PRINCIPLES LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING H.

DOUGLAS BROWN

Douglas Brown divides the book into 4 sections and 10 chapters. The first section discusses he factors that influence learning and teaching language in the first part is the age factor, further psychological factors, cultural and social factors and the latter factor linguistics.

Chapter 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching In chapter 1 deals with the language, learning and teaching. There are a few questions about second language acquisition, among others, characteristics of learners, linguistic factors, the learning process, age and acquisition, variable instructional, context, and goal. In essence, these questions arise when first learning a second language, such as who the learners, the learners what to learn, how learning takes place, when learning a second language takes place, an influential variable in second language acquisition, context of the mother tongue , and the latter is the goal of mastering a second language itself. A variety of these questions as an overview of second language learning.

The definition of language is a statement that shows characteristics of a concept. However, other languages have many different definitions. The definition of mastery learning or gaining knowledge about a subject or a skill to learn, experience, and instruction. While teaching is to show something or assist in the assessment, prepared knowledge, make out or understand.

There are several schools of thought in acquiring a second language support. Among other Structural Linguistics and psychology Behavioristic, the essence of language acquisition without examining the mind only on things that looks. Generative linguistics and cognitive psychology, research rationally by observing competence, constructivism is a new school of thought that examines all aspects.

Teaching Language in Nineteen Century.

The method used in this century is the classic method, the method focuses on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary, as well as a variety of declension and conjugation, translation of text, and written exercises workmanship. The classical method is also called the grammar translation method of language (Grammar Translation Method). Teaching with classical methods has many shortcomings. Language teaching in the twentieth century The method used in the twentieth century is the method audio-lingual method and using the principle of the approach. Part I Age Factor Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition In chapter 2 is discussed on the theories that aa in first language acquisition. There are two groups clashing arguments about second language acquisition is the Behavioristic and nativist. behaviorostik researchers assume that the language acquired in accordance with the habit of learning by operant conditioning.Behavioristik got a lawsuit by Chomsky. Another approach is the nativist approach which assumes that humans have a language acquisition device, the child already has a natural-language provision in him since birth. The researchers nativist continue their research about the universality of language (universal grammar). This nativist researchers also got a lawsuit. That on initinnya information will be processed simultaneously on several levels (parallel distributed processing / PDP) branch of research that examines the PDP called konektionisme. The theory of mediation at the center between the behaviorist and nativist. There is a functional approach as the development of nativist theory.

Issues in First Language Acquisition There are various problems in acquiring a first language, including competence and performance, understanding and production, Congenital or parenting, Universal, systematic and variability, Exercise and Frequency, Input, and Discourse. First language acquisition insights are applied in language teaching.

Chapter 3 Age and Acquisition

In studying a second language, one must throw away the myths that exist in this second language acquisition because these things are wrong. Second language acquisition by children and adults are also different, can not be equated. There are several considerations that must be considered in language acquisition, There is a critical period hypothesis (The Critical Period Hypothesis) which states that there is a biological timetable in language acquisition. In addition to this theory there is also a neurobiologist balance of influence, affect brain development also with language acquisition. Consideration of regional accents of origin, consideration of cognitive, affective considerations, and linguistic considerations should also be considered. The problems that arise in a second language with language problems at first.

Part II Psychological Factor Chapter 4 Human Learning Human cognitive areas is essential for human language acquisition. Therefore it is necessary to understand the general nature of human learning such as learning and training. The theory in this study there were 3 among others Behavioristic (classical and operant), cognitive theory, and constructivist theory. Language learning involves all kinds of learning, according to Gagne (1965) there are eight types of learning: learning cues, stimulus-response learning, coupling, verbal association, discrimination, double, learning concepts, learning principles, and the last is problem solving. Such learning will be applied according to the method Behavioristic and cognitive methods. Another problem that occurs in language learning is the transfer, interference and excessive generalization. Transfer is the transfer of knowledge prior to the next lesson. There are two types of transfer ie positive and negative transfer, positive transfer occurs when previous knowledge to support future learning, while negative transfer (interference) is when the previous learning interfere with future learning. generalization is important in learning but if too much will cause interference. In the process of generalization there are two processes namely inductive and deductive reasoning. Moreover intelligence is also influential in language learning. Language teaching methods in practice there are two contrasting the methods and language learning community audio-lingual. Chapter 5 Styles and Strategies Processes, styles and strategies

The process is characteristic of all human beings. The style is a term that refers to the biases or preferences that are consistent and somewhat durable in within one. The force on each person is different, there are more oriented to visual, audio, etc. The strategy is a special method to solve a problem or to convey something. Learning style Cognitive style is the relationship between personality and cognition. While the style of learning is when cognitive styles are specifically linked to the educational context. Learning styles are divided into two styles of reflective and impulsive style. whereas according to various studies, there are many styles of learning. Independence of Field The independence of the field is when the can see the relevant factors in a field among the factors that disrupt. While the field dependence is tendency on something so relevant factor is not easily recognizable. Dependencies field is also called the sensitivity of the field. The literature on dependency-independency field called field independencedependence (FID). people with FI tend to be more independent, competitive, and confident. FD people more inclined to socialize and to better understand people's feelings. Various researchers argue that the argument about which is more successful in learning a second language used FD / FI. In essence this is important both styles are used in learning a second language.

Left-right brain dominance. Although the left and right brains work differently but the left and right brain operate as a team. There are differences in second language learners are predominantly right brain or left brain. FI and FD function is associated with left and right brain.

Tolerance of ambiguity Someone who has a tolerance of ambiguity can absorb and consider the arguments even though it was contrary to our thinking while intolerance of ambiguity when one is closed and isolated would not accept entries that do not correspond to the incomprehensible. Excessive tolerance can inhibit meaningful ideas and too intolerant are also not good, it would become too rigid, dogmatic, harsh and too narrow. In essence, tolerance of ambiguity will be slightly better if applied in learning a second language.

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Impulsiveness is when guessing something quickly just by luck with a hunch based reflective whereas more careful and full consideration. Errors occur in children more impulsive. However, impulsive child also has the advantage.

Visual style, and KINESTHETIC Auditory Every child has a different style in accepting input. Some children with such visual images he would more easy to understand, there is a sound, and there is more to understand if using motion / demonstration. Everything has advantages and disadvantages.

Autonomy, Awareness and Actions (Autonomy, awareness, and action) at this point becomes important in education. Pupils were given the autonomy to get what they need in class, not just accept what the teacher alone. Of understanding also becomes important in the autonomy. After understand there must be action. Action is required as the selection of appropriate learning strategies for themselves. Strategy Learning strategies in each individual is different from one person to another person. learning strategy is divided into 3 categories: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective, meta-cognitive strategies in learning plan, is learning the cognitive tasks associated with learning, socio-affective mediation with regard to social activity and interaction with others. There is also a communications strategy, the strategy of avoidance and compensatory strategies. Strategy-Based Instruction There are two categories directly and indirectly. The strategy is divided into 3 namely direct memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. Indirect strategy is divided into 3 namely meta-cognitive strategies, affective and social. For recognize and identify the styles and strategies learners used a questionnaire.

Chapter 6 Personality Factors In addition to cognitive factors, personality or affective factors also affect second language acquisition. There are areas in the affective life, the first is to accept the environment, and then

respond, judge things, organizing values, then get the appropriate value system. Affective factors in second language acquisition include dignity (global, situational, tasks), attribution theory (how people explain the causes of their success) and the feasibility of self (when learners capable of performing a task), willingness to communicate in second language learning, overcome the barriers that exist when studying the language, taking risks, anxiety (innate and situational), Empathy, and extroversion. Motivation is also included in the influential personality factor in second language acquisition. Theories of motivation, among others, in terms of behavioutistik theory, cognitive and constructivist. According to Gardner and Lambert dividing the two basic types of motivation that is instrumental and integrative orientation. in orientation, one can have a motivational intensity high and low. Another motivation is the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation from yourself and there is no apparent reward except the activity itself rather than as a directive from the outside. Extrinsic motivation is the expectation of reward and motivation come from outside us. Personality and language learning is also influenced by factors neurobiology. There are parts of the brain that play a role in affective relationship with language. Positive assessments of the situation improving language learning language learning and assessment inhibit negative second language acquisition. Influential personality types in language acquisition. Myers dichotomous divide it into four styles: vs. introversion. understanding, sensing vs.. intuition, thinking vs.. feelings, judgments vs. understanding. This is developed further so it will show a variety of combinations. Affective factor measurement requires skilled and expensive. Therefore, the test methods used with paper and stationery. There are various types of tests, among others Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), Attitude / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), and Myers-Briggs test (MBTI) Motivation Study abroad can also be performed both in the classroom. Teachers can teach, after considering personality variables in the class. A teacher must consider the intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In addition, teachers also need to think about teaching techniques that can increase the motivation of the students.

PART III Social and Cultural Factors Chapter 7 Social and Cultural factors The definition of culture is a way of life, can also be interpreted as the ideas, habits and skills, arts and devices that characterize a group of people within a specific time period. Each group of people certainly has a different culture. Culture confirmed a cognitive behavioral and affective context of personal and social. There are people who think that the culture that we follow is the most correct; such a view is wrong because it is only seen from the side of our personal Culture is very influential in language acquisition. It will therefore be discussed in depth the relationship of language and culture. Stereotype is when we have the views on the culture of a people by just looking at the habits of a group. It could also be called simplification of views. The concept of this oversimplification should be avoided enumerated by the teacher and the learner's second language. Second language teachers and learners need to understand cultural differences in order to change the perception becomes appreciation. Stereotype may imply an attitude toward culture or language spoken. An attitude, show up and make up most of one's perception of him, others, and the culture in which he lived. In conjunction with the acquisition of language, has conducted research that attitudes form a motivation. In order to acquire a second language well we also have to learn a second culture. Because this is tantamount to obtaining a second identity, it's called acculturation. Sometimes people experience a disruption in the process of acculturation, which is called culture shock. Social distance, or far away close influential cultural differences in second language acquisition. John Schumann described the social distance consists of the following parameters: dominance, Integration, cohesive, Harmony and permanence. The greater the social distance the more the greater difficulty encountered when learning a second language learners. To measure the social distance William Acton makes Professed Difference in Attitude Questionnaire. Teachers are also required to teach intercultural competence in order to further facilitate in obtaining a second language. Language Policy and Politics When the English international language made up a lot of responses including who should be a teacher of English, whether native English speaking teachers or teachers not native

English speakers. It is actually no need to debate because in essence all teachers can teach English if the teacher covers four skills, language is one of the four skills. English is also divided into two language English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL). ESL and EFL acquisition is different. ESL learners tend to be more easily acquired than in the EFL learners. Linguistic imperialism is when the English used as a global language would preclude the use of mother tongue and when someone who does not learn the Classic International Language will prevent social and economic progress in the future. EIL provides positive and negative impacts therefore we must be able to react properly. Debate in Western countries, the United States never declared English as their ceremonial International. Held a major campaign in California to ban bilingual education programs. This is only harmful because of waste of money and time. Benjamin Whorf advises on the mid-1950s that language has a strong influence on the thinking and one's outlook. But the emerging debate between the pros and cons of this statement premises. Foreign language courses considered essential connection between language and culture. Cultural aspects that need to be modified in order to correspond with classroom teaching. Chapter 8 Communicative Competence There are various definitions of communicative communications from various experts. Among other definition of Michael Canale and Merrill Swain CC concept divides into four components / subcategories. Which defines as the use of linguistic and defining the functional aspects of communication: grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Bachman added organizational competence, sociolinguistic competence as well as breaking into ilukosionaire competence and sociolinguistic aspects. Language functions The function is basically a goal we accomplish with the language. As requested, stating, responding to, and so on. Communication is a functional, purposeful, designed to bring the effect of a change. Communication is the act of speech. Halliday divides functions into seven languages namely: 1. Instrumental function 2. Regulatory functions 3. Representational function

4. Interactional functions 5. Function of personal 6. Heuristic function 7. The function of imaginative A sentence can have many different functions simultaneously. Understanding the function of this language is the most important in learning a second language. Functional approach to language teaching Functional explanation of language contained in the national-functional syllabus. This syllabus is used to organize a curriculum of primary foreign structural. Syllabus language relegated to a secondary focus. Now this has become an inside functional syllabus has been modified. Discourse analysis The researchers conducted an analysis of the discourse on the relationship between form and function. Discourse is the language beyond the sentence. Production and comprehension of language is a factor in our ability to observe and process the barrage of discourse, to bring meaning not only of one sentence but the sentence of a referral before or since. One sentence can have many different responses. Without this pragmatic context would lead to ambiguous. Therefore need an increased emphasis on the communicative discourse level of language in the classroom. The conversation also becomes important to note because is included in the social character. Communication and interaction. How good conversation, how to start a topic and avoid the topic is the question How did they say someone will be researched and analyzed by researchers. According to studies conducted Hey, the stages in this conversation started from seeking attention. last topic nominations, followed by the development of topic. Retention of conversation also requires clarification, shift, evasion and interruptions. Termination also Need to be a good topic studied. According H.P. Grice, a topic in a conversation will be effective when the conversation has, quantity, quality, relevance, a good way. Along with the development of technology, there is a branch of discourse analysis of the linguistic corpus. The corpus is a set of text / writing, speech transcription, or both are stored in electronic form and analyzed with the aid of computer software programs. There are two forms of the corpus of writing and speech. pragmatics Pragmatics is important in conveying and interpreting meaning. Pragmatics include

contextual skills such as the use of greetings, polite requests, persuade, and disagree according to Kasper and Roever research. A sentence can have different meaning and purpose in responding to it. Second language acquisition will become more complicated if socio- pragmatic and pragma-linguistics involved in it. Another pragmatic factor affecting the acquisition of CC is the gender factor of production and reception of language. Normally speaking women better than men. Another part of discourse analysis is contrastive rhetoric, this arises from the assumption that language emerged not in structure syntaxes alone but rather in the discourses of nature, whether oral or written. Discourse style Style rather than social or regional dialect, but rather a set of conventions to select words, phrases, discourse, and non-verbal language in certain contexts. Martin Joos described the five levels of formality in speech style: 1. Oratorical style 2. Deliberative style 3. Consultative style 4. Relaxed style 5. Familiar style This category can also be applied in written discourse. Style components manifested through verbal and non-verbal. Register often mischaracterized as a style. registers identified as a specific phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms and other expressions which are connected with the work groups and socioeconomically different. Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication includes kinesics, eye contact, proksemic, artifacts, kinesthetic, and olfactory dimensions. Kinesics is communication relating to the movement of bodies in each State shall have the meanings that different. Eye contact also has a different meaning for the United States and Japan. Proksemic is the distance in a conversation. Artifacts or clothing and jewelry is also an important aspect of communication implies a social level. Kinesthetic, how we touch other people is also an important aspect of communicating. Olfactory dimension is related to smell, there is a group of people who do not like the smell of this course will have an effect in communication. CC in the classroom: CLT and task-based teaching Emerged as the method of approach to language development of the era, there are communicative language teaching (CLT) and there are task-based teaching. Task-based instruction appears as the focus of language teaching around the world

Part IV Linguistic Factors Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language Contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) states that the main obstacle second language acquisition is the first language of the intervention system and the system a second language. At this time considered that the structural linguistic devices such as slot fillers grammar Frier will allow a linguist to accurately describe the observed two languages and matching the second exposure to determine the differences that exist. Examples of this contrast when native English speakers learn Spanish as a second language. Examples include couples who contrasted. 0-transfer rate. There is no difference or contrast between the two languages. Level 1 - A Fusion. Two items in the original language combined into one item in the target language. Level 2 sub-differentiations. An item in the original language is not in the target language. Level 3 - a reinterpretation. An item in the original language was given a new shape or distribution. Level 4 Over-differentiations. An entirely new item, even if only slightly with an item similar to the language of origin, must be learned. level 5 - Cleavage. One item in the original language into two or more in the target language requires the learner to create a new differentiator.

From the CAH to CLI Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis will have a weakness when predicting difficulties, whether or not to be verified. Attempts to predict difficulties with contrastive analysis are called the strong version of CAH. This analysis has intuitive appeal. While the weak version of the CAH is called cross-linguistic Influence (CLI), which basically suggests that we should not forget the past experience of action learning, and the influence of language originated from previous experience. . Strong version of CAH criticized by Whitman and Jackson who has done empirical tests CAH effectiveness analysis as a tool to predict difficulties with the Japanese as the research sample. On the basis of these studies CAH inadequate as a basis for determining the difficulty. There are other researchers who criticize CAH with an empirical study. The conclusion is that large differences do not always have a greater difficulty. Strong form of CAH is too weak while the weak version is too weak then it is better to use CLI research.

Striking and Universal Grammar Differential strinking hypothesis to explain the relative difficulty with universality as a baseline. Ecman linguists claim that the items that stand out in a language will be more difficult to obtain than that is not flashy, striking degree equal to the degree of difficulty. and in harmony with the statement Echman, Rutherford also says so. By using UG hope is that it can facilitate second language acquisition and make it easier to identify the difficulties that exist. Also striking in theory there is a model of competition, ie when second language learners have not had a way to interpret the word to the learner's first language will seek other alternatives to find the meaning. These ways more modern than the CAH.

Language Learners In the SLA, learners are not considered as blank paper that has not been filled by any but the learner is someone who is intelligent and able to develop ideas and be able to process the acquired acquisition in accordance with the systematic stages. Language learner is a unique language for each learner has different characteristics. Hypothesis between languages provides the latest breakthrough from CAH environment. Language learners is the approach used to analyze between languages. Production data can be understood in general, while the understanding of second language is more difficult to assess because it can be observed directly. Error Analysis Mistakes are made a reasonable start to begin a lesson. mistakes made when learning the language will bring up a feedback for how it should be a benar.Tanpa processing there is an error, the learner will understand the true difficulty. Teachers must understand the mistakes made by learners because of mistakes made could have been the key to understanding the second language acquisition. Errors of different errors. Fallacy is when the learner knows how the system will correct language but fail in use. While the error is when the learner is not appropriate to use the system language. A mistake can not necessarily be corrected itself while the error can be corrected itself. Mistakes can be observed this is called error analysis. Analysis of excessive errors will cause a negative impact for learners. Although this correction is important but the purpose of second language learners are achieving communicative fluency. Error analysis can make us fixated on specific languages

regardless of the universality of language. After analyzing the errors continued with the analysis of performance or analasis translingual. Identify and describe the error is a sulit.Pengajar must collect data from learners and identify it with logic. The first step is to identify analyze and explain the error. There are two types of errors that is open and closed. There are several ways to identify the error. Sources of error are determined after analyzing the error. By identifying the sources of error we can understand cognitive and affective processes associated with system linguistic learners.

Transfer interlangual is the error that occurs between two languages or more. This error occurs occurs when the learner uses language rules first applied to the second language. Such errors can be detected. Intralingual transfer is the interference that occurs in the language itself. Learning context should also be observed in the classroom by the teacher. materials provided should be appropriate. Influence of errors / mistakes will make teaching learner misunderstanding. Besides the communication strategy must also be chosen appropriately in order to achieve the expected goals. Stage of development of language learners. According to research conducted by Corder stage there are four stages of language development: 1. Random phase errors 2. Phase appears 3. Phase systematic 4. Phase stabilization Variations in language learners Variations exist in the language learner paradigm continuum model and competency model variables. This model evolved into the other models on the research of linguists. Fossilization or Stabilization. Fossilization occurs when language users already attached to the initial accent or early language rules that have been attached to a person but it is not impossible that this thinking can be changed. To overcome the problem of fossilization can use feedback. While stabilization is where learners are at a point is stable not.

Error class: A brief history Mistakes are made from a process of trial and error is actually a good process for the development of the learner. Unlike the theory of Skinner. Instruction focuses forms Form-based instruction (FFI) is important in a functional language in communicative contexts. . FFI is a strategy used for learners interested in studying English.FFI has a feedback type and learner responses to feedback. The feedback also has several types, corrective feedback and meta-linguistic feedback. The response to feedback any form of response, repair, and repetition.
Chapter 10 Toward a Theory of Second Language Acquisition To build SLA theory required a broad knowledge variables learners. Territory and SLA generalization there are many factors. In addition there are any hypotheses and claims about how people can acquire a second language well but the myth is not quasi-true. Criteria practicality good theory is that is comprehensive. Hot topic in SLA research Some of the topics that appear on the SLA of much debate and controversy emerged among many other explicit and implicit learning, problem understanding, inputs and outputs as well as The frequency of learning. Other hypotheses about SLA is from Stephen Krashen called input hypothesis. This hypothesis is included in the hypothetical outward. There are five hypotheses in the input hypothesis. 1. Obtaining the learning hypothesis 2. Monitor model 3. Natural order hypothesis 4. Hypothesis input 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

The core of the input hypothesis is that there is adequate input, speech skills learners will come by itself without the demand of teachers. Usually an active learner and passionate produce output in a foreign language is usually successful. In addition there are external hypothesis of cognitive hypotheses about the SLA, according to McLaughlin and Schmidt on this hypothesis learning needed awareness processing model called attention, and not all children are always better in learning. Another cognitive model is a model of implicit and explicit. by Ellen Bialystok and other

researchers have examined that attempt to obtain adults with implicit and explicit language but was never an analysis. Social constructivist model, proposed by Long regarding the interaction hypothesis that assumes that the input comes from social interaction. In addition there is a theory of language acquisition are described by the growth process a seed into a tree. All theories about the acquisition of this SLA shall be applied in practice to consider it again, assume that the SLA is a combination of science and art, and also takes the role of intuition.