspection planning for dimensional &geometric inspection can be at high level or low level. The high level (macro) planning is concerned with producing a collection of set ups. Each setup relate to accessibility of the feature to be inspected, the probe to inspect each type of feature & the relative orientation of the part. The low level (micro) planning primarily address the issue of point selection, path generation & generation of executable code. Research on CAIP systems started from the early 1980s. Before the mid-1990s, most of the research works remained at the conceptual-level CAIP systems. These systems can be categorized into two groups: (a) the tolerance-driven inspection process planning system and (b) geometry-based inspection process planning. The former focused on planning inspections for those features that have specific tolerance requirements. The latter focused on planning the inspection process to obtain a complete geometric description of a machined work piece using the inspection data. Thus, comparison can be made with the design model for a complete geometry inspection.

6.1 Recent CAIP research for OMI and CMMs The CAIP systems must have modules for the following tasks: 1) Inspection feature selecting and sequencing; 2) Measuring points/sampling selection and optimization; 3) collision-free probing path planning and generation (including probe probing accessibility and orientation); 4) Inspection execution.

From the middle of 1990s, research in CAIP started to focus on one or some of the above tasks for a CAIP system. At the same time, non-CMM measurement and non-contact devices such as 3D optical scanners gradually mature. Therefore, CAIP system research for non-CMM measurement methods has become another major research trend. Compared with traditional touch probes, non-contact probes are able to provide a large amount of data in a relatively short time with higher accuracy. Bogue discussed the limitations of contact, probebased CMMs and described a new, laser-based 3D geometrical scanning system which has been developed jointly by Metris and Volvo for assembling purposes. Several tests have been

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COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL

carried out on a laser scanning probe fixed in a CMM to determine the main error sources of the sensor. The research on CAIP for optical measurement devices is still limited. 6.1.1 Inspection feature selecting and sequencing :Inspection features are rooted from the dimensions and tolerances that have a significant influence upon the functionality of the component. Determination of these inspection features used to rely upon the skill and experience of inspection engineers. Most of the research works reviewed in the previous sections either required the user to specify each and every face needed to be probed during inspection, or feature may be automatically selected but it only works for the machined part features that have been previously recorded and controlled. Therefore, the degree of automation was severely limited. Recently, research has been done to recognize/extract inspection features directly from a CAD model and sequence them automatically. Inspection features are selected/extracted according to tolerance requirements. However, research on OMI and CMMs followed different approaches on sequencing inspection features. Researchers tend to group inspection features according to machining feature sequence for OMI, while the sequencing of inspection features for CMM is mostly based on probe accessibility and minimizing probe orientation.

Fig shows the inspection process planning comparison between OMI & CMM

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6.1.2. Measuring/sampling points selection and optimization for both CMM and OMI The inspection processes carried out on CMMs or OMI often use touch-type probes to perform point-to-point motions when recording 3D coordinates of a work piece. The larger number of measuring points (or sampling points) is chosen, the more reliable results can be achieved as the number of measuring point increases. However, since the increase of the number of measuring points usually leads to the increase of measuring time, the appropriate number of measuring points has to be determined for each feature and the tolerance to be measured. The research for CAIP systems for both CMMs and OMI does not seem to have major differences in this aspect. This section reviews the related research on touch-type probes. Since a scanning probe collects measuring points by dragging along the measurement surface, a large amount of data can be collected in a relatively short period of time. The measuring point allocation and probing path planning for scanning probes is very different from that of touch-type probes. Research in this area is scratchy.

6.1.3. Probing Path Planning & Generation: 6.1.3.1. Probing path planning and generation for OMI inspections. In the OMI system proposed by Lee et al. and Cho et al. probe paths are generated after the suitable measuring points for the given surface are determined using the Traveling Sales Person (TSP) algorithm. TSP algorithms have been used by some researchers to generate the probing path to minimize the inspection time. Before inspection starts, collision avoidance analysis is also required. The collision problem in an OMI operation can be divided into two categories, i.e. the probe collision and the probe holder collision. A new methodology to detect the probe and/or probe holder collisions called Z-map has been proposed. A Z-map is generated for the given target workpiece, and then probe and/or probe holder moving trajectories are calculated according to the previously generated probing path. By calculating the errors caused by the probe and/or probe holder trajectories, collisions can be checked and avoided. These probing path generation systems are mostly based on the similar previous research for CMMs.

6.1.3.2. Probing path planning and generation for CMMs. This section reviews recent research works on probing path planning for CMMs. The research focused on generating collision-free probing path for inspection operations carried out on CMMs. It is assumed that the inspection features be sequenced previously for these research works.

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Albuquerque et al. used an iterative method of point placement and collision avoidance for multiple, interacting features to automatically generate probe tool path (Fig.). A list of surfaces to be measured is obtained from the overall inspection planner. For each of these surfaces an initial set of points is generated, constrained only by the desired minimum configuration and number of inspection points on each surface. The section on point placement addresses the mapping and subdivision techniques for this point placement. Each set of measurements is checked for measurability after the transforming inspection points and the model into the CMM workspace. This process is followed by iterative re-placement of points in accessible regions. After sufficient number of measurable points has been placed during the iteration process, a collision-free path is generated. This research considered many requirements such flexible and accessible point placement, feature intersecting, and probing path optimization.

Fig. Flowchart of CMM inspection planner

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7. Discussions
With the development of more sophisticated machine tool, advanced touch-trigger probes, and increasing demand for automated production systems, inspections in particular on .machine inspections have become more and more widely accepted. The purpose is to enable direct inspections during machining processes for quality control. OMI can overcome the bottlenecks of inspection processes that are typical of a CMM system (e.g. measuring time, difficulty with capital investment and time delay of material flow between CMMs and machine tools in the factory). OMI enables real time, on-line quality control during machining processes. However, research work on developing CAIP systems for OMI is mostly based on the prior research for CMMs. Some focused on developing different modules of CAIP for CMMs or OMI, such as inspection feature recognition/extraction, measuring points/sampling selection and optimization, and probing path generation. New technologies such as neuron-network and fuzzy logic algorithms have been used in developing these modules. Some researchers have also suggested using non-contact probing equipment such as ultrasonic and laser scanning probe/ sensor. Based on the above review, the authors believe that there are still a number of issues unaddressed. The remaining part of this section discusses these issues. Firstly, inspection process planning has been mainly carried out in isolation from machining process planning. This does not present a major problem for inspections carried out on a CMM. This is because inspections are carried out in isolation from machining. As a matter of fact, it has been deemed acceptable to consider machining process planning and inspection process planning in tandem. However, when inspections need to be carried out in between manufacturing processes as in OMI, the statusquo method becomes inadequate. Inspection process planning needs to be considered together with machining process planning. An optimal machining sequence without OMI operations may no longer be optimal when OMI operations are placed and intertwined with the machining operations. Secondly, research around OMI has focused on offering one-off solutions rather than integrated solutions in that inspections are treated as part of an integral product development chain. The main reason can be attributed to the diversity of various operations platform / environments across the entire process chain and lack of data model and standard that can facilitate a consolidated environment. Such problems have already been recognized in a smaller scope, i.e. among the metrological systems. Thirdly, employing OMI for inspection during machining may be advantageous in the context of process control. The

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use of nonstandard bespoke G/M canned cycles with very limited mechanisms for feedback of inspection results prohibits a desired integration of inspection with machining operations. Coupled with this is the demand for integration and standardization with the evolution of new standards such as STEP and STEP-NC.

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8. Conclusion and future trends:


In the past two decades, most of the research in the area has been focusing on developing CAIP systems for CMMs. In the early days of CAIP development, the research works also stayed at the conceptual level. These research works can be divided into two categories: the tolerance-driven CAIP systems and the geometry-based CAIP systems. The tolerance driven CAIP systems focus on identifying inspection features based on workpiece tolerance requirements. Features with tight tolerance requirements are inspected. Inspection planning is based on these selected features. The feature selection process was mainly done manually, e.g. by quality control engineers. Therefore this is an error-prone process. The geometrybased CAIP systems on the other hand intend to build up a geometrical model based on the inspection results and compare it with the design model. Hence, the entire workpiece has to be measured. This leads to longer process time. From the mid-1990s, OMI started to attract attention of CAIP researchers. OMI has many benefits comparing with traditional CMMs, such as cost and time saving, change from reactive inspection to proactive control, limitation of non-value added operations, and agile machining. However, the lack of standardized data model for the consolidate environment of the entire machining chain limited the integration of OMI with machining process.

Based on the above discussion, future research work can be expected in the following areas. 1.Development of comprehensive STEP and STEP-NC data models in support of integrated machining and inspection process planning. 2. Development of inspection feedback analysis system based on the abovementioned new standards and technology for achieving a closed-loop machining environment. 3.Development of a machine error prediction database that can be included in the inspection planning for monitoring the machining accuracy and actively controlling the machine errors. 4.Mechanism of analyzing and utilizing the inspection results to inform and guide the subsequent machining operations.

As technologies for the inspection devices mature and product quality requirements become more stringent, on-machine inspection will take the centre stage of quality assurance.

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