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Contents
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 Electric Field and Important Quantities Fundamentals of fields Electric charge Q Electric field strength E Electric potential and electric voltage U Electric flux and electric flux density D Capacitor and capacity C Parallel and series Connection of Capacitors Capacitor with layered dielectric Electric Flow Field and Resistance Electric current I and current intensity J Electric resistance R and Ohms Law Electric energy W and power P Temperature dependency of the resistance Series- and parallel- connected resistors Analysis of Linear DC Networks Voltage and current divider Kirchhoffs equations Electric sources Kirchhoffs node equation Kirchhoffs loop equation Analysis of networks by Kirchhoffs equations Superposition method Mesh current method Real voltage and current sources Equivalent circuits of electric sources Representation of Periodical Quantities Parameter of periodical quantities Current and voltage at the elements R, L and C Phasor diagrams with periodical quantities Complex operator Power in AC networks Analysis of AC Networks Basic circuits Series connection of R and L (real coil) Parallel connection of R and C (real capacitor) Low pass (RC-circuit) High pass (CR-circuit) Phase-turn circuit
VGU 2012/2/Lae
Resonant circuits Three-Phase Electric Power Systems Generation of a three-phase power system phase Star and delta connection Power of the three-phase system phase
1 1.1
In common the field describes the distribution of a quantity in a space. There are:
1.2
Electric charge Q
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1.3
vector; [V/m]
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1.4
scalars; [V]
common is valid:
1.5
Demonstrative solution:
The relation between electric flux density D and electric field strength E is realized by the material equation of the electrostatic field.
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1.6
[As/V] = [F]
(Farad)
Consequential the equation for the definition of the capacity C of a capacitor follows:
For the dimensioning of a capacitor we can use the size and the material. It is valid:
Therefore the design equation of a capacitor with a homogeneous field is the following.
Features of capacitors: See remarks page 7 Calculation of capacitances: See remarks page 8
The capacitor storages electric energy by charging. We can use the accumulated energy by means of varying the voltage between the electrodes. By dischar ing we can use the energy. discharging The accumulated electric energy can b calculated according to: be
VGU 2012/6/Lae
Capacitors
1. Properties of Differentiation of Capacitors: Capacitors differ according to the following properties, - if there is a fixed or variable capacitance (e. g. capacitors with variable capacitance are: rotary capacitors, flat trimming capacitors) - which kind of dielectric is used between the electrodes (e. g. paper and glimmer capacitors, foil capacitors, porcelain and electrolytic capacitors) or - which kind of construction is used (e. g. capacitors with plane electrodes, tube capacitors, cup capacitors, )
2. Relative Permittivityr of Selected Materials : (absolute permittivity 0 = 8.85410-12 As/Vm) acetone barium titanate glass glimmer hard paper cable paper in oil air paper, dry acrylic glass 21.5 1000...2000 5...12 5...8 5 4.3 1.0006 2 3 polyethylene polypropylene polystyrene polyvinyl chloride porcelain sulphur hexafluoride transformer oil water special ceramic for hf-technology 2.3 2.3 2.5 3...4 6 2.4 2.3 80.8 10000
3. Standardization of Capacitors: Capacitors are produced in classes of capacitance values between 0.6 pF and 10000 F resp. for operation voltages from 3V until more than 100 kV. There are German DIN-standards: DIN 42007 (variable capacitors), DIN 45910 (porcelain-, synthetic- and electrolytic capacitors, ...)
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Calculation of Capacitances
1.)
distance d area A
C = 0 r
A d
plate capacitance
2.)
1 dr 1 dr 1 d = = 2 C 0 r A 4r
ri
dr
ra
1 a 1 1 a dr 1 1 1 = d = r 2 = 4 ri ra C ri C 4 ri
r r
C = 0 r
4 ri ra ra ri
U = E (r )dr
ri
ra
E (r ) =
l
D(r )
ri
ra
D(r ) =
Q Q = A(r ) 2 rl
ra
U=
cylindric capacitance
C=
Zylinderkondensator
ri
r Q dr Q = ln a 2l r 2l ri
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1.7
It is valid:
and
Using the equation of definition of the capacity C=Q/U results: or common for an arbitrary number n of capacitors
It is valid:
or
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1.8
The arrangement is identical with the series connection of two capacitors. The electric field strength E and the voltage drop U over the two layers are from technical meaning especially in case of coaxial arrangements e. g. as cables.
For the electric flux intensity in both layers is valid: Therefore the following dependence results: The ratios of electric field strength and voltage drops over the layers can be calculated.
2 2.1
Electric Flow Field and Resistance Electric current I and current density J
generally written:
To the definition of the Technical current direction Technical direction The current is positive in the opposite direction of moving of negative charges. VGU 2012/10/Lae
energy of electrons
- - - - - - - - - - - - semiconductor Halbleiter
- - - - - - - - - - - - examples
- - - - - - - - - - - - insulator Isolator
metal Metall
Si, Ge, compoundsemiconductor, (e.g. GaAs) and divers oxids <<10 cm (e.g. Ge 13 23 -3
density of charges
ca. 10 cm (e.g. Cu 22
negligible
-3
-3
spezific resistance
*)
in fluids the current conduction is connected with the essential transport of materials
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In the electric flow field a dependency exist between the current density J and the electric field strength E by the material equation of the electric flow field (compare D = E ). (Kappa) electric conductivity
2.2
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OHMIC LAW:
The material and size (length and cross section) can be changed to dimension the value of a resistor. The following relation results:
Features of resistors: See remarks page 14 : Calculation of resistances: See remarks page 15 :
Sometimes it could be easier to calculate with the reciprocal value of the resistance R. We call it the electric conductance G. .
2.3
We use
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Resistors
1. Properties of Differentiation of Resistors: Resistors differ according to the following properties and their design. There are film resistors, which has a thin conductive layer at a porcelain body, fixed wire- or band resistors, where the wire or the band is wound around a porcelain body, temperature-dependent resistors(thermistors), changing the resistance with the temperature, consisting of sintered ceramic on the basis of semiconductors, voltage-dependent resistors (varistors), changing the resistance with the voltage level, consisting of sintered ceramic on the basis of SiC (e. g.) and adjustable resistors, where the resistance can be changed by a sliding contact.
in mm2 / m
aluminium argent copper gold platinum iron manganin Al Ag Cu Au Pt Fe
Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni
in m / mm2
36 63 56 44 9 8 2,5 1
20 in 1/C
0,00377 0,0038 0,00393 0,004 0,002 0,0046 0,00001 0,00005
3. Standardization of Resistors: Resistors are produced in classes of resistance values between 10-3 and 1014 for different voltage and power values There are German DIN-standards e.g. DIN 40712 (symbols), DIN 41450 (adjustable resistances), DIN 44080 (temperature dependent resistors), DIN 44050...55 ( fixed film resistors), DIN 45921 (metallic and nonmetallic fixed resistors),..
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Calculation of Resistances
length l
area A
1.)
R=
l A
- conductivity
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.)
E=
, E= I 4r 2
S=
I I = A 4 r 2
ri
ra
Widerstand (Kugelfeld)
U =
ra
dr I 1 1 4 r = 4 ri ra ri I
U 1 1 1 R= = I 4 ri ra
spheric resistance
compare with 1.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.)
dR =
R= 1
dr dr = A 2 lr
ra
dr
l
ri
dr 1 ra r = 2l ln ri 2l ri
ra
Widerstand (Zylinderfeld)
compare with 1.
cylindric resistance
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2.4
It is valid: (related to 20C) For the calculation of the temperature inside of windings out of the changing of the resistance measured at the terminals can be used the equation:
2.5
We know that the voltage drops in a series connection of components have to be added to the connection total voltage drop. Using the Ohmic Law the following derivation results by dividing by the current I
VGU 2012/16/Lae
It is valid:
Finally results:
The ratio of the parallel currents can be formulated by the equation equation:
3 3.1
and it follows:
x 1+ Rs x (1 x ) Rv
With x = 1 the maximum load current results according to the equation I Vmax = damit
Iv I v max = U2 = U x 1+ Rs x (1 x ) Rv
U and RV
U2 =x U U Rs (1 x )
Beetween the border cases the nonlinarity increases with increasing load or load current.
Diagram: Related values of load voltage U2 (UX ) and load current IV as function of the slider position x of the voltage divider
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and it follows:
and for the example beside: 3.2.3 Kirchhoffs loop equation We can conclude again:
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In the following chapters we will introduce more techniques for the analyses of networks. All have their distinct advantages and handicaps. 3.3 Superposition method I3 : current by means of only Uq1
I3 : current by means of only Uq2 The final result is the addition of both currents:
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3.4
Mesh current method The first step is to find the number of independent mesh currents in. In our case there are two of it.
If you solve the equation system for the unknown mesh currents we find with: currents, e. g. for the current I3 :
3.5
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3.6
network
a)
b)
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Example:
Imagine the following: Ra = 0 or Ra = . In both cases the power at the load resistor is zero. . That means, between both the power should have a maximum. By differentiating the power equation we get: VGU2012/23/Lae
The last equation shows that the load resistance has to have the same value as the internal resistance: alue That means, the maximum ava available power is:
Technical meaning:
Example: maximum efficiency of transmission Now we will see the circuit from another point of view. Due to the internal resistor Ri not the total power Pq of the source will find the way to the load resistor Ra. Because of the current IRa there will be a dissipation of power P over Ri.
Technical meaning:
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4 4.1
Eine zeitabhngige Gre wird als periodisch bezeichnet, wenn sich ihr zeitlicher Verlauf nach einer bestimmten Zeitspanne Periodendauer T wiederholt.
Nach FOURIER lsst sich eine periodische Funktion durch die Summe bestehend aus einem Gleichanteil und Sinusfunktionen unterschiedlicher Frequenz und Amplitude ersetzen. Die Grundfunktion aller periodischen Funktionen ist deshalb die Sinusfunktion. Die Anzahl der Schwingungen, die eine periodische Funktion in einer Sekunde durchfhrt, ist die Frequenz f.
e. g.: power grid f = 50Hz (USA f = 60Hz; train grid in Germany f = 16 2/3Hz; example for radio frequency f = 107,2MHz Therefore we find:
aufgetragen.
and
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The definition of the phase shift between voltage and current is given by the equation:
e. g. the characteristic above: u = 60(/3); i = -30(-/6); = u-i = 60-(-30) = 90( /2) We say: The current is lagging to the voltage with 90.
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For the description of voltage shapes two further parameter are useful. for sinusiodal shape
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4.2
The result is
3 3 2
(resistance)
L
b) Inductivity precondition The voltage over the inductivity is calculated:
The result is
2 2 3 2
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(inductive reactance)
i
b) capacity
C
precondition
i = I sin t , i = 0
u
The voltage over the capacity is calculated:
3 2
a)
b)
c)
d)
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
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4.4
Complex operator Z
The equations for the calculation of the absolute value (length of the phasor) and angle of the phase shift are:
Survey over the known dependencies for the components R, L and C Preconditions: Resistor Inductivity Capacitor
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mesh equation
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2.)
3.)
Therefore follows:
4.4
Power in AC networks
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Conclusions for the power components and their calculation with R, L and C
Widerstand
Further on is valid:
Kapazitt
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Fr die Auswertung von Leistungsmessungen ist die Tatsache wichtig, dass sich in einem beliebigen Netzwerk die Gesamtleistung aus der Summe der Teilleistungen an den einzelnen Bauelementen ergibt. Das gilt fr Wirkund fr Blindleistungen.
or
e.g. z.B.
I2
R1
R2
-j1/C
2 PGesamt = I12 R1 + I 2 R2
I1
I3
jL
1 C 2 = ( 2A) 1 (1A ) 21
QGesamt = 1 var
S = P 2 + Q 2 = 5VA S = 2,24VA
From the calculation follows: We have always to calculate the total apparent power of an arbitrary network with the following equation.
Never
e.g.: Three units with different components of active and reactive power:
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5 Analysis of AC Networks 5.1 Basic circuits 5.1.1 Series connection of R and L (real coil) Circuit Phasor jL R diagram
After the multiplication of the edges of the impedance triangle with I2, we get the triangle of the power components.
5.1.2 Circuit
Phasor diagram
1 1 = j jC C
Again is wellknown:
Y = G + jC
and the conductance (absolute value of complex admittance)
After the multiplication of the edges of the admittance triangle with U2, we get the triangle of the power components.
5.1.3 circuit
Low pass
R1
phasor diagram
1 j C 2
calculation of the ratio U2/U1 and the phase 21
absolute value
phase shift
cutoff frequency:
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5.1.4 Circuit
High pass
1 jC1
phasor diagram
R2
calculation of the ratio U2/U1 and the phase 21
absolute value
phase shift
fr
cutoff frequency:
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5.1.5
Phase-turn circuit
example: double RC
precondition
1 j C
1 j C
R=
1 C
5.2
Resonant circuits
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circuit
1 j C
phasor diagram
impedance
jL
Impedanz Impedance
Z = R + j(L
Betrag value absolute
1 ) C
1 2 ) C
At the resonance point are U and I in phase. That means, only the resistance come into effect for the impedance. That means
Z = R 2 + (L
Phasenwinkel phase shift
= arctan
1 C ) R
In the case of resonance the impedance, its absolute value and the phase angle between voltage and current phasor result to Fr die Impedanz, deren Betrag und den Phasenwinkel zwischen Spannung und Strom ergibt sich im Zustand der Resonanz
Phasor diagram of Z :
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Characteristic frequencies for the evaluation of diagrams of resonance networks are the socalled 45-frequencies. The name results of the shape of the phasor diagram.
+45
-45
The following diagrams of the related parameter Z/R = f() and the phase angle = f() show the dependence from the angular frequency.
Z R1
90
45
+45
0
-45
1/C
-45
-45
+45
-90
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From the behaviour of the impedance Z we are able to conclude the diagram of I = f().
I I R1
I=
1
U Z
bei U = konstant
0,5
-45
+45
Die Teilspannungen eines Reihenschwingkreises knnen die Gesamtspannung U wesentlich bersteigen. Die berhhung im Resonanzpunkt ergibt sich aus der Kreisgte Q .
U = konstant
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Alle im Reihenschwingkreis erluterten Zusammenhnge und Formeln ergeben sich in analoger Form fr den Parallelschwingkreis, in dem man systematisch
jL R,G
1 jC
IL
I R jL UL U
1 jC
IR IC
UR
UC
kapazitiv
induktiv
induktiv
kapazitiv
UC
UL
IL
IC
U = konstant
I = konstant
UR
IG
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6 Three-Phase Electric Power Systems 6.1 Generation of a three-phase power system In 1891 the first three-phase power transmission was realized between Lauffen am Neckar nach Frankfurt am Main . Three-phase current is the most effective kind to transmit electric power over long distances.
Grundlage ist Bewegungsinduktion und insbesondere die Bewegung einer Leiterschleife im Magnetfeld (siehe Kapitel 5.4.2)
u = U sin t
u = U sin(t 120)
u = U sin(t 240)
STNDER
Aus Leistungsgrnden wird die praktische Anordnung umgekehrt realisiert. Dabei wird das rotierenden Gleichfeld durch den Gleichstrom in einer Wicklung des sich drehenden Lufers (Rotor) hervorgerufen. Die drei Wicklungen U, V und W sind fest im Stnder der Maschine angeordnet. In ihnen werden die drei um 120 phasenverschobenen Wechselspannungen induziert.
ROTOR
GENERATOR
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9.2
Delta connection(D, d, )
L1
L2
L3
L1
L2
L3
U Netz =
U Str
I Str
I Netz = 3 I Str
The power of the three-phase system must be consider the kind of the internal connections of the windings: Star connection Delta connection
S =3UStrIStr
(3 Strnge)
Stranggren Y
S =3UStrIStr
(3 Strnge)